SOLUTIONS

 Solutions are homogeneous mixtures.

 Solvent is the major component(larger amt); solute is the minor component(smaller amt).
 Solutions can be gaseous, liquid, or solid.

Concentration of Solutions (Key Points)

1. Mass Percentage (w/w)

o Mass of solute/Total mass of solution × 100.
o Example: 10% glucose = 10 g in 90 g water.
2. Volume Percentage (v/v)
o Volume of solute/Total volume of solution × 100.
o Example: 10% ethanol = 10 mL in 100 mL solution.
3. Mass by Volume Percentage (w/v)
o Mass of solute in 100 mL solution.
o Used in: Medicine.
4. Parts Per Million (ppm)
o Parts of solute/Total parts × 10⁶.
o Used for: Trace amounts (e.g., pollutants).
5. Mole Fraction
o Moles of solute/Total moles.
o Sum of mole fractions = 1.
6. Molarity (M)
o Moles of solute/Volume of solution (L).
o Temperature dependent.
7. Molality (m)
o Moles of solute/Mass of solvent (kg).
o Temperature independent.

Differences:

 Temperature Dependent: Molarity.

 Temperature Independent: Mass %, ppm, mole fraction, molality.

Solubility: Key Points

1. Definition: Maximum amount of a substance that dissolves in a solvent at a specific temperature and pressure.
2. Factors:
o Nature: "Like dissolves like" (polar in polar, non-polar in non-polar).
o Temperature:
 Solids: Solubility increases if endothermic(ΔH>0), decreases if exothermic(ΔH<0).
 Gases: Solubility decreases with rising temperature.

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 o Pressure:
 Negligible for solids/liquids.
 For gases: Solubility increases with pressure (Henry’s Law).
3. Henry’s Law: Gas solubility is proportional to its partial pressure,

4. Applications:
o High-pressure CO₂ in soda.
o Scuba diving gas mixes to prevent "bends."
o Low oxygen solubility at high altitudes causes anoxia.
5. Dynamic Equilibrium: In saturated solutions, dissolution equals crystallization.

Vapour Pressure of Liquid Solutions: Key Points

1. Raoult’s Law:
o For a solution of volatile liquids, the partial vapour pressure of each component is directly proportional to its mole
fraction.

o
2. Total Vapour Pressure:
o Given by Dalton’s Law: ptotal=p1+p2p_{total} = p_1 + p_2.
o Substituting Raoult's law:

3. Vapour Composition:
o Mole fractions in vapour phase determined using

Raoult’s Law as a Special Case of Henry’s Law:

Henry’s Law states:

Both laws indicate the proportionality between pressure and mole fraction.

 Effect of Non-Volatile Solute: Adding a non-volatile solute reduces vapour pressure as solute molecules block solvent molecules from
escaping.

 Dependence: Vapour pressure reduction depends on the solute quantity, not its type.

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Ideal and Non-Ideal Solutions

 Ideal Solutions: Obey Raoult’s Law

 no heat or volume change on mixing. Example: n-hexane & n-heptane.

 Non-Ideal Solutions: Deviate from Raoult’s Law.
o Positive Deviation: Weaker A−B interactions. Example: Ethanol-acetone.
o Negative Deviation: Stronger A−B interactions. Example: Phenol-aniline.

o
 Azeotropes: Mixtures with same liquid and vapour composition.
o Minimum Boiling: Positive deviation (e.g., ethanol-water).
o Maximum Boiling: Negative deviation (e.g., nitric acid-water).

Relative Lowering of Vapour Pressure

 Vapour pressure lowers with non-volatile solute.

 Formula:

Colligative Properties: These properties depend on the number of solute particles, not their identity. Key examples include:

1. Elevation of Boiling Point:

o Explanation: A solution boils at a higher temperature than the pure solvent because the solute lowers the solvent's
vapor pressure.
o Formula:

o Kb is the boiling point elevation constant and m is the molality.

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 o
o Example: For a solution of 18g of glucose in 1 kg of water, the boiling point increases by 0.052 K, giving a boiling
point of 373.202 K.
2. Depression of Freezing Point:
o Explanation: Adding a non-volatile solute to a solvent lowers the freezing point.
o Formula:

o where Kf is the freezing point depression constant and m is the molality.

o
o Example: For 45g of ethylene glycol in 600g of water, the freezing point is lowered by 2.2 K, resulting in a new
freezing point of 270.95 K.
3. Osmosis:
o Explanation: The movement of solvent molecules through a semipermeable membrane from a region of low solute
concentration to high solute concentration.
o Osmotic Pressure: The pressure required to stop the flow of solvent, given by: P=C⋅R⋅T where C is the molarity, R is
the gas constant, and T is the temperature.
o Example: Osmotic pressure of a solution can be used to determine the molar mass of solutes, as shown in the protein
solution example.
4. Reverse Osmosis:
o Explanation: When pressure greater than osmotic pressure is applied, solvent moves from solution to pure solvent.
This process is used for desalination.

Applications:

 Boiling and Freezing Points: Used in antifreeze solutions, saltwater preservation, and cooking.
 Osmosis: Relevant in biological systems (e.g., cells, plants) and water purification technologies.
 Ionic Compounds in Water:
o Dissociate into ions (e.g., KCl → K⁺ + Cl⁻), increasing the number of particles.
o Colligative properties depend on the number of particles.
 Abnormal Molar Mass:
o Dissociation: Lower molar mass (e.g., KCl in water, i ≈ 2).
o Association: Higher molar mass (e.g., ethanoic acid in benzene, i ≈ 0.5).
 van’t Hoff Factor (i):
o i > 1 for dissociation, i < 1 for association.

 Formula:
 Modified Colligative Property Equations:
o Boiling Point Elevation: ΔTb=i⋅Kb⋅m
o Freezing Point Depression: ΔTf=i⋅Kf⋅m

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