CHAP TER ONE

1
- - ~.f,.1'11' '•,_:lo':.:.:!~~ ----'........::~ ~~

UNIT S AND MEASUREMENT

1. 1 INTRODUCTION
Measu rement of any physica l q~ : « >m pa ,..~'>on
wtth a certain baste, arbitra rily ch ~ eIJ litem ationalJy
accepte d re~ ~d aracalled uiilf: The result (,,f a
2.1 Introdu ction measu remen t of a physic al quanti ty is expres sed by a
2.2 The tntl'rn ati olla l sy stem of numbe r (or numeri cal measure} accomp anied by a unit.
Althou gh the numbe r of physica l quantit ies appears to be
very large, we need only a limited n u mber of units for
111111">
2.3 Slgnifi ca nt fi g m cs expres sing all the physica l quantities, since they are inter-
2.4 Dimen~lon s of phys ical related with one anothe r. The units for the fun damen tal or
quan tJ11es base q_!,lantities are called fundam ental or base unit. . The
2.5 Dimensional formu lae a nd units of all other physica l quantit ies can be expres sed a s
dimensi ona l equatio ns combin ations of the base units. Such units obtaine d for th e
2.6 Dl mcns10na l analysi s a nd it s
derived quanti ties are called derive d units. A complete set
of these units, both tlie base units and derived units , is •
applicat wn s
known as the system of units.
Summary
Exercise<.; 1.2 THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS
In earlier time scienti sts of differen t countr ies were using
differe nt system s of units for measu rement . Three such
system s, the CGS, the FPS (or British ) system and the MKS
system were in use extensi vely till recently!
The bas~ units for length. mass and time in these systems
were as follows :
• In CGS system they were centim etre. gram and second
, respectively.
~ In FPS system they were foot. pound and second
respectively.
• ( In MKS system they were metre, kilogra m and second
respectively.
The system of units which is at presen t in ternatio nally
accepte d for measu remen t is the System e Interna tionale
d' Unites (Frenc h for Intern ation al System of Units),
abbrev iated as S!, The SI , with standa rd scheme of symbol s,
units and abbrev iation s, develo ped by the Burea u
Interna tional des Poids et measu res (The Interna tional
bureau of Weigh ts and Measu res. BIPM} in -J. 971 were
recentl y revised by the Genera l Conference on ~eight s and
Measu res in Novem ber 2018. The schem e 1s now for
 ,, -·2 \
i ~---------------~==~------~:::~~.,:, . , hnlcal fndu 5t ~a
I
ds
~
(.,.,,:? ~) ../ nllficS~~<:- 115 •u;cd dec_irna_I
\ ~~-"international usag_:. i~ scie
s_auss., :l~~are-qtilteslrnP~
4

,' andJ:_oJllllle°rcialwork ( B<;_ the SI unit s

1
fl~w 0
ns wit hin th~
system,_cpnversio 0
and convenien t~We shall 11vcntwoIn
. u nfls as g c
this book. ilt'i. t1wri· arc
rn sr. the re a re seve n ba see u,, JC ;m~ l<' <10as Ill 0
bas
Table I . I. ~esid es the sew n (a) p:,u r ..ind (IJ) solid
more un its that arc rlc01w d for
thr ra<
ratio of length of arr ds lo fnlcrrCJ fl c , pcx O fl 5 1
1
arci1 cl.A of :;; :~:!i
as the ratio of the
angle d!l
spherical surface, d<'scnbcd
1
about \ 11 • ~ shO'vn
De scrlplion of {a) plane an 1
t
,:in7':i
cJ{} ,: dA /i
(b)
ste racJ J;i n

rocll ~~~ ff 'ror pJm1<'

cen tre , to the square of its 11 lr 11 for tlH' "0 c Fig , J.1 and (b) solid angle dQ . 9 e d~
ly, ;~1 1111
Fig . I. ](a) and (b) rcspCC'ltvc an<
the sym bol r;id unth tlJcs~ ar
is radian with · I ,mbol ,;r d
sy
angle is str rad lan w:lth t 1e SI Dase gu an tft les an
dimensionless quanutlc~ Table 1. 1

eed of light Jn vacuum c tolnf' be 299 7924

wh ere the sec ond ts def d In term !i8
cal value of the sp _, . s or
sed In the unit rn s ,
. . -
-; Length
i
fi eucy ,1vc:s. t of ma ss. It is defined by taking th
requ th SI uni •
t
nth tob e6.62607015XJQ-341\'h
I
., r ogram, symbol kg, ls e ckc onalstato kg m2 s-1' where the metre ~~
t· k erical value of the Pia;: Is equ cs ~ 111
Jn the unit J s, wh!c s of c and.1J/i . .
.
d ln term ~ fin db •~,,,
dar e de fin e - - !Dg the flxed '
. - tl; SI unit It is de e y UU\

;1 of tim e,
rbed grounc1. I
d, sym bol s, is ~ frequency ,1vcs. the unpertu atom. to be I
...., •
r'J'lme . nd
s

;. ; . value of the ca es i: uen

yperflne tran siti
770 when expresse Ill
on d . q the
cy of the cae siu m- 133
un it Hz. which is equ al to
s-1•
~
t. It is defined by
1
J

L ·...-
'
.
~ .
·
- ampere
A !f
if
~40 .

:;
1 . -. _ .
re, sym
bol A

tbe fixed nume

70034x10-1 9 when expre
isthe SI unit of electric curren

the second is defi11ed ~n term_

ssed in the uni
s of .1vcs.
ele me nta ry
' dea l value of the t C, which is equal to As :
charge e to be
.'
'.
:' • odynamic temper atur e.'
.t
b l K is th~ SI unit [Link]
the ~lt zm ann constant
# ........ ;·
"? K ~g the .fixed numerical val ue of
unit J K , which Js equal to
1henno k eMn 10-23 when expressed in the
· ond are defined in tenns of,
-~ · ·. re the kJlogram, metre and sec ., I
~ · :, . . . ' ;: .. .
.
t of sub sta nce: One mole:
. . . ;
J mot, ts th~ SI un it of am oun
. itles. This number Is the
, . . . . ',
.02214076Xl023 elementary ent
r.,,,_...._.., le
ue of the Avogadro constant,
NA. when expressed in tilt
l 1s called the Avogadro number
. e amount of substance.
Th
num ber of specitled elementa
ryJ
a system Js a measure of the an electl_00 .1
a molecule, an ion,

, ementary entlty may be an atom.

· . . .1
es. · ·· ,
' cle or specitled group of particl
. ~

cdq•·rAl..c;1l~~wlfl.....ia,
_,
c!Jrectfoll.
. inous intensity 1n given
symbol cd, fs th~ SI unit oflum ue of the lwnJnous e1llcacy rJ.

n
candela ertcal val
by taking the fixed num 12 Hz,Ka1, tobe683whenexpres..ed

(l'U,: 1>_
.• . ~
'. ••
·
• ~ t 1 1.

,
1i:t

me
tlcradlatlonof~ency54(J>cl0 1
· fritft_e,mtt hn w-1, which Is equal toinecdd srw
tre and second are def
- , or cd sr kg'1m-2s3, where the '
1n terms of h, c and AVc!._
'
kilogram
t
test. They are given here only to
e nee d not be remembered or asked in a measuriI}B
• The val ues me ntioned her
they are measu red. Wit h progress in technology, the
indlc~te the ext~nt of accurac~
to wh ich s of base unitS
g to me asurem ents with gre ater precision. The definition
techniques get unproved leadzn progress.
are revised to keep up with this
 _, l',ffi\C.t lREMFNT 3
1

Table 1.2 some un it s retained for general use (Though outside sn

.,,.,,•,,.,...
,/
\,_,,,'
..__.,;' mln 8
h 60 min = 3600 s
d 24 h = 86400 S ~
7
year y 365.25 d = 3.156 X 10 s
degree <I
1• = (n/ 180) rad .
litre L I dm 3 = 1o ·J m 3
tonne t I0~ kg
carat C 200~
bar bar 0.1 MPa = lO~Pa
curie Ci 3.7 Y IO"' s -'
roentgen R 2.58·x 10 4 C/kg
qulntal q 100 kg
barn b 100 fm 2 = 10-2'!m2
are a I clam"= 10" m"
2 4 2
hectare . ha 1 hm = 10 m
standard atmospheri c pressure atrn 101325 Pa= 1.013 x IO' Pa -

Note that when mole is used, the elementary 'the first uncertain digit are kn own as
entities must be specified. These entities significan t dlgits or significan t figures . If we
may be atoms, molecules , ions, electrons, say the period of oscillation of a simple
other particles or specified groups of such pendul_u m is 1.62 s, the digits I and 6 are
particles. reliable and certain, while the digit 2 is
We employ units for some physical quantities uncertain. Thus, the measured value has three
that can be derived from the seven base units significan t figures. The length of an object
(Appendix A 6). Some derived units in terms of reported after measurem ent to be 287.5 cm has
the SI base units are given in (Appendix A 6.1). four significant figures,. the digits 2, 8, 7 are
Some SI derived units are given special names certain while the digit 5 is uncertain. Clearly,
(Appendix A 6.2) and some derived SI units make reporting the result of measurem ent that
use of these units with special names and the · includes more digits than the significant digits
seven base units (Appendix A 6.3). These are is superfluo us and also misleading since it
given in Appendix A 6.2 and A 6.3 for your ready would give a wrong idea about the precision of
reference. Other units retained for general use measurem ent.
are given in Table 1.2. The rules for determinin g the number of
Common SI prefixes and symbols for multiples significan t figures can be understoo d from the
and sub-multip les are given in Appendix A2. following examples . Significa nt figures
· General guidelines for using symbols for physical indicate, as already mentioned , the precision
quantities, chemical elements and nuclides are of measurem ent which depends on the least
given in Appendix A7 and those for SI units and count of the measuring instrumen t. A choice
some other units are given in Appendix AB for of change of different units does not
your guidance and ready reference. change the number of significan t digits or
L3 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
figures in a measurem ent. This important
remark makes most of the following
As discussed above, every measurem ent
observatio ns clear:
involves errors. Thus, the result of
(1) For example, the length 2.308 cm has four
measureme nt should be reported in a way that significant figures. But in different units, the
Indicates t h e precis ion of measurem ent . same value can be written as 0.02308 m or 23.0.$
Nonnally, the reported result of measurem ent
mm or 23080 µm. -
Is a number that includes all digits in the
All these numbers have the same number of
number that are known reliably plus ·the first
significant figures (digits 2, 3, 0, 8), namely four.
digit that is uncertain. hbe reliable digits plllfJ#'
 §
*' I

This
. shows ti1a t ti1e Iocat1on
. of decimal poi11I is nega live cx ponenl (or power) of 10. In order
01 no conseque
. . .. · d • . llw n11111 bcr
, nee m etermmmg ge l an approxima te idea oflhe number, we rn1°
ol s1g111f1cant ligures. roundolfllicnurnbcralo I (fora s 5) andtoi~
The example gives the fo llowing ru les: (for 5<n ,,; I OJ . Th e n the number can bi
• All the non-zero digits are signiftcantt expressed a pprox.l malely as 101> in which tl\
exponcul (or power) b of 10 is called order e)
• All the zeros between two non•zero digits
magnitude or tl1 c physica l qu antity . Wh en on~f
art?_rigp.[Link] ~ no matHr where th4" an cst inwl c is required. th e quantity is of th~
dee mal point ·Ii'" fl at an. order or !0 For cx,1 mpl e, the d iameter of lh ~
1
'.

• If the number is,less than 1, the zero(~ ('i11il1 (l.'.2.8X l0 7 m) is_or the order of 107 m Wit~
on the< right of decimal polat. but [Link] the order uf magntt udc 7. Th e diam eter
left of the first non-zero digit are noQ hydroge n a lum ( 1.06 x IO ,nm) is of th e order ~~
,-»1gnlftcant. lln Q1JO 2308. the undnlined IO '"m . with lh e order of m agnituct
zerot:>s a re nol significant] . - 10. Thus. ll1 e dia meter of the earth is 17 order:
• The terminal or .trailing zero(iJin ar- of magnitude larger than the hydrogen a torn
number without a decimal point are not It is often customa ry to write the decimal aft·
Jsignificant. the first digit. Now lhe confusion mentioned~~
(a) above disappears :
!Thus 123 m = 12300 cm = 123000 mm has 4.700 m = 4.700 x 102 cm
three significant 11gures. lhe trailing zero(s) = 4.700 x 103 mm= 4.700 x 10-3 km
being not significant. I However. you can also
see th e next observation. The power of 10 is irrelevant to th e
• ~ trailing zero(s) in a [Link] with fl. determination of significant figures. However. aU
zeroes appearing in the base number in the
decimal point are significan~.
scientific notation are significant. Each number
[The numbers 3.500 or 0.06900 have four
signifi cant figures each.] in this case has four significant figures .
Thus , in the scientific notation, no co11fusion
(2) There can be some confusion regarding the arises about the trailing zero(s) in the base
trailing zero(s). Suppose a length is reported to number a. They are always significant.
be 4 . 700 m. It is evident that the zeroes here
are meant to convey the precision of (4) The scientific notation is ideal for reporting
measurement and are, therefore, significant. [If measurement. But if this is not adop ted. we use
these were not, it would be superfluous to wiite the rules adopted in the preceding example :
them explicitly, th e reported measurement • ~ ateNlimi.1,t;iltlJTM •
would have been simply 4. 7 m]. Now suppose ~ ~hct' t_railfag zere(s) ul'!IIII,'
we change units, then
4. ~00 m = 470.0 cm= 4700 mm= 0.004700 km • Fer-a number with a deeimtd1ife~
Since the last number has trailing zero(s) in a r.__.lite significant.
number with no decimal. we would conclude
erroneously from observa tion (1) above that the (5) The digit O conventionally put on the left of a
number has two significant figures , while in decimal for a number less than 1 (like 0. 1250)
fact , it has four significant figures and a mere is never significant. However, the zeroes at the
change of units cannot change the number of end of such number are significant in a
measurement.
sign ifican t figures .
CJ} To remove such ambiguities in (6) The multiplying or dividing factors which are
determining the number of significant neither rou nded numbers nor numbers
figures , the best way is to report every representing measured values are exact and
measurement in scientific notation (in the have infinite number of significant digits. f or
power of 10) . ffithis no taGon. every number is d
ex pressed as ax IO b. where a is a number example in r = or s = 2rcr, the factor 2 is ail
2
IJ1 ·tweert l and IO. and bis any positive or exact number a nd it can be written as 2.0. 2.00

j
 po '
I
I

~. \ \ (l
, 1f'\Sl !·WMENT
,l

t
is
dec imal place. The fin,1I res ult s hould , there fore.
s requi red. Simil arly. in T = - . 11
be round ed off to 663 .8 g.
a
or [Link] 0 n
Simil arly. f h e diffe rence ln lc-ngt h ca n be
. ct numb er. expre ssed as :
an exa
Rules for Arith meti c Oper ation s with 0 .307 m - 0 ..104 m =0.003 m =~1 x 10 ' m .
1.3.l signif icant Figur es No te th a t we s hould not u s e· f h e rule ( l)
e result of a calcu lation involving appro ximat e app li cable for multl pllca tion c1nd divf<.;ir,n a nd
Th red value s of quant ities (i.e. value s with wri te 664 g as th e res ult ln th e cxa mµlc of
measu f . nifi fl
. ·ted numb ero sig cant igure s) mus t reflec t. addit ion a nd 3.00 x IO ·i m in th e ex,un pk of
: :uncertainties in the 01iginal meas ured values. subtr actio n . They do no t convey th e pn·C'i',ion
It cannot be more accur ate than the origin al of meas u rem e nt prope rly . For a dditio n and
red value s thems elves on which the res ult s ubtra c tion. th e rul e is in te rm <; of d e<'i ma l
meaSu
is based . In gener al. the fmal result shoul d not place s.
have more signif icant figure s than the original 1.3.2 Roun ding off the Unce rtain Digi,.,
data from \\'hich it was obtain ed. Thus . if mass of
Th e resul t of comp uta tion with app rf1ximate
an object is meas ured to be. say. 4.237 g (four
num bers . whic h co ntain more than rm e
significant ?gures). and its ~'olume is meas ured to
uncer tain cligit. shoul d be round ed off. 'Ine rule'>
be 2.51 cm3 • then its densi ty. by mere arithm etic
for round ing off numb ers to the appn Jpria te
diVision. is l .6880 4780 876g /cm upto 11 decimal
3

signif icant figure s are obvio u s in mo<,t case<,. A

places. It would be clearl y absur d and irrele vant
numb er 2 . 74Q round ed off to th ree -,,ignifi ca nt
to record the calcu lated value of densi ty to such a
figure s is 2. 75. while the numb er 2 . 743 wrJuld
precision when the meas urem ents on which the
be 2 . 74. The rule by conve ntion i'> tha u,he
value is based . have much less precis ion. The
following rules for arithm etic opera tions with
prec edin g digit is raise d by 1 if the
significant figures ensur e that the final resul t of insig nific ant digit to be drop ped (the
a calculation is show n with the precis ion that is unde rline d digit in this case) is more than
I

/. consi stent with the preci sion of the inpu t 5 , and is left unch ange d if the latte r is leu
measu red value s : than 5 . But what if the numb er i<, 2 .742 in
which the insig nifica nt digit i"> 5. Here. the
(I) In mult iplica tion or divis ion, the final
com'e ntion is that if the prece ding digit is
resul t shou ld retai n as many signi fican t
even , the insig nific ant digit is simp ly
figures as are thete in the origi nal numb er
drop ped and, if it is odd, the prece ding digit
with the least signi fican t figur es .
is raised by l. Then . the numr.:ier 2. 7-l2 rrJu nded
Thus. in the exam ple abm·e . densi ty shoul d
be repor ted to three signif icant figure s . off to three sigrufican t figure<; be<hme-"> 2 . 7 4 . On
-3
the other hand . th e n umbe r 2 . 73.2 round ed r1ff
-l .237g
Den si ty = 3
= 1. 69 g cm to three signif icant figure s beu)m e<:> 2 . 7 -i '> inu:
2 .51 cm the prece din g digit Ls odd .
Similarly. if the SJ?eed of light is gi,·en as In any im·ol ved or comp lex m u!tf.">tt::p
3 x 108 m s ·1 (one signil lcant figure } and one calcu lation . you shoul d retain . in inter:1: ...du1tf:: •
year (ly = 365.2 5 d) has 3 . 1557 x 10; s (fit·e steps . one digi t more than the '>i!if}i fir:drd digJh
significant figures) . the light year is 9 .4 7 x I o :s m and round off to prope r [Link] t f~un.·<:, at th("
(chree signif icant figures). end of the ca lcula tion . S imila r!:-;. r.1 [Link].>'":r
t kno,, n to be \\i thin many c;igni [Link] t f1.~u,f:'>
(2) In addit ion or subtr actio n , the final resul
such as in 2 .9979 2-15':s / Hr mh, fr~r th -= '>Vt::rJ
should retai n u many decim al [Link] as an
of ligh t in \·acu um . i s ro u n ded off t<J an
there in the numb er with the least decim al
appro xima te value 3 / Hf m/c, . •,1th1i:h b r,fv:n
places.
emplo yed in cornp [Link] am.. [Link]:,·. rf:JY::nr,:T
f or exam ple . the sum of the num bers
that exact number.:. [Link] a.p ~ in fr.,rrr. ·..:kf:: !?Z.i:
-136.3 2 g. 227 .2 g and 0 .30 I g by mere arithmetic
add nion. is 663.8 21 g. But the least preci se L
rm-asu remen t (227. 2 gJ is corre ct to only one 2 :,; in T = 2;,: - . have a [Link]:' tmfi !".~V:J r. •,;r::t" :,
\g
 1>1-fy

of s ignificant figures . The value of 7t = = 16.2 cm ± 0.6 %. ~

3.1415926 ... . is known to a large number of Similarly, the breadth b may be Wiitte
significant figures. You may take the value as b = IO. 1 ± 0. 1 cm n as
3.142 or 3.14 for 7t, with limited number of = lO. l cm± 1 %
significant figures as required in specific
cases. Then, the error [Link] product of two (or
crfmental va lues, using the comb· lllor~
► Example 1.1 Each side of a cube is
:;:Ors rule, will be inauoll r)
measured to be 7 .203 m. What are the
total surface area and U1e volume of the l /J = 163.62 cm 2 .±: 1.6%
cube to appropriate significant figures?
= 163.62 .±: 2.6 cm 2

Answer The number of significant figures in This leads us to quote the final result
the measured length is 4. The calculated area as
2
and the volume should therefore be tounded off l b = I 64 ± 3 cm
to 4 significant figures.
2 2 Here 3 cm2 is the uncertainty or error in
Surface area of the cube = 6(7.203) m estimation of area of rectangular sheet. the
2
= 311.299254 m
(2) If a ·set of [Link]}~lltal data ls•~
= 311.3 m2 ton significant figures, a resul,_t~ neft,:
Volume of the cube = (7.203)3 m3 combining the data wdl" alscf . . . _ _,
= 373.714754 m
3
its¢Scdtln,are&· I
3 ' ◄
=373.7m However, if data are subtracted, the number ~
significant figures can be reduced .
► Example 1 •2 5.74 g of a substance
For example, 12. 9 g - 7.06 g, both specified to three
occupies 1.2 cm3• Express its ?en~ity by significant figures, cannot properly be evaluated
keeping the significant figures m view.
as 5.84 g but only as 5.8 g, as uncertainties m
AnswerThere are 3 significant figures in the subtraction or addition combine in a different
measured mass whereas there are only 2 fashion (smallest number of decimal places ra~
significant fig:ires in the measured volume. than the number of significant figures in any d
Hence the density should be expres~ed to only the number added or subtracted).
2 significant figures.
(3) The relative error of a ~ of nlllllll
- 5.74 -3 1peclfied to slgnlftcantligures depeadfll
Density= - g cm
1.2 only on n but also ~D the number itself. 1
= 4.8 gcm- 3 . ◄ For example, the accuracy in measurement d
mass 1.02 g is ± 0.01 g whereas another
1.3.3 Rules for Determining the Uncertainty measurement 9.89 g is also accurate to ± 0.01 t,
in the Results of Arithmatic The relative error in 1.02 g is (
Calculations = (± 0.01/1.02) X 100 % j
The rules for determining the uncertainty or =±1% - il
· error in the number/measured quantity in Similarly, the relative error in 9 .89 g is z
arithmetic operations can be understood from = (± 0.01/9.89) X 100 % _ d
the following examples. = ± 0.1 %
(I) If the length and breadth of a thin Finally, remember that Intermediate,_.-,
rectangular sheet are measured, using a metre .• multl-1tep computation should W
scale as 16.2 cm and, 10.1 cm respectively, there -1calated to one more atplfl~t a,-~
are three significant figures in each .nerr !l!Uvemeat than the nUJD~
measurement. It means that the length l may
be written as ·
~ hi the leut precue me..ure-' {.IV
These should be justified by the data and tbel_
l= 16.2 ± 0.1 cm 00
the arithmetic operations may be carried '
 ~.~------------,~-------------------_1,7
11Nl,r.-
ANP MEASURE MENT

..,_e rounding errors can build up · For

tJicrwi.., mass, one dimensi on in le ngth, and -2
o le the reciprocal of 9.58, calculate d (after dimensio ns In time. The dimensio ns in all other
x~unP ' ofD to th e same number of slgnifl<'·r <
nt
t', ding base quantiti es are 1,ero.
rotin (three) is 0 . 104 , b ut the reciproca l" of
Note tha t in thl'i type of n·prcsen tation, the
ogure5calculatedt o tl ircc signiflca n t figures
. C
Is rnngnlt11d<'~ arC' not c·on~ldf'n•d. It ls the quality
104
0
· _ However, ifwc had written 1 /9.58 = 0.10 44 oJ th<' type of the phy"'llcal q11c1ntlty that enters.
9 62 T itus, a c hang<.'. In vcloclfy. Initial velocity,
· d then taken U1e reciproca l to Uircc slgnlllcan l
average vC'loclly, final V<'loclly. and speed are
:ures. we would have retrieved the original all <'q11iva1C'11t In f hl~ contP-xt Since all these
a1ue of 9.58. quantitie s ca n be expresse d a1, length/ti me,
v This example justifies the idea to retain one their dimensio ns are (L)/[T] or (L T- 1] .
more extra digit (than the number of digits in
the least precise measure ment) in intermed iate 1.5 DIMENS IONAL FORMU LAE AND
steps of the complex multi-ste p calculati ons in DIMENSIONAL EQUATIONS
order to avoid additiona l errors in the process The expression which shows how and which of
of rounding off the numbers . the base quantitie s represen t the dimensio ns
of a physical quantity is called t_h e dimensio nal
ONS OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES formula of the given physical quantity . For
1_4 DIMENSI
example, the dimensio nal formula of the volume
Toe nature of a physical quantity is described is [M L3 T°J, and that of speed or velocity ls
0

by its dimensio ns. All the physical quantitie s [M L 1 1). Similarly , (M 0 L T-2 ) is the dimensio nal
0

represented by derived units can be expresse d formula of accelerat ion and [M L-3 T°] that of
in terms of some combin ation of seven mass density.
fundamental or base quantitie s. We shall call An equation obtained by equ ating a physical
these base quantitie s as the seven dimensio ns quantity with its dimensio nal formula is called
of the physical world, which are denoted with the dfmensi onaf equatio n of the physical
square brackets [ ]. Thus, length has the quantity . Thus , the dimensio nal equation s are
dimension (L], mass [M], time [T], electric current the equation s, which represen t the dimensio ns
[A), thermody namic temperat ure [K], luminou s of a physical quantity in terms of the base
intensity [cd], and amount of substanc e [mol]. - quantiti es. For example , the dimensi onal
The dimensions of a physical quantity are the equation s of volume [VJ, speed [v], force [F] and
powers (or exponen ts) to which the base mass density [p] may be expresse d as
quantiti es are raised to represe nt that [V] = [MO L3 T°]
quantity . Note that using the square brackets [v] = [M0 L T-1)
[ ) round a quantity means that we are dealing [Fl = [M L T-2 )
with 'the dimensi ons of' the quantity. [p] = [M L-3 T°]
In mechanic s, all the physical quantitie s can
be written in terms of the dimensio ns [L] , [M] The dimensio nal equation can be obtained
and [T]. For example, the volume occupied by from the equation represen ting the relations
an object is expresse d .as the product oflength ,
between the physica l quantiti es. The
dimensio nal formulae of a large number and
breadth and height, or three lengths. Hence the
3 wide variety of physical quantitie s, derived from
dimensions of volume are [L) x [L] x [LJ = [L)3 = [L ] . the equation s represen ting the relations hips
As the volume is independ ent of mass and time, among other physical quantitie s and expresse d
0
it is said to possess zero dimensio n in mass [M ], in terms of base quantiti es are given in
zero dimensi on in time [T ] • and three
0

Appendi x 9 for your guidanc e and r eady

dimensio ns in length. reference .
Similarly, force, as the product of mass and
1.6 DIMENS IONAL ANALYS IS AND ITS
accelerat ion, can be expresse d as APPLICATIONS
Force· = mass x accelerat ion
2
= mass x (length)/(time) The recognition of concepts of dimensions, which
The dimensio ns of force are [M] [L]/[T] =
2 guide the descripti on of physical behaviou r is
of basic importan ce as only those physical
(ML Y-2) . Thus, the force has one dimensio n in
 .
q111111 t i ff 1:-, 1..• 111 Jw :11l1h ·d •H '- lillf nll' l <' d wh i« h
111 h ""
lti!Vt' Ill <' :-, ; 1111 1· cll111 1· 11'-ln11 ._ _ /\ th n 1 0 11~ h ,1n1.!1• ., lh r,111,, (\, ngtli/11111,(tl
1111 dl'i·:-,t, 11 11 1!11 g "' cli11 wt1!--l <>11 ,d 1111 : tl v'- l '- lwlp.., 11,
11 Ii ,11 f 1, , 1111 1, , ., ... t It• r .ti 111 ('-P'' rl nl lil(lii •
1
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pli_v~f< •:1' qt J.1111 ftt\' .., n 11d I IH' 1·ktn ~ t lw d"' iv;il Inn . d11111 II ,, II
; i cc 11 r ;H'Y ;11HI dln1t· t1'-in11,1l t' Oll '- i '- l« · n « v ,' 'H
' I \\ I( f t l1 r dl ll ll 11 '- lflll , il 1 "11 '- l·~tr 11f•
\ \ ( ' ( , I ll ,
01
ltotnP ,L!t' ll <' ft~· 111 vnrln11 .._ m n tlt (' rn atlt;il I) ( ll fl lllf l(! f Il l l t v ,,r 11 11' C 'J 11 • 11 1' 11 1 '
cxpn·...... 1n11.._ _ \\/l1t·11 mag11it11d1 -..., ol 1,,.
, 11 0 1 111111 I' I , ( t /2) nl '
1 1,
plty~lc,11 q11a11tltws ,H1' m11ltlJ>lil' (I 11 · . \ ' I (I
· · 1I' ll 1111ft .._
sltould l w treated i11 the ..., ,, t ' 101 t ltc d l•d ;1"' <' x I r;1vr·llr·d hv a P·' rt i( If' <1r f l'••t·,
. ' ' 11 1 111 :l lllll ' l ;\ <,
o rd111 ;1ry algchrak S\' lllhol.._ \ V , " 111 tllll f' I wltlf'lt .., 1r1rl "I tr<Hll 1llf' JJ'> <..l llr m .I" With
. . . . . ( ( ,111 (" 1111'1' 1
1cl <' 11 t I c n I II n i t s i 11 t h c ' a 11 t11ltt ;1I \'<' 111< lt v , ,,, :11 l lntr t = () ,ir1d h ,1<; " 1tlf,,rt11
. 11
11111 ernto 1 ; 111<I
11 1 ,i1q 11 a Il l<' din' < tlr111 r,f m,,q,,n
dC'11 o n111111 tor . ThC' same' ls ti·, . ti ,
' l . l . , . ; l( ' IT ( ' I ;t
I IJ ' ...,
· l(' 1Ill c1llll(' ll'-lllll '-
0 ! a JJ ws1 <." 1 q · .11 II' dlnH' ll"lnll " 11f cad I tern, may b<' wr11'"n '"'°'
.
.· · • 1
u a n ll y . [Link] . phv,11':tl
quanlltJl..'S· r<.'JllT ~en
' ' t ct l . l>nth. ...,,c1c.., 1,\1 = ILi
C' 1y ~\'lllhob 011
ofa mathennt1 · t ·
0 ..,\ · •
' 'n ('q u a 1011 lll\l'-I havr th r .., i\1111 ' Ix I = ILi
dimen sions . I u 'h= IL T I ITI
I

" = ILi
1.6 .1 Checking the Dimensio nal I( 1/ 2) a (LI = IL T z1rri1
Consisten cy of Equations = ILi
As each term on lhe right hand <,ic.l c r:,f lhi,
The magnitude s of physical quanUtJes may be equation has lhe same dimension . namely lha t
added together or subtracted from one another of lenglh. which is same as the dimension r;f
only if they haw the same dimensions . In other Jefl hand side of the equation. hence this
words, w~ can add or subtract similar physical equation is a dimension ally correct equation.
quantities . TI1us. velocity cannot be added to It may be noted that a test of consistency of
force, or an elE'C'lric current cannot be subtracted dimension s tells us no more and no less than a
from the thermodvn amic temperatu re. This test of consisten cy of units. but has the
simple principle called the principle ofJ
advantage that we need not commit ourselves
homogene ity of dimension s in an equation is to a particular choice of units, and we need not

~
e.x.'tremely useful in checking the correctnes s of worry about conversion s among multiples and
an equation . If the dimensions of all the terms sub-multip les of the units. It may be borne in
are not same. the equation is wrong. Hence, if mind that if an equation falls this cmdntaep
we derive an expression for the length (or
f-t.J1J!._~ ed wrong, but if it ptllHS. It ii
distance) of an object, regardless of the symbols
-i iof ~ ili_li-r'i'Bus, a dJrnensh■ ly t
[Link] in the original mathematical relation,
~quatlon need not be actually an eua
wh e n all the in d ivid u al dimensio ns are
(correct) equation, but a dimensionally ~
simplified , the remaining dimension must be
(incorrect) or lnconslste nt ·'equatton 1ll1Jlt Iii
that ofl ength. Similarly, ifwe derive an equation
of speed , the dimension s on both the sides of
wrong.
equation, when simplified, must be of length/
time, or [L 1 1]. ► Example 1.3 Lel us consider an equation
Dimensio ns are customar ily used as a 1
prelimina ry test of the consisten cy of an -mv 2 = mgh
2
equation, when there is some doubt about the
where m. is the mass of the body, v its
correctne ss of the equation. However, the
velocity, g is the accelerati on due to
dimension al consisten cy does not guarantee
gravity and h is the height. Check
~orrect equations . It "is uncertain to the extenl
!r dimensio nless quantities or functions. The
whether this equation is dimensionally
correct. ·
umenis of special functions, such as the
gonometr ic, logarit~m ic ~nd exponenti al
nctions must be d1mens10 nless. A ~ e Answer The dimension s of LHS are
~ [Ml [L T- 1 l2 = [Ml [ L2T-2 l
1mber. rafio of similar physical quantitie_§.,
= [M L2 T-2l
 " , ii.· ,~t ·RF 'l \' '- f
I'' .,,.-.; I\ \ 9

sions of RHS are

111e dirne1I~ r-21 [LI = [Ml[L2 -r-21
(;\1 = [M L2 T-2} string. that oscillate s under the action of
lhe force of gra\'ity. Suppose that lhe pciiod
sions of U-IS and RHS are the same and of oscillat ion of t he simple pendulu m
1
Toe dillthenequation is dimensi onally correct.
hence e
◄ ckpends on its length ( O. masc;; of the bob
(m) and acedcra tion due to gravity (y).
,a,rnple 1.4 Tiie SI unit or energy is Deri\'e the express ion ror its time period
~ 5 1and
"htf m25 -~; that of speed vis m using mC'lhod of dimensi ons .
J- ::, . > \P\.-..
of arceler~.tioI: a ~s m s ~. "1 '.ich of the
foJ111Ulae tor kineuc energy (K) g1wn below Answer The depende nce of time period T on
can you rule out on the basis or the quantiti es l. g and mas a product may be
w1itten as:
dimensional argume nts (rn ~lands for the
T= k ix g'1 mZ
mass of the body) :
(a) K = m1 e'
where k is dimensi onless constan t and x , y
(b) K = (1/2Jm1..'2 and z are the exponen ts. .
(cl K = ma By conside ring dimensi ons on both sides. we
(d) K = (3/ l 6)mL..: have
(e} K = (I /2Jmi.r + ma [LoMOTi] = [LI r [LI r 2]!l {Ml y
= Lx+y 1 Mz
2 !1
Answer Every correct formula or equatio n must
have the same dimensi ons on both sides of the On equatin g the dimensi ons on both sides.
we have
equation. Also, only quantiti es with the same
physica l dimens ions can be added or x + y = 0; -2y = l; and z = O
subtract ed. The dimensi ons of th e quantit y on 1
the right side are [M2 L3 T-3 ) for (a): [M L2 T-2 ] for So that x = - ,y = - -1 . z = 0
2 2
(b} and (d}: [ML T-2 ) for (c). The quantit y on the Then, T = k l,,,, g-,,,,
right side of (e) has no proper dimens ions since
two quantities of differen t dimensi ons have been
added . Since the kinetic energy K has the or T= k
. (I
~g
dimensions of [M L2 T-2 }, formula s (a) , (c) and (e)
are ruled out. Note that dimensi onal argume nts Note that value of constan t k can not be obtained
cannot tell which of the two, {b) or {d), is the by the method of dimensi ons. Here it does not
correct formula . For this, one must tum to the matter if some number multiplies the right side
actual definitio n of kinetic energy {see Chapte r of this formula , because that does not affect its
6). The correct formula for kinetic energy is given dimensi ons.
by(b). ◄

1.6.2 Ded u cing Relati on among th e Actually . k = 2x so that T = 21' ~ ◄

Physica l Quanti ties
Dimens ional analysis is very useful in deducin g
The method of dimensi ons can sometim es be relation s among the interdep endent physica l
used to deduce relation among the physica l quantiti es. However, dimensi onless constan ts
quantit ies. For this we should know the carmot be obtained by this method. The method
depende nce of the physica l quantity on other of dimensi ons can only test the dimensi onal
quantiti es (upto three physica l quantiti es or validity, but not the exact relation ship between
linearly indepen dent variable s) and conside r it physica l quantiti es in any equatio n. It does not
as a product type of the depende nce. Let us take distingu ish between the physica l quantiti es
an example . having same dimensi ons.
A number of exercise s at the end of this
Examp l e 1 . 5 Consid er a simple chapte r will help you develop skill in
\· p~ndulu m, having a bob attache d to a dimensi onal analysis .