RURAL WATER SUPPLY & SANITATION (21CV744)
Module 2
Water Treatment Methods
Disinfection
Destroy harmful pathogens to make water safe for drinking.
• Methods:
o Chlorination: Adding chlorine gas, liquid, or compounds like bleaching
powder.
o Ozonation: Using ozone gas to disinfect without chemical residues.
o UV Treatment: Exposing water to ultraviolet light to deactivate
microorganisms.
Defluoridation
Remove excess fluoride to prevent fluorosis or Defluoridation is defined as, “the
downward adjustment of level of fluoride in drinking water to the optimal level‟.
The 1984 WHO guidelines suggested that in areas with a warm climate the optimal
fluoride concentration in drinking water should remain below 1 mg/l (1ppm or part per
million), while in cooler climates it could go up to 1.2 mg/l.
REGULATIONS FOR DRINKING WATER FLUORIDE LEVELS
The recommended optimum level of fluoride in drinking water is 1 ppm (WHO 1963).
Mr. Krishna Swaroop C D, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, MCE Hassan
RURAL WATER SUPPLY & SANITATION (21CV744)
Optimum level of fluoride that can be consumed by normal adult is 1 mg/day.
The maximum allowable level of fluoride in drinking water.
According to WHO = 1- 1.5 ppm
According to BIS = 0.6-1.2 ppm (the less the better)
According to ICMR = 1PPM
Strategies to Provide water with optimal fluoride concentration
• Locating alternative sources of safe water.
• Bringing in water from a distant, safe source.
• Removal of fluoride from water (defluoridation), using suitable techniques.
• Prevention of industrial fluorosis.
• Rain water harvesting.
• Constructing check dams, which raise the ground water level and decrease ground
water F- concentration by dilution.
• Blending high fluoride with low fluoride water.
• Dual water sources.
Ideal requirements of defluoridation techniques
◦ Economic
◦ Efficient
◦ Consistency in performance over a prolonged period
◦ Simple technique, where unskilled personnel can operate the plant
◦ Raw materials should be readily available
◦ Acceptable to the community
◦ Should not impart bad taste and odor to the treated water
◦ Should not change pH of water
Mr. Krishna Swaroop C D, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, MCE Hassan
RURAL WATER SUPPLY & SANITATION (21CV744)
DEFLUORIDATION TECHNIQUES
1. Adsorption technique
2. Ion-exchange technique
3. Precipitation technique
4. Other techniques
• Methods:
o Nalgonda Technique: Uses aluminum salts and lime for precipitation.
o Activated Alumina Filters: Adsorb fluoride onto a porous medium.
o Bone Charcoal: Removes fluoride by ion exchange.
Hardness Removal
Remove calcium and magnesium to prevent scaling.
• Methods:
o Lime-Soda Process: Adds lime and soda ash to precipitate hardness-causing
ions.
o Ion Exchange: Uses resins to replace calcium/magnesium with sodium ions.
o Reverse Osmosis (RO): Membrane filtration for complete hardness removal.
Iron Removal
Prevent staining, odor, and taste issues.
• Methods:
o Aeration and Filtration: Oxidizes iron into insoluble particles for removal.
o Chlorination: Oxidizes iron, followed by sedimentation and filtration.
o Ion Exchange: Removes dissolved iron ions.
Mr. Krishna Swaroop C D, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, MCE Hassan
RURAL WATER SUPPLY & SANITATION (21CV744)
• Iron and manganese control is the most common type of municipal water treatment.
Iron and manganese occur naturally in groundwater. Neither element causes adverse
heath effects at concentrations typically found in groundwater. These elements are,
in fact, essential to the human diet.
• Water containing excessive amounts of iron and manganese can stain clothes, dis-color
plumbing fixtures, and sometimes add a “rusty” taste and look to the water. Surface
water generally does not contain large amounts of iron or manganese, but iron and
manganese are found frequently in water systems that use groundwater.
• The Safe Drinking Water Act secondary standards (aesthetic, not health related) for iron
in drinking water is 0.3 parts per million (ppm) and 0.05 ppm for manganese.
• Small water plants may choose to either sequestrate or remove iron and manganese.
Sequestration only works for combined iron and manganese concentrations up to 1.0
mg/L and only in cases where the treatment is not permanent. Removal is usually
achieved through ion exchange or oxidation/filtration. There are a number of chemical
oxidants and filtration media available that can be used in various combinations.
• Small amounts of iron are often found in water because of the large amount of iron
present in the soil and because corrosive water will pick up iron from pipes.
Clothing washed in water containing excessive iron may become stained a brownish
color. The taste of beverages, such as tea and coffee, may also be affected by iron.
• Manganese produces a brownish color in laundered clothing, leaves black
particles on fixtures, and—as with iron—affects the taste of beverages, including
coffee and tea.
Water Quality Surveillance
Monitor and ensure the safety of water supplies.
• Techniques:
o Regular sampling and testing for physical, chemical, and microbial parameters.
o Use of portable water testing kits in rural or emergency settings.
Mr. Krishna Swaroop C D, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, MCE Hassan
RURAL WATER SUPPLY & SANITATION (21CV744)
Groundwater Contamination and Control
• Groundwater is water present below the ground surface that saturates the pore space in
the subsurface.
• At least 50% of the world population depends on groundwater as a source of drinking
water.
• Other uses of groundwater includes Irrigation of crops, Industrial uses etc.
• Groundwater is a part of natural water cycle therefore, it can spread throughout the
cycle and if contaminated, can cause damage to other entities ( Sea life, lakes, human
health etc)
• Groundwater can be polluted / contaminated as a result of HUMAN activity and Natural
conditions.
• Contaminations found in the groundwater cover a broad range of physical, chemical
(Organic & Inorganic), bacterial and radioactive parameters.
Prevention of Groundwater Contamination
Participation of Industries:
• Minimize use of Toxic / Hazardous Raw Materials
• Maintain Integrity of the Storage Tanks, Pipelines, surface impoundments
• Adopt Good Engineering Practices for selecting proper material for tanks and pipes.
• Implement monitoring programs: Leak Detection and repair program, spill detection,
spill control, emergency response plan etc.
• Manage Properly: Waste materials, their transport and disposal.
• Install Monitoring Wells
• Monitor Periodically: Groundwater quality
Participation of Community:
• Minimize use of house hold chemicals containing Hazardous substances.
• Avoid draining chemicals, motor oil, insecticides in community areas.
• Reduce pesticide application
Mr. Krishna Swaroop C D, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, MCE Hassan
RURAL WATER SUPPLY & SANITATION (21CV744)
• Use proper procedures for handling chemicals (Paints, Pesticides, Insecticides,
polishing materials, cleaning chemicals and detergents).
• Immediately clean any spills and report any leakages to concerned department.
Groundwater Remediation
Groundwater remediation is the process that is used to remove pollution from
groundwater.
Pollutants and contaminants can be removed from groundwater by applying various
techniques thereby making the groundwater safe for use.
Groundwater remediation techniques are mainly divided into two technologies:
Ex-Situ Technology involves treatment of groundwater by de-watering the polluted
aquifer (pumping out), then treating the water on surface by Physical, chemical or
biological technology and finally re-injecting the treated water to the aquifer.
In-Situ Technology involves treatment of groundwater within the aquifer (in the sub-
surface) by using thermal, chemical and biological treatment technology.
Ex-Situ Technology:
Extraction of groundwater from aquifer , treat above ground. and return the treated
water to the aquifer. Extraction is done by pumping groundwater from the well or
trench and treat it with a variety of techniques such as :
• Stream stripping
Involves treatment by introducing steam which extract the contaminants from the
pumped out groundwater. The extracted steam (along with contaminants can be
recovered from the condensate or treated further by incineration).
• Oxygen Sparging
Involves introduction of oxidizing/reducing agents ( O3, H2O2 – hydrogen peroxide,
Hypochlorite) to chemically convert the toxic contaminants to less toxic compounds.
• Bioremediation
Involves treatment of pumped up groundwater by air (biodegradation) with careful
control of moisture, heat nutrients, oxygen and pH.
• Carbon Adsorption
Involves passing the contaminated pumped up groundwater through activated carbon
column in which contaminants gets adsorbed.
Mr. Krishna Swaroop C D, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, MCE Hassan
RURAL WATER SUPPLY & SANITATION (21CV744)
In-Situ Remediation Technology:
Involves treatment of groundwater (in-place) without extracting the water from aquifer.
There are several treatment techniques used for in-situ groundwater treatment such as:
• Air Sparging:
Involves the injection of contaminant-free air into the subsurface saturated zone,
enabling a phase transfer of hydrocarbons from a dissolved state to a vapor phase.
• Bioremediation:
Involves injection of oxygen to enhance the biodegradation. This treatment also
combines injection of degrading bacteria and nutrients into aquifer to stimulate
biodegradation.
• In-well air stripping:
Involves injection of air in double screened well, lifting the water up the well and force
it out in upper screen. VOCs in the contaminated water are transferred from dissolved
phase to vapor phase in air bubbles and drawn off and treated.
• Chemical Oxidation:
Involves Reduction-Oxidation reactions that chemically converts hazardous
contaminants to less toxic compounds. Cyanide oxidation and de-chlorination are the
typical examples of chemical oxidation.
• Thermal Treatment:
Involves increase in temperature of the source zone to increase the mobility of the
pollutants. The mobility facilitate removal of pollutants and can also results in In-Situ
destruction of contaminants.
• Phythoremediation
It involves the use of macroscopic plants to destroy, remove, immobilize and treat
contaminants. This process does not use microorganisms.
• Contamination Sources:
o Nitrates, arsenic, fluoride, industrial chemicals, and sewage infiltration.
• Control Measures:
o Prevent over-extraction and ensure proper sanitation practices.
o Seal unused wells and monitor industrial discharges.
Mr. Krishna Swaroop C D, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, MCE Hassan
RURAL WATER SUPPLY & SANITATION (21CV744)
Objectives of Treatment of Water
1. To make water odour & taste free
2. To make it colourless
3. To make the water safe & sparkling for drinking & domestic purposes
4. To remove dissolved gases & turbidity
5. To make it free from all objectionable impurities present in suspension, colloidal or
dissolved form
6. To remove harmful bacteria
7. To remove hardness
8. To make water suitable for a wide variety of industrial purposes.
Improved Methods and Compact Systems of Treatment
1. Multi-Bottom Settlers (MBS)
A sedimentation tank with multiple levels of inclined plates or tubes to enhance settling
efficiency.
Multi bottom settlers, also known as tube settlers, lamella clarifiers, or plate settlers,
are systems that improve the settling capacity of sedimentation basins and circular clarifiers.
Tube settlers increase the settling capacity of circular clarifiers and/or rectangular
sedimentation basins by reducing the vertical distance a floc particle must settle before
agglomerating to form larger particles.
The inclination provides for a particle settling depth that is significantly less than the settling
depth of a conventional clarifier, reducing settling times.
APPLICATIONS FOR TUBE SETTLERS
• Potable Water Clarification
• Ballasted Flocculation
Mr. Krishna Swaroop C D, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, MCE Hassan
RURAL WATER SUPPLY & SANITATION (21CV744)
• Membrane Pre-Treatment
• Desalinization Pre-Treatment
• Backwash Reclamation
• Resin Recovery
• Secondary/Tertiary Wastewater Clarification
• Phosphorous Removal
ADVANTAGES
• Clarifiers/basins equipped with tube settlers can operate at 2 to 4 times the normal rate
of clarifiers/basins without tube settlers.
• It is possible to cut coagulant dosage by up to half while maintaining a lower influent
turbidity to the treatment plant filters.
• Less filter backwashing equates to significant operating cost savings for both water and
electricity.
• New installations using tube settlers can be designed smaller because of increased flow
capability.
• Flow of existing water treatment plants can be increased through the addition of tube
settlers.
• Tube settlers increase allowable flow capacity by expanding settling capacity and
increasing the solids removal rate in settling tanks.
Mr. Krishna Swaroop C D, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, MCE Hassan
RURAL WATER SUPPLY & SANITATION (21CV744)
2. Diatomaceous Earth Filter
Mr. Krishna Swaroop C D, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, MCE Hassan
RURAL WATER SUPPLY & SANITATION (21CV744)
3. Cloth Filter
A cloth filter is a simple water filtration system that uses layers of fabric (often cotton,
polyester, or muslin) to remove suspended particles, debris, and some pathogens from water. It
is a low-cost, accessible, and easy-to-use method for basic water purification.
Advantages
1. Low Cost: Requires minimal investment and is affordable for rural or low-income
communities.
2. Easy to Use: Does not need technical expertise or specialized equipment.
3. Portable: Can be implemented anywhere with basic materials.
4. Reusable: Cloth can be cleaned and reused multiple times.
5. Improves Water Quality: Reduces turbidity by filtering out visible impurities.
6. Prevention of Disease: Reduces waterborne diseases by trapping pathogens like Vibrio
cholerae (cholera bacteria).
Disadvantages
1. Limited Effectiveness: Does not remove dissolved salts, chemicals, or fine pathogens
like viruses.
2. Frequent Cleaning Required: Cloth needs regular washing to maintain filtration
efficiency.
3. Short Lifespan: Fabric may degrade with repeated use or exposure to contaminants.
4. Not a Complete Solution: Requires additional disinfection (e.g., boiling or chlorination)
for safe drinking water.
5. Clogging Issues: Easily clogs with high-turbidity water, requiring frequent
maintenance.
Mr. Krishna Swaroop C D, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, MCE Hassan
RURAL WATER SUPPLY & SANITATION (21CV744)
Applications
1. Rural and Low-Income Areas: Provides a basic filtration option where advanced water
treatment systems are unavailable.
2. Emergency Situations: Useful in disasters or temporary shelters for preliminary water
purification.
3. Pre-Filtration: Acts as a first layer of filtration before other treatment methods like
boiling or chlorination.
4. Household Use: Filters water for cooking, washing, or non-drinking purposes in homes.
5. Small-Scale Irrigation: Removes debris from water used for garden or agricultural
irrigation.
4. Slow Sand Filter
A slow sand filter (SSF) is a water treatment device that uses a layer of sand as a filtering
medium to remove contaminants from water through physical, biological, and chemical
processes. It operates by allowing water to percolate slowly through a bed of sand, where
impurities are trapped, and pathogens are destroyed by biological activity in the surface layer.
Advantages of Slow Sand Filters
1. Effective Pathogen Removal:
o Removes bacteria, viruses, and protozoa effectively.
2. Simple and Low Maintenance:
o No chemicals or electricity are required.
3. Cost-Effective:
o Suitable for low-income and rural areas due to its low operational cost.
4. Environmentally Friendly:
o Uses natural biological processes without chemical waste.
5. Long-Lasting:
Mr. Krishna Swaroop C D, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, MCE Hassan
RURAL WATER SUPPLY & SANITATION (21CV744)
o With proper maintenance, filters can function for decades.
6. Improves Water Quality:
o Reduces turbidity, organics, and iron while improving taste and odor.
Disadvantages of Slow Sand Filters
1. Large Space Requirement:
o Needs a significant land area due to slow filtration rates.
2. Low Filtration Rate:
o Filters water at a slow rate (0.1–0.3 m³ per m² per hour).
3. High Initial Construction Cost:
o Requires skilled labor for proper setup.
4. Requires Clean Water Input:
o Excess turbidity (>50 NTU) can clog the filter quickly.
5. Time-Intensive Maintenance:
o The biological layer (schmutzdecke) needs careful monitoring and cleaning.
5. Chlorine Diffusion Cartridges
• Description: Slow-release cartridges for continuous chlorine dosing in small water
supplies.
• Applications: Rural areas or small community water systems.
Water Supply During Fairs, Festivals, and Emergencies
• Challenges:
o High and fluctuating demand.
o Risk of contamination due to poor sanitation.
Mr. Krishna Swaroop C D, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, MCE Hassan
RURAL WATER SUPPLY & SANITATION (21CV744)
• Solutions:
1. Emergency Water Treatment Units: Portable systems like RO units or UV
disinfection kits.
2. Tanker Supplies: Temporary water supply through trucks equipped with clean water
storage tanks.
3. Rainwater Harvesting: Temporary storage and treatment of collected rainwater.
4. Point-of-Use Systems: Distribution of chlorine tablets, ceramic filters, or cloth filters
for household-level treatment.
5. Storage Facilities: Temporary tanks and collapsible bladders to store treated water
Rainwater Harvesting (RWH)
Rainwater harvesting is a technology used for collecting and storing rainwater from
rooftops, the land surface or rock catchments using simple techniques such as jars and
pots as well as more complex techniques such as underground check dams.
Rainwater harvesting is the accumulation and deposition of rainwater for reuse on-site,
rather than allowing it to run off.
1. Need for Rainwater Harvesting
• Water Scarcity: Addresses shortages in water-scarce regions.
• Groundwater Depletion: Recharges aquifers and reduces over-extraction.
• Stormwater Management: Prevents flooding and erosion by reducing runoff.
• Environmental Benefits: Reduces dependency on surface water sources and mitigates
the impact of droughts.
• Cost Efficiency: Reduces water bills and reliance on municipal water supply.
2. Advantages of Rainwater Harvesting
Mr. Krishna Swaroop C D, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, MCE Hassan
RURAL WATER SUPPLY & SANITATION (21CV744)
• Provides a sustainable, free water source.
• Improves groundwater quality through natural filtration.
• Reduces soil erosion and urban flooding risks.
• Supports agriculture during dry periods.
• Enhances self-sufficiency for households and communities.
3. Components of a Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting System
1. Catchment Area
• Definition: The surface (usually rooftops) that collects rainwater.
• Materials: Concrete, tiles, metal sheets, or thatch.
2. Conveyance System
• Definition: Pipes and gutters that channel rainwater from the catchment to storage or
recharge areas.
• Features: Designed to handle peak rainfall and avoid debris clogging.
3. First Flush Device
• Purpose: Diverts the initial flow of rainwater to remove contaminants (e.g., dust,
leaves, bird droppings).
4. Filter Unit
• Purpose: Removes sediments and impurities before water enters the storage tank.
• Types: Sand filters, charcoal filters, or mesh screens.
5. Storage Tank
• Purpose: Holds harvested water for later use.
• Features: UV-resistant, sealed to prevent contamination, with overflow and outlet
provisions.
6. Recharge Structures (optional)
Mr. Krishna Swaroop C D, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, MCE Hassan
RURAL WATER SUPPLY & SANITATION (21CV744)
• Purpose: Directs excess water into the ground to replenish aquifers.
• Types: Recharge pits, trenches, or boreholes.
4. Methods of Rainwater Harvesting
1. Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting
• Definition: Collects rainwater from rooftops and stores it in tanks or directs it to
recharge structures.
• Applications: Ideal for urban households and schools.
2. Surface Runoff Harvesting
• Definition: Captures runoff from roads, open areas, or agricultural fields.
• Structures: Check dams, percolation tanks, and trenches.
3. Subsurface Harvesting
• Definition: Collects and stores rainwater underground using infiltration galleries or
recharge wells.
• Applications: Suitable for areas with high evaporation rates.
4. Contour Bunding
• Definition: Creates small embankments along slopes to capture and infiltrate water.
• Applications: Rural areas for agricultural use.
5. Maintenance Tips for Rainwater Harvesting Structures
1. Catchment Area:
o Keep rooftops clean and free of debris.
o Inspect for cracks or damage before the rainy season.
2. Gutters and Pipes:
o Clean regularly to prevent blockages.
Mr. Krishna Swaroop C D, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, MCE Hassan
RURAL WATER SUPPLY & SANITATION (21CV744)
o Use mesh covers to filter out leaves and debris.
3. First Flush Device:
o Clean and test periodically to ensure proper functioning.
4. Filter Units:
o Replace or clean filtering materials (sand, charcoal) every 6-12 months.
5. Storage Tanks:
o Ensure the tank is sealed to prevent mosquito breeding.
o Clean tanks annually to remove sediment buildup.
6. Recharge Structures:
o Remove accumulated silt and debris.
o Monitor for clogging and repair as needed.
Mr. Krishna Swaroop C D, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, MCE Hassan