OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
INTRODUCTION
Early operational amplifiers (op-amps) were used primarily to perform mathematical operations
such as addition, subtraction, integration, and differentiation—thus the term operational. These
early devices were constructed with vacuum tubes and worked with high voltages. Today’s op-
amps are linear integrated circuits (ICs) that use relatively low dc supply voltages and are
reliable and inexpensive.
IDEAL AND PRACTICAL OP-AMPS
Internal Block Diagram of an Op-Amp
741 Op-Amp Internal Circuit
OP-AMP INPUT MODES
Single-Ended Differential Mode
Double-Ended Differential Mode
Common-Mode Operation
OP-AMP PARAMETERS
Common-Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)
The common-mode rejection ratio, CMRR: It’s the ratio of the open-loop differential voltage
gain, Aol, to the common-mode gain, Acm.
Open-loop voltage gain can range up to 200,000 (106 dB) and is not a well-controlled parameter.
Datasheets often refer to the open-loop voltage gain as the large-signal voltage gain. A CMRR
of 100,000, for example, means that the desired input signal (differential) is amplified 100,000
times more than the unwanted noise (common-mode).
Maximum Output Voltage Swing (V O ( p− p))
With no input signal, the output of an op-amp is ideally 0 V. This is called the quiescent output
voltage. When an input signal is applied, the ideal limits of the peak-to-peak output signal are
±Vcc. In practice this ideal can be approached but never reached. Vo(p-p) varies with the load
connected to the op-amp and increases directly with load resistance.
Input Offset Voltage (V OS)
The ideal op-amp produces zero volts out for zero volts in. In a practical op-amp, a small dc
voltage, VOUT(error), appears at the output when no differential input voltage is applied. Its primary
cause is a slight mismatch of the base-emitter voltages of the differential amplifier input stage of
an op-amp. The input offset voltage, VOS, is the differential dc voltage required between the
inputs to force the output to zero volts. Typical values VOS, are in the range of 2 mV or less.
Input Bias Current ( I BIAS)
The input bias current is the dc current required by the inputs of the amplifier to properly operate
the first stage. Input bias current is the average of the two op-amp input currents
Input Impedance ( Z ¿)
The differential input impedance is the total resistance between the inverting and the non-
inverting inputs.
The common-mode input impedance is the resistance between each input and ground and is
measured by determining the change in bias current for a given change in common-mode input
voltage.
Input Offset Current ( I OS)
Ideally, the two input bias currents are equal, and thus their difference is zero. In a practical op-
amp, the bias currents are not exactly equal. The input offset current, IOS, is the difference of the
input bias currents, expressed as an absolute value.
Output Impedance ( ZOUT )
The output impedance is the resistance viewed from the output terminal of the op-amp
Slew Rate
The maximum rate of change of the output voltage in response to a step input voltage is the slew
rate of an op-amp. The slew rate is dependent upon the high-frequency response of the amplifier
stages within the op-amp.
Frequency Response
The internal amplifier stages that make up an op-amp have voltage gains limited by junction
capacitances. An op-amp has no internal coupling capacitors, however; therefore, the low-
frequency response extends down to dc (0 Hz).
Noise Specification
Noise has become a more important issue. Noise is defined as an unwanted signal that affects the
quality of a desired signal. There are two basic forms of noise.
i. At low frequencies, noise is inversely proportional to the frequency; this is called 1/f
noise or “pink noise”.
ii. Above a critical noise frequency, the noise becomes flat and is spread out equally across
the frequency spectrum; this is called “white noise”.
The power distribution of noise is measured in watts per hertz (W/Hz).