Physical Science

UNIT 1.A: ORIGIN OF THE ELEMENTS

i. BIG BANG THEORY

o The dense mass, or primeval atom, expanded very rapidly, spewing out all matter and
energy in the vast void. As the universe expanded, it cooled down, and as it cooled
down, the elements started to form:
Stars were born from the Simplest Elements, and the stars formed Galaxies.
o The Universe began with Gigantic Explosion 10-29 billion years ago.
o Nothing existed before this.
o Out of nothingness came everything in universe.

a. Postulates
o The universe used to be very hot.
o The universe used to be very dense
o The universe is expanding.
o Hot dense mass about 1 cm.

b. Big Bang Nucleosynthesis

o Creating atomic nuclei during the early phases of the universe.
o Most of the hydrogen and helium in the Universe were created in the moments after the
Big Bang. Heavier elements came later. The explosive power of supernovae creates and
disperses a wide range of elements.

UNIT 1.8: ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERSE

Origin of everything.

BIG BANG THEORY

o States that the universe began as a hot and infinitely dense point.
o Is similar to a supercharged black hole.
o It exploded 13.7 years ago.
o Matter, Energy, Space, and Time were created.
TWO STAGES THAT HELPED SHAPE THE UNIVERSE

ii. RADIATION ERA

• -Dominance of Radiation

EPOCHS are smaller stages that occurred within the universe’s tens of thousands of years.
a. PLANK EPOCH
-The earliest, No matter existed, only forces of nature called as Superforce;
(Gravity, Strong Nuclear, Weak and Electromagnetic.)

b. GALACTIC EPOCH
-Helium and Hydrogen dotted the universe with atomic clouds.
-Clusters of Atoms became the Seedlings of Galaxies.

c. STELLAR EPOCH
- Stars began to form.
- Formation of stars caused tremendous ripple-effect.
- Helped shape the universe.

STELLAR FORMATION
-continuously expanded.
-condensed to form stars.

STELLAR EVOLUTION
1) Nuclear reactions continued, which produced elements heavier than lithium.
2) The light elements combined to form atoms of carbon, neon, oxygen, silicon,
and iron.
3) The outer layer of the star from nuclear fusions produces helium.
4) Enough helium-4 is produced, making the temperature hotter at the core.
5) Helium burning begins when the core reaches enough temperature for helium
fusion.
6) Beryllium-8 is formed when the outer temperature becomes colder than the
core.
7) Carbon core e is produced when carbon nuclei become more concentrated at the
center.
8) Neon is produced when carbon core reaches a certain temperature to allow
carbon fusion within the carbon fusion shell.
9) Neon becomes concentrated at the core to produce oxygen.
 10) When oxygen becomes concentrated at the core, fusion continuous, producing
silicon.
11) The fusion of silicon-28 produces radioactive nickel- 56 which will then decay to
iron.
12) The production of elements stops when iron is formed.

SUPERNOVA
• Violent explosion that released a huge amount of nuclear energy and produced,
through neutron capture and radioactive decay, the other elements heavier
than iron.

i. EMPEDOCLES
- Greek philosopher who asserted that all things are composed of four primal elements:
fire, water, air, and earth.

ii. DEMOCRITUS
- Proposed that all matter is made up of very small particles called atoms, which cannot
be divided into smaller units.

iii. ARISTOTLE
- Proposed that all matter was continuous and can be further divided infinitely into
smaller pieces.

-Supported Empedocles' Greek theory of matter, and added a fifth element which he
called ‘Aether’ or ‘Ether’.

iv. JOSEPH PROUST

-Proposed the Law of Definite Proportions.

-He suggested that when forming a compound, elements always combine in similar
proportions by mass regardless of the size of the sample (law of definite proportions).
v. JOHN DALTON
-Formulated the atomic theory and proposed the law of multiple proportions.

1. Elements are made up of small indivisible particles called atoms.

2. In any given pure element, the mass and other properties of all the atoms are
the same. Atoms of different elements differ in mass and other properties.
3. Compounds are composed of atoms of more than one element.
4. In a chemical reaction, atoms are neither created nor destroyed. They simply
combine, separate, or rearrange.

vi. DMITRY MENDELEEV

i. Formulated the Periodic Law and considered as the Father of
Periodic Table.
ii. Arranged the known elements in a periodic table based on their
atomic mass.
iii. Periodic Table of Elements

vii. ANTOINE BECQUEREL

I. First person to discover evidence of radioactivity (Spontaneous radioactivity).
II. Accidentally learned that the darkening of thickly wrapped photographic plates
occurs after exposing them to Uranium compound.

viii. MARIE CURIE

i. Proposed the term radioactivity to describe the ability of a material to undergo
spontaneous emission of particles or radiation.
ii. Discovered radium and polonium, and had huge contribution to finding
treatments for cancer.

ix. ROBERT MILLIKAN

i. Honored with the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1923 for the measurement of the
elementary electric charge and for his work on the photoelectric effect.
ii. Conducted experiments in early 1900s and found out that an electron has a
charge equal to -1.6022 x 10^-19 coulombs.

Χ. JOSEPH JOHN "J.J" THOMSON

i. Discovered electron, the first subatomic particle to be discovered.
ii. Presented the "Plum Pudding" model of an atom.
xi. WILHELM RÖNTGEN
i. Produced and detected electromagnetic radiation in a wavelength range known
as X-rays or Röntgen rays, an achievement that earned him the inaugural Nobel
Prize in Physics.

xii. HENRY MOSELEY

i. Used X-ray Spectra to study atomic structure and assigned the atomic number to
the elements.

xiii. JAMES CHADWICK

i. Discovered neutrons

xiv. ERWIN SCHRÖDINGER

i. Used Heisenberg's uncertainty principle to come up with the electron cloud
model

xv. NIELS BOHR

i. Made foundational contributions to understanding atomic structure and
quantum theory, for which he received the Nobel Prize in Physics.
ii. Proposed an atomic model that shows electrons move in concentric orbits
around the nucleus.

xvi. ERNEST RUTHERFORD

i. Pioneered the studies of radioactivity. He contributed to the atomic theory
through his discovery of the nucleus of the atom and the discovery of the proton.
ii. Father of Nuclear Physics and one of the greatest experimentalists.
iii. Discovered alpha and beta rays.
iv. Proposed the planetary model of atom

NUCLEAR REACTIONS
Are processes in which a nucleus splits into smaller nuclei (through nuclear fission).

Types of Nuclear Reactions

• Alpha decay: loss of an alpha particle.
• Beta decay: loss of a beta particle.
• Gamma radiation: emission of gamma ray.
• Positron emission: conversion of a proton in a nucleus into a neutron, along with
the release of a positron.
• Electron capture: drawing of an electron, fe, into an atoms nucleus.
• Bombardment of alpha particle: addition of alpha particle.
UNIT 1.C: ELEMENTS, ATOMS, AND THEIR HISTORY
1. ATOMIC NUMBER AND MASS NUMBERS
DALTONS ATOMIC THEORY
-the beginning of the modern era of chemistry
-more detailed
-differing properties of elements
-Hydrogen and Oxygen (examples)

Postulates
1. Elements are made up of small particles called ATOM.
2. The mass and other properties of all the atoms are THE SAME.
3. COMPOUNDS are composed of atoms of more than one element
4. Atoms are NEITHER CREATED NOR DESTROYED.

II. FUNDAMENTAL LAWS OF CHEMISTRY

1. LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS

• The chemical reaction, the mass of the substances produced is equal to the mass
of the substance reacted.

2. LAW OF MULTIPLE PROPORTIONS

• For elements that can form different compounds, the masses of the second
element that can be combine with a fixed mass of the first element are in a ratio
of small whole numbers.

3. LAW OF DEFINITE PROPORTIONS/COMPOSITION

• Any sample of a given compound will always be composed of the same elements
in the same proportion by mass.

ATOMIC NUMBER, Z
• number of protons in the nucleus of each atom of an element.

MASS NUMBER, A
• Total number of neutrons and protons present in the nucleus of an atom of an
element.
UNIT 2.A: ELEMENTS IN THE PERIODIC TABLE

QUANTUM MODEL OF ATOMS

• Schrödinger Equation
• - in terms of mass m, and wave behavior, in terms of a wave function c (psi),
which depends on the location in space of the electron in an atom

QUANTUM NUMBERS
• Derived from the mathematical solution of the Schrödinger equation for the
hydrogen atom.
• To describe the distribution of electrons in hydrogen and other atoms.

PRINCIPAL (n)
◇ can have a positive integral values of 1, 2, 3, and so forth.
◇ relates to the average distance of the electron from the nucleus in a particular orbital.
◇ the value of n determines the energy of an orbital.
◇’n’ indicates to the Atomic Size.

ANGULAR/AZIMUTHAL (l)
→ Shape of the orbital
→ Can have an integral values from o to (n-1)
→ the values of I depends on the principal quantum number, n
→ I=n-1

Shell is a collection of orbitals with the same value of n is frequently.

0 1 2 3 4 5
s p d f g h
If subshells
n=1, l = 0 1s
n=2, l = 0,1 2s, 2p
n=3, l = 0,1,2 3s, 3p, 3d
n=4, l = 0,1,2,3 4s, 4p, 4d, 4f

ORBITALS ( s<p<d<f) 0 s = ___

Sharp (1)
Principle (1 of 3) 1 p = __ __ __
Diffuse (1 of 5) 2 d = __ __ __ __ __
Fundamental (1 of 7)
3 f = __ __ __ __ __ __ __
MAGNETIC
→ Orientation of the orbital in space
→ Can have an integral values between -I and I, including o
→ The value depends on the value of I.
→ 2l+1

SPIN

→ has the value of +1/2 or -12

→ The orientation of the spin axis of an electron
→ m, Indicates the orientation of the electron spin

UNIT 2.8: ELEMENTS IN THE PERIODIC TABLE

ELECTRON DISTRIBUTION

ATOMIC ORBITAL
o Regions of space around the nucleus where the electron is most likely to
be found.

"S" ORBITAL
o Sphere
o Differ in size

"P" ORBITAL
o Dumbbell
o Three 2p orbitals: 2px, 2py, and 2pz
o Increase in size from 2p to 3p to 4p orbital and so on

"D" ORBITAL
o Daisy-like or four-leaf clover
o The lowest value of n=3

"F" ORBITAL
o The lowest value of n=4

ENERGY LEVEL
o Periods corresponds to row/period in periodic table
AUFBAU PRINCIPLE
o build-up or construction.
o lower electron orbitals fills before higher energy orbitals do.

HUND'S RULE
o Most stable arrangements of electrons in subshells

PAULI EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE

o no two electrons must be the same set of four quantum number
o Opposite spins

ELECTRON CONFIGURATION
o Distributed among the various atomic orbitals.