CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO
BIO-ENGINEERING
 SCOPE AND APPLICATIONS OF BIO-ENGINEERING
• Erosion Control:
– Bio-engineering uses plantings and natural
materials to stabilize soil on slopes, riverbanks.
– Plants' root systems bind soil, preventing erosion
and landslides.
• Biodegradable Materials:
– Bio-engineering promotes the use of
biodegradable materials like coir and jute netting
for erosion control.
– These materials reduce environmental impact
and waste disposal.
 SCOPE AND APPLICATIONS OF BIO-ENGINEERING
• Climate Adaptation:
– Helps mitigate the effects of climate change.
• Slope Reinforcement:
– Slope planting and bioengineered retaining walls
enhance slope stability and reduce landslides'
risk.
– Provides natural solutions for slope protection.
• Aesthetic Enhancement:
– Vegetative sound barriers along highways reduce
noise pollution and enhance the visual appeal.
 ADVANTAGE OF BIO-ENGINEERING
• Environmentally Friendly:
– Advantage: Bio-engineering minimizes environmental
impact by utilizing natural processes and materials,
reducing the use of synthetic or non-biodegradable
materials.
– Example: Using plants for erosion control instead of
concrete structures reduces habitat disruption and
conserves resources.
• Cost-Effective:
– Advantage: Bio-engineering methods are often cost-
effective, requiring lower investments and maintenance
costs compared to traditional engineering solutions.
 ADVANTAGE OF BIO-ENGINEERING
• Flexibility and Adaptability:
– Advantage: Bio-engineering solutions are
adaptable to various environmental conditions
and can be customized for specific project needs.
• Erosion Control:
– Advantage: Bio-engineering is highly effective in
stabilizing soil, preventing erosion, and reducing
the risk of landslides.
– Example: Plant root systems bind soil particles
together, providing natural erosion control.
DISADVANTAGE OF BIO-ENGINEERING
• Time-Consuming:
– Limitation: Bio-engineering solutions may take time
to establish and reach full effectiveness, delaying
project completion.
– Example: It can take several years for vegetation to
fully stabilize a slope.
• Maintenance Requirements:
– Limitation: Bio-engineering projects often require
ongoing maintenance, including weed control and
monitoring.
– Example: Wetlands may need periodic management
to prevent invasive species from taking over.
DISADVANTAGE OF BIO-ENGINEERING
• Limited Structural Strength:
– Limitation: Bio-engineering solutions may have
limitations in terms of structural strength
compared to traditional engineering materials.
– Example: Living walls may not provide the same
load-bearing capacity as concrete walls.
• Lack of Public Awareness:
– Limitation: Public awareness and acceptance of
bio-engineering approaches may be limited,
which can affect project implementation.
 CHAPTER 2

HYDROLOGY
 RUNOFF GENERATION:
• Definition: Runoff generation refers to the process
by which precipitation that falls on the Earth's
surface is transformed into surface runoff – water
that flows over the land and eventually into rivers,
lakes, and oceans.
• Factors influencing runoff generation:
– Intensity of Precipitation: High-intensity rainfall can lead
to more runoff.
– Soil Saturation: If the soil is already saturated, it is less
able to absorb water, increasing runoff.
– Land Cover: Urban areas with impervious surfaces
generate more runoff than natural landscapes.
 INFILTRATION:
• Definition: Infiltration is the process by which water
penetrates the soil surface and enters the soil
profile. It is a crucial component of the water cycle,
as it increase groundwater and supports plant
growth.
• Factors affecting infiltration:
– Soil Type: Sandy soils generally allow for faster
infiltration than clayey soils.
– Vegetation Cover: Plants can enhance infiltration by
reducing surface runoff and promoting soil structure.
– Soil Moisture Content: Dry soils can absorb more water
compared to saturated soils.
 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RUNOFF
GENERATION AND INFILTRATION:
• When precipitation occurs, water can either
infiltrate into the soil, becoming part of the
groundwater, or contribute to surface runoff.
• The balance between infiltration and runoff
depends on factors such as soil characteristics, land
use, and the intensity and duration of precipitation.
 RUNOFF RELATED HAZARDS
– Flash Flooding:
• Rapid onset of flooding due to intense rainfall.
• Impact on urban areas and transportation systems.
– Erosion and Sedimentation:
• Soil erosion caused by the force of runoff.
• Sedimentation in rivers and streams, affecting aquatic
ecosystems.
– Water Contamination:
• Runoff can carry pollutants, pesticides, and chemicals into
water bodies.
• Threat to water quality and aquatic life.
– Landslides:
• Increased soil saturation from runoff can trigger landslides on
slopes.
• Particularly in areas with steep terrain.
 RUNOFF RELATED HAZARDS
Impact on Communities:
– Infrastructure Damage:
• Roads, bridges, and buildings may be damaged by flooding and erosion.
• Increased maintenance costs.
– Public Safety Concerns:
• Risks to human life during flash floods.
• Challenges in emergency response and evacuation.
Mitigation Strategies:
– Green Infrastructure:
• Implementing vegetation and permeable surfaces to absorb and slow
runoff.
– Urban Planning:
• Sustainable urban design to manage stormwater.
– Education and Awareness:
• Informing the public about the risks of runoff and best practices.
 CHAPTER 3

GEOLOGY
 MINERALS
Minerals are naturally occurring inorganic
substances that have a crystalline structure and a
definite chemical composition.
They are the building blocks of rocks and are found
in various geological formations around the world.
Minerals are essential for the formation of soil and
are important for various industries, including
construction, agriculture, and manufacturing.
 MINERALS
Some examples of applications for industrial
minerals are paints, electronics, plastics, glass,
detergents and paper.
Minerals can be classified into different categories
based on their chemical composition and physical
properties.
 Some common mineral classes include silicates,
carbonates, sulfides, halides, and oxides. Each class
has its own unique characteristics and uses.
Some examples of minerals include quartz, feldspar,
mica, calcite, pyrite, galena, and hematite. These
minerals have a wide range of uses, such as
production of metals and other materials.
 MINERALS
There are many common minerals that are used in
our daily lives, including:

Quartz: Used in watches, clocks, and electronic

devices such as computers and cell phones.

Feldspar: Used in glassmaking, ceramics, and as a

filler in paint, plastics, and rubber.

Calcite: Used in construction materials such as

cement, as a dietary supplement, and as a
decorative stone.
 MINERALS
There are many common minerals that are used in our daily
lives, including:
Gypsum: Used in construction materials such as drywall and
plaster, as well as in fertilizer and soil conditioner.

Copper: Used in electrical wiring, plumbing, and as a

component in alloys such as brass and bronze.

Aluminium: Used in packaging, transportation, and

construction materials.

Graphite: Used in pencils, lubricants, and as a component in

batteries and other electronic devices.
 ROCK DEFORMATION
 Rock deformation refers to the process in which
rocks change their shape, size, or orientation in
response to forces acting upon them.
 It involves the physical alteration of rocks due to the
application of pressure, compression, stretching, or
shearing forces.
 ROCK DEFORMATION
 Rock deformation refers to the process in which
rocks change their shape, size, or orientation in
response to forces acting upon them.
 It involves the physical alteration of rocks due to
the application of pressure, compression,
stretching, or shearing forces.
 STAGES OF ROCK DEFORMATION
Rocks undergo stages of deformation when they are
stressed.
• The first stage is elastic deformation, where the rock's
shape or size may change, but the change is
reversible.
• In elastic deformation, the rock can be strained but still
regain its original form once the stress is removed.
• The second stage is ductile deformation, which occurs
when the rock becomes so deformed that the change
is not reversible.
• Ductile deformation means that the rock can be
changed into a new shape, but it will remain in that
new shape.
 STAGES OF ROCK DEFORMATION
Rocks undergo stages of deformation when they are
stressed.
• This type of deformation is similar to copper wiring,
which is ductile and can be stretched into thin wires.
• In ductile deformation, the rock undergoes permanent
changes in its shape or structure.
• The third stage of rock deformation occurs when the
stress on the rock exceeds its strength, resulting in
fracture.
• Fracture is an irreversible change where the rock breaks
apart due to the applied stress.
• When a rock fractures, it may split into two or more
separate pieces.
 Weathering
• Weathering is breaking down rocks, soil,
and minerals as well as wood and artificial materials
through contact with water, and biological
organisms of the Earth.
• Weathering includes mainly three processes they
are :
i) Physical Weathering.
ii) Chemical Weathering.
iii) Biological Weathering.
 Physical Weathering
• Physical weathering, also known as mechanical
weathering, is the process that causes rocks to
disintegrate without chemical change.
• Physical weathering is caused by the effects of
changing temperature on rocks, causing the rock to
break apart.
• The process is sometimes assisted by water.
• Due to temperature, pressure, etc. physical weather
may occur.
• For instant, cracks exploited by physical weathering
will increase the surface area that is exposed there
by increasing the rate of disintegration.
 Chemical Weathering
• Chemical weathering changes rock composition,
often transforming them into different chemical
reactions when water interacts with minerals.
• The oxidation and hydrolysis processes are most
important in this.
• Chemical weathering is enhanced by geological
agents such as water and oxygen.
 Biological Weathering
• Biological weathering is the subsequent breakdown
by plants, animals.
• Growing roots of plants can put stress or pressure
on rock.
• Even though the process is physical, a biological
process (i.e. growing roots) exerts the pressure.
 CLINOCOMPASS
• A Clinometer-Compass is an instrument used in
geology to measure the dip and strike of an
exposed bed in the field.
• It combines a clinometer, which measures the
angle of dip, and a compass, which determines
directions.
• The clinometer assesses the dip and strike angles,
while the compass provides their orientations
relative to north, south, east, and west.
• This integrated tool simplifies field measurements
for geologists.
CLINOCOMPASS
 STEPS TO IDENTIFY DIP AND STRIKE
• Determine Strike:
– Find the line of the strike on a clear area of the bed.
• Find Dip Direction:
– Once the strike is determined, locate the line of the
dip.
• Use Compass for Azimuth:
– Apply the compass to the strike with the south end
against the bed and the north end pointing down the
dip.
 STEPS TO IDENTIFY DIP AND STRIKE
• Azimuth of the Dip:
– The compass helps find the azimuth of the dip.
• Calculate Strike Azimuth:
– No separate measurement for strike azimuth is
needed.
– Add or subtract 90° from the dip azimuth to calculate
the strike azimuth easily.
 MECHANISM OF SLOPE FAILURE
• On the basis of factor of safety
Factor of safety = (Shearing resistance of
material/Magnitude of driving force).

• Case I
FOS(Factor of safety) = 1
This is the equilibrium condition.
• Case II
FOS > 1
This is stable condition. This is because the shear
resistance is greater than magnitude of driving force.
• Case III
FOS < 1
This is unstable condition. This is because the shear
resistance is less than magnitude of driving force.
 CAUSES OF SLOPE FAILURE
• Erosion: Continuous erosion by water and wind can
alter the slope's geometry, ultimately leading to failure
or landslides.
• Rainfall: Prolonged or intense rainfall can saturate and
soften soils, weakening them and triggering slope
failures, such as mudslides.
• Earthquakes: Dynamic forces during earthquakes,
especially shear forces, can reduce soil strength. This
may lead to slope failure, particularly in undrained
conditions.
• Human Activities: deforestation, construction
activities, and improper drainage can disturb the
natural balance of slopes and contribute to instability.
 CAUSES OF SLOPE FAILURE
• Vegetation Removal: Clearing vegetation from
slopes can reduce soil cohesion and increase the
risk of erosion, making the slope more susceptible
to failure.
• Undercutting by Rivers: Rivers and streams can
erode and undermine the base of slopes, causing
instability and potential collapse.
• Geological Factors: The type of rock and soil in the
slope, along with its geological structure, can
influence stability. Weak or weathered rock, for
example, is more prone to failure.
 CAUSES OF SLOPE FAILURE
• Freeze-Thaw Cycles: In cold climates, the repeated
freezing and thawing of water within the soil can
weaken the slope and contribute to failure.
• Burrowing Animals: Activities of animals, such as
rodents, that burrow into slopes can create
pathways for water, weakening the structure and
increasing the risk of failure.
MAJOR ROCK TYPE AND THEIR EFFECT ON
SLOPE FAILURE
• Sedimentary Rocks:
– Sandstone: Sandstone is generally more resistant to
erosion and weathering than other sedimentary
rocks, making slopes more stable. However, the
presence of bedding planes can contribute to the
development of failure surfaces.
– Shale: Shale is susceptible to weathering and can
form slippery surfaces when wet, leading to
increased risk of slope failure. It has a tendency to
undergo landslides.
MAJOR ROCK TYPE AND THEIR EFFECT ON
SLOPE FAILURE
• Igneous Rocks:
– Granite: Granite is a hard and durable rock that
tends to provide stable slopes. However, fractures
and joint sets in granite can create potential failure
planes.
– Basalt: Basalt is generally stable, but weathering can
lead to the development of fractures and jointing,
impacting slope stability.
MAJOR ROCK TYPE AND THEIR EFFECT ON
SLOPE FAILURE
• Metamorphic Rocks:
– Schist: Schist is characterized by foliation, which
can influence the direction of slope failure. The
alignment of minerals along foliation planes may
create planes of weakness.
– Marble: Marble, being a metamorphic rock
derived from limestone, dissolution by water,
leading to the development of sinkholes and
other forms of slope failure.
MAJOR ROCK TYPE AND THEIR EFFECT ON
SLOPE FAILURE
• Volcanic Rocks:
– Tuff: Tuff is composed of volcanic ash and can be
prone to erosion and weathering, leading to
slope instability.
MAJOR ROCK TYPE AND THEIR EFFECT ON
SLOPE FAILURE
• Fault Zones:
– Slopes intersecting fault zones can be particularly
susceptible to failure due to the presence of fractured
and weakened rock. The movement along fault lines can
create conditions conducive to landslides and rockfalls.
• Jointing and Fracturing:
– The presence of joints and fractures in any rock type can
significantly impact slope stability. These structural
features can serve as potential failure planes, influencing
the initiation and propagation of landslides.
 CHAPTER 4

SOIL AND THEIR

CLASSIFICATION
 SOIL
• Soil is a mixture of organic materials, minerals,
organisms, air, and water that provide the
medium for plant growth.
• Soil is also important for construction as it is
the material upon which infrastructure is built.
 CLASSIFICATION OF SOIL
• The classification of soil is as follows:
• Massachusetts Institute of Technology System
(MIT)
• Textural Classification of Soils
• Unified Soil Classification System
• Indian Standard System of Soil Classification
 MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF
TECHNOLOGY SYSTEM (MIT)
• The MIT soil classification system was first developed at
Massachusetts Institute in the USA by Prof. G. Gilboy.
Here, soils are classified based on grain size.
• These grain sizes are allowed certain names or terms
that specify a particular size range as shown below.
 Following are the 4 types of soil based on grain size:
• Gravel (> 2mm).
• Sand (0.06mm to 2mm).
• Silt (0.002mm to 0.06mm).
• Clay (< 0.002mm).
 TEXTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF SOIL

• Soil texture classification is based on particle

size and percentage distribution.
• These are represented or plotted along the
three axes of an equilateral triangle.
• Their boundary lines are drawn to indicate
different percentages of sand, silt, and clay-
sized particles, as shown in the below image.
 UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION
SYSTEM
• This system was created by A. Cassagrande
and adopted by the U.S. Corps of Engineers in
1942 as the ‘Airfield Classification.’
• It was later adapted for universal use and
reworked in 1957 as the “Unified Soil
Classification.”
• This soil classification is based on the grain
size and plasticity characteristics of the soil.
These are classified into 3 main groups as
follows:
• Coarse-grained soils with up to 50% passing
No. 200 ASTM Sieve
• Fine-grained soils with more than 50% pass
No. passing No. 200 ASTM Sieve
• Organic Soils
Coarse-grained soil
• According to the uniform soil classification system, the soil
is coarse-grained if more than 50% of the soil remains in a
sieve of 0.075 mm.
 Coarse-grained soil is further divided into two types:
• Gravel (G) – If more than 50% of the coarse particles are
retained on the 4.75mm sieve, it is known as Gravel.
• Sand (S) – If more than 50% of the coarse particles are not
retained on the 4.75mm sieve, it is known as Sand.
Fine-grained soils
• According to the uniform soil classification system,
fine-grained soils are those for which more than
50% of soil passes through 0.075 mm sieve size.
Organic Soil
• Organic soils are fine-grained soils that possess
organic properties such as high compressibility, dark
color, strong odor, prominent visible organic
materials, etc.
 INDIAN STANDARD SYSTEM OF SOIL
CLASSIFICATION
• The Indian Standard Classification System (ISC) is a
similar type of Unified soil classification system
developed according to Indian standards.
• The Indian Standards Bureau first adopted this.
i) Coarse-grained soil – If 50% or more of the total
weight of the material is stored in a 75 micro I.S.
screen.
ii) Fine-grained soils – If more than 50% of the total
material passes through a 75-micron I.S. sieve.
iii) Organic soils – Soils possess organic properties
such as high compressibility, dark color, strong odor,
prominent visible organic materials, etc.
 CHAPTER 5

LANDSLIDE
 Classification of Mass Movement
• There are different classification of mass movement
they are:
a) Landslide
b) Debris flow
c) Slope failure
 a) Landslide
• A landslide is defined as the movement of a mass
of rock, debris, or earth down a slope.
• Landslides are a type of "mass wasting," which
denotes any down-slope movement of soil and rock
under the direct influence of gravity.
 Classification of Landslide
• Falls
• Topples
• Slides
• Spreads
• Flows
• Complex movement
 Falls
• The detachment of soil or rock from a steep slope
along a surface on which little or no shear
displacement takes place.
• Speed: from very to extremely rapid.
• Type of slope: slope angle 45–90 degrees
• Causes: Vibration, undercutting,
differential weathering, excavation.
 Topples
• Toppling is the forward rotation out of the slope of
a mass of soil or rock about a point or axis below
the centre of gravity of the displaced mass.
• Speed: extremely slow to extremely rapid
• Type of slope: slope angle 45–90 degrees
• Causes: Vibration, undercutting,
differential weathering, excavation.
 Slides
• A slide is a downslope movement of soil or rock
mass.
• Two types of slides :
a) Translational slide
b) Rotational slide
 a) Translational slide
• Description: In translational slides, the mass
displaces along a planar surface of rupture, sliding
out over the original ground surface.
• Speed: extremely slow to extremely rapid (>5 m/s)
• Type of slope: slope angle 20-45 degrees
 b) Rotational slides
• Description: Rotational slides move along a surface
of rupture that is curved and concave.
• Speed: extremely slow to extremely rapid
• Type of slope: slope angle 20–40 degrees.
• Causes: Vibration, undercutting,
differential weathering, excavation.
 Spreads
• Spread is defined as an extension of a cohesive soil
or rock mass combined with a general subsidence
of the fractured mass.
• Speed: extremely slow to extremely rapid (>5 m/s)
• Type of slope: angle 45–90 degrees
• Causes: Vibration, undercutting,
differential weathering, excavation.
 Flows
• Flows are landslides that involve the movement of
material down a slope in the form of a fluid.
 Complex Movement
• Complex movement is a combination of falls,
topples, slides, spreads and flows.
 Causes of Landslide
Landslides are caused by various factors, which are
mentioned below:
• It can be caused because of heavy rain.
• Deforestation is also one of the main reasons for
landslides because trees, plants, etc., keep the soil
particles compact and due to deforestation, the
mountain slopes lose their protective layers
because of which the water of the rain flows with
unimpeded speed on these slopes.
• It can be caused by earthquakes as well.
 Causes of Landslide
• Volcanic eruptions in specific regions can also cause
landslides.
• Landslides often occur in mountain regions while
making roads and construction; a large number of
rocks has to be removed, which can cause
landslides over there.
• Due to the increasing population, a large number of
houses are being created, which can cause
landslides.
 Effects of Landslide
• Landslides can disturb the social and economic
environment with the number of other damages
which are mentioned below:
 Short Term Impacts:
• The natural beauty of the area is damaged.
• Loss of life and property
• Roadblocks
• Destruction of railway lines
• Channel blocking because of the falling of rocks.
• It leads to the diversion of river water, which can
cause floods as well.
 Causes of Landslide
 Long Term Impacts:
• Landscape changes can be permanent.
• The loss of fertile land or cultivation land.
• Erosion and soil loss can lead to environmental
problems.
• Population shifting and migration.
• Effects on the sources of water.
• Some roads can be damaged or closed
permanently.
 Prevention and Mitigation measure of
landslide
• Some commonly used retaining wall types are given
below:
• Concrete retaining walls: Concrete blocks are
locked together and don’t require any mortar to
bond them. The soil behind it must be tightly
packed to maintain a solid hold.
• Steel Beam Walls: These are often used on
extreme slopes where a concrete wall is too
expensive. The steel beams are usually placed in a
pre-drilled hole and encased in concrete.
 Prevention and Mitigation measure of
landslide
• Piling walls: These retaining walls are made of steel
and are used in tight spaces. Typically, the majority
of the wall sits below the soil’s surface and works
best with landscaping that has soft soil/sediment.
• Gravity walls: Because of this wall-type’s size,
pressure is resisted with the pressure behind its
own mass.
• Cantilever walls: This type of retaining wall have a
large, structural foundation and uses horizontal
pressure from behind the wall to create vertical
pressure on the ground below.
 CHAPTER 6
LANDFORM
CLASSIFICATION
What is a Landform?
A landform is a feature on the Earth's
surface that is part of the terrain.
Mountains, hills, plateaus, and plains
are the four major types of landforms.
A river is a natural
flowing watercourse,
usually freshwater,
flowing towards an
ocean, a lake, a sea, or
another river.
 CHAPTER 7
SITE INVESTIGATION
 MECHANISM OF SLOPE FAILURE
 Erosion
• This is a phenomenon of removal of particles from
the surface by flowing water.
• An arbitrary depth limit of 25 mm has been
adopted for erosion.
• This depth refers only to the initial removal of
particles and is used to distinguish erosion from
mass movements.
 MECHANISM OF SLOPE FAILURE
 Sheet Erosion
• Water flows over surface in an even film and
removes a fairly uniform layer of soil from the land
surface.
• Vegetation stabilization should be adequate to
prevent sheet erosion.
 MECHANISM OF SLOPE FAILURE
 Rill Erosion and Gully Erosion
• Surface water flows in channels.
• Gullies begin as very shallow narrow incisions in the
slope(rills).
• An arbitrary depth limit of 2 m has been set for gullies
as erosion features.
• If a gully is deeper than 2 m, its sides fail in ways
similar to a normal hill slope.
• Hill slope protection measures are then appropriate.
• Check dams are the best mitigation measure to
stabilize the gully floor.
 MECHANISM OF SLOPE FAILURE
 Piping
• Piping in an underground channel refers to the erosion and
transport of soil particles caused by seepage or flowing
water through or beneath a structure, such as a channel
bed or embankment.
• It is a critical issue in geotechnical and hydraulic
engineering, as it can compromise the stability and
integrity of underground channels, culverts, dams, or
retaining structures.
 MECHANISM OF SLOPE FAILURE
 Slide Within Soil Or Along Soil/Rock Interface
• Any mass movement of soil or debris down a slope
includes translational slides of soils or debris,
rotational slumps, and flows.
• The plane of failure can be:
– within a soil or debris mass
– along the interface between soil and weathered rock
– the uppermost layer of weathered rock
– between soil and rock plane in unweathered rock
 MECHANISM OF SLOPE FAILURE
 Plane failure in rock
• Any mass movement whose failure plane is
controlled principally by fracture planes in rock, and
whose debris consists chiefly of rock fragments.
• Failure types commonly include plane failure,
wedge failure, and toppling (rock fall).
 MECHANISM OF SLOPE FAILURE
 Disintegration
• Tensile failure occurs in very soft rock or
consolidated soil.
• A special type of rock failure, found in massive or
sparsely jointed permeable weathered rocks, e.g.
porous sandstones, and in dense soils and
unconsolidated materials that stand in a vertical or
near vertical face.
• Upon landing, the material breaks up into a pile of
loose debris, consisting mostly of loose rock mineral
particles.
 MECHANISM OF SLOPE FAILURE
 Differential weathering
• Weathering that occurs at different rates due to the
variation in composition and resistance to
weathering is called differential weathering.
• This failure occurs typically in alternating thin beds
of hard and soft rock e.g. sandstone and mudstone
or siltstone.
• The cause is a combination of weathering of the
soft rock layers and plane failure of the hard rock
layers.
 MECHANISM OF SLOPE FAILURE
 Differential weathering
• The soft rocks weather back from the face to leave
the hard rocks sticking out.
• Eventually the hard rocks overhang so far that they
break off along vertical fractures.
• The process then starts again and the whole face
retreats.
• This mechanism is very common in Nepal.
 LANDSLIDE MAPPING
• Landslide mapping is a set of procedures which helps
the observer to map an unstable site and observe all its
significant features.
• The basis of the site record is a simple sketch of the
site.
• It does not have to be to scale.
• Its purpose is to help the observer to understand
geometric relationships between features of the
landslide.
• It also helps to record the measurements concisely.
LANDSLIDE MAPPING
LANDSLIDE MAPPING
 LANDSLIDE MAPPING
The steps in landslide mapping are:
1. Geomorphic situation (Draw)
• General locality and situation
• Orientation of rocks
• Outcropping, planes of weakness
• Movement of water along fractures
• Other sites with Similar geomorphic situation

2. Sketch the site from good observation point (Draw)

• Proportionate sketch
• Estimate the length and width
LANDSLIDE MAPPING
 LANDSLIDE MAPPING
3. Look for Land slide zone (Draw)
• Failure
• Transport
• Debris

4. Examine the material forming the slope (Draw)

• Debris
• Soft rock
• Hard rock
• Alternate bands of hard and soft rock
 LANDSLIDE MAPPING
5. Sketch the slope profile of the site (Draw)
• relative steepness
• detailed slope measurement
6. Sketch the surface water drainage (Draw)
• Stream, Springs

7. Sketch the rock outcrop (Draw)

8. Landmarks (Draw)
• Existing Structures, Trees, houses, villages etc.
 LANDSLIDE MAPPING
9. Walkover Survey (Measure)
• From toe to crown
• Major failure slope
• Throughout the site
10. Rock (Measure & Describe)
• Visit each exposure
• Measurement of bedding plane
• Physical properties of rock
• Degree of fracturing and weathering
• Water movement
 LANDSLIDE MAPPING
11. Debris and Slope (Draw & Describe)
• Area and location
• Amount and extent
• Composition and wetness
• Depth of debris
• Depth of failure plane
• Tilted tree, anti-slope and seepage
• Deflected engineering structures
Priority of Landslide Repair & Analysis of Seriousness
Factors to be considered while prioritizing the site:
1. Types of slope (Technical capabilities of bio-
engineering works):
All slope failures can't be treated by bio-engineering, so
bio- engineering works should be prioritized on the basis
of its scope.
Thus, the slope should be classified in the following
manner.
i. Slope that can be treated with vegetation with some
'light' engineering:
ii. Slope can be treated with normal civil engineering
methods, supplemented with vegetation;
Priority of Landslide Repair & Analysis of Seriousness
Factors to be considered while prioritizing the site:
1. Types of slope (Technical capabilities of bio-
engineering works):
iii. Slope can be treated with civil engineering methods
but are very expensive, the risk of failure may be high;
iv. Slope is impossible to stabilize with resources available,
or not worth it.
Priority of Landslide Repair & Analysis of Seriousness
2. Depth of failure plane
i. Less than 25 mm: Surface caused by erosion.
ii. 25-100 mm: Shallow mass failure, probably due to
liquefaction of surface layers.
iii. 100-250 mm: Deeper mass failure that may be due to
both the infiltrated rain water and rising ground water.
iv. 250-1000 mm: Deep mass failure probably due to
ground water pore pressure.
v. More than 1000 mm: Very deep mass failure due to
high ground water pore pressure.
Priority of Landslide Repair & Analysis of Seriousness
3. Length of landslide
i. Less than 15 m: Minor failure
ii. 15-75 m: Substantial failure
iii. 75-150 m: Large failure
iv. More than 150 m: Major failure
Priority of Landslide Repair & Analysis of Seriousness
4. History of landslide
This covers history of activity of landslide from its first
occurrence up to the present time.
i. Not moved within the last 5 years.
• Old slope may now be stable, unless disturbed by road
condition.
ii. Moved this year for the first time.
• Active failure, further development may be very
difficult to access.
iii. Moved within the last 5 years but not this year.
• Recent failure but inactive at present.
Priority of Landslide Repair & Analysis of Seriousness
4. History of landslide
iv. Moves every year by initial mechanism - diminishing
• Continual failure but hold possibilities for
improvement.
v. Moves every year by initial mechanism constant or
getting worse
• Continual failure with little or no possibilities for
further improvement.
Priority of Landslide Repair & Analysis of Seriousness
5. Life progression of a landslide
The evolution of landslide from its current condition to
future is life progression. Following slope conditions may
be encountered:
i. Stable slope formed, or will stabilize naturally.
ii. Further movement expected, by less serious
mechanism
iii. Repeated movement expected, by initial mechanism of
another equally serious mechanism.
Based on above factors priority should be given to those
sites which are technically, economically, socially and
altitudinally feasible.
ASSESSMENT OF SERIOUSNESS
Step 1: Location of slide
The initial criterion is to determine whether the failure is off
the road alignment but within the Department’s responsibility,
above the road so that debris may come on to the road, below
it so that it may be undermined, between road Sections, or
whether the slide failure plane passes beneath the road.
Location of Slide Rating
Along the road 1
Above the road 2
Below the road 3
Between two roads 4
Above and below the road 5
 ASSESSMENT OF SERIOUSNESS
Step 2: Type of Affected Slope
• If the failure affects the road cutting but not the hill
slope, then the slide has probably been caused by
road construction;
• if it affects the hill slope but not the road cutting,
then the slide has probably not been caused by
road construction:
• it may be natural or induced by man, but there is a
risk of enlargement up slope and deposition of
debris on to the road and into the drainage system.
 ASSESSMENT OF SERIOUSNESS
Step 2: Type of Affected Slope
• If the slide affects the road cutting and the hill
slope, it has probably been caused by road
construction and is enlarging up the slope.
• If it is in the embankment, fill or spoil slope, then
the slide has been caused by road construction and
threatens the carriageway: there is a risk of erosion
or liquefaction if the fill is uncompacted.
Type of affected slope Rating
Cut slope but not hill slope 1
Hill slope but not cut slope 2
Cut slope Plus hill slope 2
Embankment 3
ASSESSMENT OF SERIOUSNESS
Step 3: Slope condition above the slide

• The crest of a ridge, or on a gentle slope (less than

35°) is unlikely to enlarge.
• If it is a stable, undisturbed hill slope, the slide can
be stabilized easily.
• On an unstable hill slope with cracked ground,
another landslide or topography that collects water,
more instability can be expected.
• If there is a cut-off drain or an irrigation channel
(kulo), there is a high risk of major erosion if the
channel is leak or be damaged.
ASSESSMENT OF SERIOUSNESS

Step 3: Slope condition above the slide

Slope condition Rating

Crest of ridge, gentle slope (<35o) 1
Stable, undisturbed hill slope 3
Unstable hill slope (Cracks, another landslide or water collector) 5
Cut-off drain or take-out drain 3
Irrigation canal 4
ASSESSMENT OF SERIOUSNESS
Step 4: Slope condition below the slide

• Minor treatment is necessary slope is

stable/undisturbed, Where the road is intact at the
base of slide and disturbed slope but road is not
at base.
• Unstable hill slope with cracked ground, a
landslide or presence of water is a very high risk
to the carriageway; remedial action is urgently
required.
• If there is a stream, there is a risk of scour and
undercutting of the slope.
ASSESSMENT OF SERIOUSNESS
Step 4: Slope condition below the slide

Slope condition Rating

Stable/Undisturbed slope 1
Intact road at the base of slide 1
Disturbed slope but road is not at the base 1
Unstable slope (cracks, landslide, water presence) 5
Stream 5
ASSESSMENT OF SERIOUSNESS
Step 5: Type of Slope failure

• Erosion, rilling or gullying up to 2 meters deep

caused by surface water is only a minor instability.
• Gullies more than 2 meters deep may result a
significant amount of debris.
• Mass movements (slides, flows or falls) are deeper
failures requiring more substantial works.
Type of slope failure Rating
Sheet erosion, rill or gully erosion upto 2 m deep 1
Gully more than 2 m deep 3
Mass Movement (slide, flow or fall) 4
ASSESSMENT OF SERIOUSNESS

Step 6: Material forming slope

Material may be debris (unconsolidated or
consolidated) as a result of a slope movement or soft
rock, hard rock and bands of alternating hard and
soft rocks.

Material Rating
Debris 2
Soft rock 3
Hard rock 1
Alternating hard or soft rocks 2
ASSESSMENT OF SERIOUSNESS
Step 7: Failure Mechanism

• Erosion is the removal of particles from the surface

by flowing water. Slides cover any mass movement
of soil or debris down slope.
• Flows are caused by the liquefaction of material.
• Plane failures in rock are any mass movement
controlled principally by fracture planes in rock,
and whose debris consists chiefly of rock
fragments.
• Disintegration is a tensile failure in very soft rock
or consolidated soil.
ASSESSMENT OF SERIOUSNESS
Step 7: Failure Mechanism

Failure mechanism Rating

Erosion (sheet, rill, pipe) 1
Shear failure (slide, slump, flow) 4
Plane failure in rock (slide, fall) 2
Collapse (fall with disintegration) 5
Undermining 2
ASSESSMENT OF SERIOUSNESS
Step 8: Cause of Failure
• Surface water causes erosion, ground water causes
increased pore water pressure at depth, leading to
failure planes deeper than in surface water failures.
• Rock shear strength can be reduced by weathering
as constituent minerals are broken down.
• Slopes can be undercut by a flowing stream or by
the opening up of a road cutting.
• Weight can be added usually by the dumping of
spoil or by landslide debris.
ASSESSMENT OF SERIOUSNESS
Step 8: Cause of Failure

Cause of failure Rating

Surface water (erosion, shallow slide/flow) 1
Ground water (Increased pore water pressure) 2
Weathering 5
Undercutting of slope by stream or road cutting 5
Addition of spoil or landslide debris 2
ASSESSMENT OF SERIOUSNESS
Step 9: Depth of Failure
• Up to 25 mm is a shallow surface failure caused by
erosion.
• From 25 to 100 mm is a shallow mass failure,
probably due to the liquefaction of surface layers.
• From 100 to 250 mm is a deeper mass failure that
can involve water contributed both from infiltrating
rain water and rising ground water.
• From 250 to 1000 mm is a deep mass failure
probably due primarily to ground water pore
pressure.
• Deeper than 1000 mm comprise very deep mass
failures due to high ground water pore pressure.
ASSESSMENT OF SERIOUSNESS
Step 9: Depth of Failure

Depth of Failure Rating

< 25 mm 1
25 – 100 mm 2
100 – 250 mm 3
250 – 1000 mm 4
More than 1000 mm 5
ASSESSMENT OF SERIOUSNESS
Step 10: Length of failure
• Up to 15 meters is a minor failure. From 15 to 75
meters is a substantial failure.
• From 75 to 150 meters is a large failure.
• More than 150 meters is a major failure.
Length of failure Rating
Up to 15 m 1
15 – 75 m 2
75 – 150 m 3
More than 150 m 4
ASSESSMENT OF SERIOUSNESS
Step 11: History of slide
• This covers the history of activity of the slide from its first
occurrence up to the present time.
• If it has not moved within the last 5 years, it is now
stable.
• If it moved this year for the first time, it is an active
failure and future development may be very difficult to
assess.
• If it has moved within the past five years, at present it is
inactive.
• If it moves every year at a diminishing rate, there are
possibilities for improvement by remedial works.
• If it moves every year by the initial mechanism at a
constant or worse rate, it may be out of control and have
little possibility for improvement.
ASSESSMENT OF SERIOUSNESS
Step 11: History of slide

History of Slide Rating

Not moved within the last 5 years 1
Moved this year for the first time 3
Moved withint the last 5 years but not this year 2
Moves every year by initial mechanism – diminishing 4
Moves every year by initial mechanism – constant or getting worse 5
ASSESSMENT OF SERIOUSNESS
Step 12: Life Progression of failure

• This step assess the progression of the slide from its

current condition into the future.
• If a stable slope has formed, or will stabilize
naturally.
• If further movement is expected by movement at a
shallower depth than that of the original failure,
then the instability is going through post-slide
adjustment.
• If a repeated movement is expected, by the initial
mechanism or another equally serious, full stability
may not be achieved for some years.
ASSESSMENT OF SERIOUSNESS
Step 12: Life Progression of failure

Life progression Rating

Stable slope formed 1
Further movement expected by less serious mechanism 3
Repeated movement are expected 5
REPAIR PRIORITIES
Repair Priorities depends on:
• Technical capability
• Financial status
• Level of interest
• Condition of people’s participation
• Loss of lives and property
• Cost benefit ratio
• Other factors
• Setting Repair Priorities
REPAIR PRIORITIES
Setting Repair Priorities

• Inspect the road and make a list of the sites that

require treatment.
• Prioritize them according to the importance of
stabilization.
• Table shows the priority to be given to different
slope movement problems.
• The scale goes from a distinct threat to human life
to the situation where a slope problem can cause
only limited damage.
REPAIR PRIORITIES
Setting Repair Priorities
Predicted Consequence if the site is not Ttreated Priority Rating
Slope movement threatens houses Priority 1 (Highest priority)
Slope movement threatens complete loss of road Priority 2
Slope movement threatens partial loss of road Priority 3
Slope movement threatens complete road blockage Priority 3
Debris may fall on top of pedestrians or vehicles & Injury Priority 3
Slope movement threatens loss of productive farmland Priority 4

Slope movement threatens blockage of drains Priority 4 (Lowest priority)

REPAIR PRIORITIES
Setting Repair Priorities

The following three steps are adopted:

Step 1: Severity Rating (SR)

SR 1 & 2 - High priority is given to those sites if repair is
considered feasible by vegetation or vegetation in
conjunction with small scale civil engineering structures (GO
TO NEXT STEP)

SR 3 & 4 - Less priority is given to those sites if repair is

feasible by medium scale or large scale standard civil
engineering method (END)
REPAIR PRIORITIES
Setting Repair Priorities
Step 2: History & Life Progress of Slide
No Moved this Moved within Moves every
History Life Movement year for the last 5 year but year by initial History Life
Progression in Last5 first time not this year mechanism Progression
years (diminishing)

Stable slope Stable slope

formed Priority 4 Priority 4 Priority 4 Priority 4 formed

Further
Further
movement
movement
expected
expected by
by less
less serious Priority 4 Priority 4 Priority 4 Priority 4
serious
mechanism
mechanism

Repeated Repeated
movement movement are
are expected
expected -- Go to Step 3 Go to Step 3 Go to Step 3
REPAIR PRIORITIES
Setting Repair Priorities

Step 3: Depth of Failure

Depth of Failure Rating
< 25 mm (Erosion) Priority 1
25 – 100 mm (Shallow flow) Priority 1
100 – 250 mm (Deep flow or shallow slide) Priority 1
250 – 1000 mm (Medium depth slide) Only Civil Engg Structures
More than 1000 mm Only Civil Engg Structures
 CHAPTER 8
BASIC ASPECT OF VEGETATION
 PLANT TYPE, FORM AND STRUCTURE
Plant Form and Structure
• Plants exhibit many different forms and structures, but elements
importance to engineer are roots, stems, leaves and flowers for
reproduction.
1) Roots
• The root is usually the underground part of the plant. It provides
anchoring and absorb water and nutrients from the soil.
Parts of Roots
• Surface roots: It grows in and around the surface soil layers. The
main function is to collect nutrients.
• Deeper roots: It grows deeper. The main function is anchorage and
absorb water.
PLANT TYPE, FORM AND STRUCTURE
PLANT TYPE, FORM AND STRUCTURE
 PLANT TYPE, FORM AND STRUCTURE
Root Structure System
• The development of plant roots is highly depends on characteristics
of individual plants, on the condition under which they are growing
and often on method of propagation. Some root structures are
shown below.
 PLANT TYPE, FORM AND STRUCTURE
Root Structure System
• In woody plants, there are deeper tap roots and lateral roots.
• Plants propagated by means of cutting develop fibrous lateral roots
and rarely develop tap roots.
• Root development pattern in grass is not different whether they are
developed from seed, grass slip or rhizome cuttings.
• Where soil is hard or stony, shallow rooting is normal.
• Plate shaped lateral root is common where ground water is shallow.
 PLANT TYPE, FORM AND STRUCTURE
2) Stem
• Stem is the part of the vascular plants that commonly bears leaves
and buds. Main engineering function is to perform catch function.
Other functions are:
• Production and support above ground parts (e.g leaves)
• Conduction of water and nutrients
• Propagation materials
Stem forms
• Single stemmed - spreading, upright
• Multiple
• Branches
 PLANT TYPE, FORM AND STRUCTURE
3) Leaves
• The leaves are the lateral outgrowth of the plant's stem. They are green
and flattened surfaces.
Leave forms (Plant Types based upon leaves) are:
• Narrow/ Long leaves (e.g. salla)
• Large or Broad leaves (e.g. Chilaune)
Function of Leaves
• To trap energy in the form of sunlight for the manufacture of carbohydrate
compounds
• Transpiration - remove excess water from the plant
• Respiration - obtains oxygen and energy
• Leaves may also store food and water
• Structural support
 PLANT TYPE, FORM AND STRUCTURE
4) Flower
• Flower is reproductive organs of certain plants which produce fruits
containing seeds.

Plant Types

1. Trees:
• The plants most of which grow from a single upright main trunk,
which branches in the upper part to form a crown.
• Generally height is 3m or more. Trees are a woody plant of large
structure.
• E.g. Utis (Alnus nepalensis), Bakaino
PLANT TYPE, FORM AND STRUCTURE
 PLANT TYPE, FORM AND STRUCTURE
2. Shrubs:
• The plants having a fairly dense woody perennial growth with many well
branched stems.
• Some of them are quite low growing where as some of them can grow to
over 2m.
• e.g. Acacia penata (Areri)

3. Grass:
• They are non woody plants such as dubo, Amriso etc.
• It can grow vegetatively by tillering (i.e. by producing new stems from the
bases of existing ones.)
• It can be grown from rhizome (underground stem e.g. Amriso), stolons
(above ground stem e.g. Dubo) or roots.
• Grasses give quick establishment and dense ground cover.
PLANT TYPE, FORM AND STRUCTURE
 PLANT TYPE, FORM AND STRUCTURE
4. Herbs:
• They are broad leaved plants of which the above ground parts are
generally non-woody.
• They are generally referred to as wild flowers and weeds together
with cultivated and forage plants such as legumes, peas, clover and
vetch.
• Growth habits vary from upright single stemmed to multi stemmed to
spreading and creeping individuals.
 PLANT TYPE, FORM AND STRUCTURE
5) Bamboo:
• Basically bamboos are tall grasses.
• Because of its specialized role in bio-engineering and special growth
characteristics it is taken as a separate type of plant.
• Bamboo serves both as living and non living plant material in bio-
engineering.
 VEGETATION AND PLANT COMMUNITIES
Plant community
• It is an established group of plants living more-or-less in balance with
each other and their environment.
• The group can be natural or managed.
• The community is usually dominated by the main species of trees, but
also contains lower plants such as shrubs, grasses and herbs.
• Natural vegetation communities in Nepal consist of large number of
species.
VEGETATION AND PLANT COMMUNITIES
 VEGETATION AND PLANT COMMUNITIES
Plants in Community may be:
• Pioneer Plants - Adjust to any harsh conditions at any slope site
destroyed by erosion or landslide.
• Dominant Plants - Creates a micro-climate as it gets nutrients and
maintains dominancy.
• Associated Plants - Can exist and survive with dominant plants.
• Improvement plants -Mainly plants that thrive in nitrogen that is
leguminous plants as they fixate the nitrogen in the soil which is good
for a bio-engineering site. Some plants also create organic materials
after they decay in the site.
• Colonizers - Must not be introduced as they kill forests; roots may be
reinforcing but it creates falls and instability.
 VEGETATION AND PLANT COMMUNITIES
• An ideal community for bioengineering contains a carefully planned
variety of different plants which together meet the engineering needs
of the site.
Examples:
• An open canopy of khayer (Acacia catechu) with dense cover of
babiyo (Eulaliopsis binata).
• An open canopy of mixed dhanyero (Woodfordia Fruticosa) and Areri
(Acacia pennata) with a ground cover of kans (Saccharum
spontaneum).
• An open canopy of mixed utis (Alnus nepalensis) and painyu (Prunus
cersoides), a middle storey of mixed bhujetro (Butea minor) and Areri
(Acacia pennata) and ground cover of sito (Neyraudia arundinacea).
 VEGETATION AND PLANT COMMUNITIES
• The components of each plant community are influenced by soil type,
topography, climate and human disturbance.
• When some factors changes, such as climate, ground conditions or
grazing, the community will adopt accordingly.

Principles for managing plant communities in bio-engineering are as follows:

• Use a mixture of plants in initial planting.
• Start with pioneer species.
• Plan a balance of plant species in the community.
• Dominant plants must be replaced or thinned out within 5 to 10 years, to
maintain balance.
• Clear weeds and re-plant gaps.
VEGETATION AND PLANT COMMUNITIES
 VEGETATION STRUCTURE
• Vegetation has three dimensional structures.
• In plan, there is a spatial distribution of individual plants of different
shapes and sizes, with some degree of overlap in both above and
below- ground parts.
• In vertical section, there are usually distinct layers which are
characteristic of the type, age, status and management of the
community.
• Woody vegetation with trees and shrubs can have well-developed
stratifications, with a dense canopy, an open shrub layer and a
generally sparse ground cover.
• Structure depends on the age and maturity of the plantation.
• The system of roots, rhizomes and suckers is stratified in a way similar
to the above-ground parts.
VEGETATION STRUCTURE
 VEGETATION STRUCTURE
Succession (Progression)
• This is the natural development of vegetation on a site over a period
of time.
• In nature, there is a progressive development of vegetation on a fresh
site.
• Some plants become established, then others come in and they
interact with each other resulting in changes in the vegetation.
Finally, stable vegetation becomes established.
• Plant community change in response to a changing climate, soil
environment, or management regime.
• In the absence of any interference by man, the progress of
succession, starting from bare ground to tree cover is shown in fig.
• Interference can deflect the natural succession from its usual path.
VEGETATION STRUCTURE
 VEGETATION STRUCTURE
Succession (Progression)
• A fresh landslide will have a bare slope that consists of raw minerals,
weathering products and fragments of rock.
• Within a couple of years it will probably be covered with vegetation.
• These first plants on a bare site are called pioneers because they
establish themselves easily in difficult conditions such as bare,
infertile slopes.
• They grow from seeds, which may be blown, or be carried in by
animals or birds.
• Pioneer plants have special adaptations, which enable them to
survive on harsh sites.
 VEGETATION STRUCTURE
Succession (Progression)
These include:
• low nutrient requirement;
• drought resistance;
• ability to recover after disturbance caused by moving soil;
• produce large quantities of seeds to overcome poor germination
conditions.
 VEGETATION STRUCTURE
• Their colonization and development lead to better conditions, which
other species then take advantage of.
For example:
• vegetation cover increases the permeability of the soil;
• leaves shade the surface so it is cooler and evaporation is reduced;
• leaves intercept rainfall, reducing raindrop impact and therefore
lessening erosion;
• plants create a micro-environment below ground in which micro-
organisms and small animals live and improve the quality of the soil;
• plants add humus to the soil, which helps to retain moisture.
 VEGETATION STRUCTURE
• The first plants to become established will be smaller grasses and
herbs, but within two years large herbs will tend to dominate the site.
• Ban mara (Eupatorium adenophorum) is the most prevalent of these.
• This development continues and the grasses and herbs are gradually
replaced by larger woody shrubs and trees.
• Examples of these plants are kunelo (Trema orientalis), utis (Alnus
nepalensis) and bhujetro (Butea minor), and takal palm (Phoenix
humilis) on the edge of forests.
• These short-lived trees are gradually replaced by trees that have a
longer life-span.
• For example, painyu (Prunus cerasoides) and chilaune (Schima
wallichii) often start to grow under utis (Alnus nepalensis) forest.
 VEGETATION STRUCTURE
Regression
• Changes may occur in the natural environment which disrupt the
normal development towards stability. This is called regression.
• Regression may be caused by several factors, including fire, grazing,
cutting and landslides.
• Fire can be very damaging, as it can destroy all seedlings and young
trees.
• Grazing by cows and goats destroys all the young, palatable growth
within their reach. Grazing also disturb the soil.
• Over-cutting by people may destroy mature trees and leave large
openings and cutting smaller trees for firewood may remove all the
potential replacement trees.
• Landslides have a major, localized effect in destroying mature, stable
vegetation.
 PLANT COMPETITION
• A plant community is made up of species which compete with each
other in various ways for sources of light, water, and nutrients.
The external factors which species have to deal with can be summarized
in two categories:
• Stress, brought about by restrictions in light, water, mineral nutrients,
temperature.
• Disturbance, arising from the activities of man, herbivorous,
pathogens, damage, erosion.
Obtaining any resource at the expense of another plant is termed as
competition. Competition takes place in two areas:
• Above the ground for light.
• Below the ground for water and nutrients.
 PLANT COMPETITION
a) Light
• Plants will start to compete for light as soon as they form a continuous
canopy.
• This starts when plants are small and growing close together.
• If there is a higher canopy with an understorey below it, shading of the
understorey plants becomes a particular problem..
Three options for overcoming this problem are:
 Space out the tall plants.
 Reduce the volume of the canopy.
 Introduce shade tolerant plants.
• In bioengineering, 100% ground coverage is required. Almost all grasses
require full light. Therefore, once vegetation is established, it can be
thinned to provide space for light to penetrate between plants.
 PLANT COMPETITION
b) Water
• When there is not enough water, plants compete for water.
• It varies from place to place and can be different from year to year.
Possible solutions are:
 Providing more water.
 Reducing the level of demand for water.
 Using drought-resistant species.
• Watering is not feasible solution in natural environment.
• Weeding and pruning can reduce the demand for water.
• Mulching can reduce loss of water from the soil. Mulching is the process of
covering the topsoil with plant material such as leaves, grass, twigs, crop
residues, straw etc.
• Best and common approach is selecting drought-resistant species such as
khayer, babiyo etc.
 PLANT COMPETITION
c) Nutrients
• Competition for nutrients occur during the warmer and damper part
of year since plants use nutrients during its growing season.
Possible solutions are:
 Providing more nutrients.
 Reducing the level of demand for nutrient.
 Using low nutrient species.
• More nutrients can be supplied through putting compost near the
plant or from the mulches.
• Nitrates can be provided through using leguminous plants.
• Weeding reduces the competion for nutrients on a site.
• Low nutrient tolerant species such as kans can be used.
 BASIC REQUIREMENT OF PLANT
• The basic requirement of plant is air (oxygen, carbon dioxide,
nitrogen), water, nutrients (Nitrate, phosphate, potassium etc.), and
light.
 BASIC REQUIREMENT OF PLANT
Plant Nutrient
Three main nutrients are:
• Nitrate helps leaf growth and if available in adequate quantities
results increased growth.
• Phosphate - helps root growth, helps plants to become established.
• Potassium - keep plants healthy, is involved in the production and
storage of sugar and starch, and drought resistant.
Other secondary nutrients are:
• Sulphur - synthesis of essential amino acids
• Magnesium - part of chlorophyll molecule
• Calcium - building block in cell walls, reduce plant diseases
• Sodium - helps water absorption
 BASIC REQUIREMENT OF PLANT
Other micronutrients required in trace are:
• Iron - chlorophyll synthesis
• Manganese - Aides in photosynthesis
• Boron - cell wall formation, metabolism
• Copper - influences the metabolism of N & carbohydrates
• Zinc - Auxin synthesis
• Molybdenum - component of nitrogenase enzymes
 BASIC REQUIREMENT OF PLANT
Light
• All vegetable plants and many flowers require large amounts of
sunlight.
• Sunlight is required for photosynthesis that produce energy for plant.
• Leaves of trees and shrubs capture light energy from the sun and
convert it to soluble carbohydrates (starch and sugar).
• Plants receiving insufficient light levels produce smaller, longer (as
compared to wide) leaves and have lower overall weight.
• Plants receiving excessive amounts of light can dry up.
 BASIC REQUIREMENT OF PLANT
Air
• The atmosphere surrounding both above and below-ground parts of
woody plants.
• The oxygen is essential for respiration (the plant process that releases
the energy of stored sugars to fuel growth).
• Carbon dioxide is required for photosynthesis.
• Compacted urban soils frequently are oxygen deficient.
• Poorly aerated soils gradually weaken plant.
 BASIC REQUIREMENT OF PLANT
Water
• An adequate amount of water is essential for plant growth and
maintenance of essential plant processes.
• Either inadequate amounts of water or too much water is considered
by many to be the primary cause of death for newly-planted trees
and shrubs.
• In many landscapes, about 1 inch (supplied through 2 or 3
application) of water every 7 to 10 days is sufficient to support tree
and shrub growth.
 PLANT AND SOIL
• Soil is formed almost entirely from weathered rock.
• Mineral matter of the soil is supplemented by organic matter, which
comes mainly from leaf litter.
• As a process continues, a darker top soil develops.
• Below soil surface, community of animals, micro-organisms and fungi
established which helps aeration etc.
• Decaying plant and animal remains are converted into nutrients that
can be used by plants.
 PLANT AND SOIL
Soil Improvements
• Below soil surface, community of animals (e.g. earthworm), micro-organisms,
bacteria and fungi etc. established which helps soil improvements.
• Also, chemical actions such as nitrification, sulphur oxidation, nitrogen fixation,
etc. improve soil.
• Decaying plant and animal remains are converted into nutrients that can be
used by plants.
Functions are:
• Improves soil structure
• Stimulate activities of soil organisms and creates good environment for
organisms
• Add nutrients to soil which is required for plant
• Use of leguminous plant to improve soil fertility
 PLANT AND SOIL
Physical properties of soil
• Soil texture: describes the particle size distribution and gives an
indication of the likely behavior of a soil in respect of handling, root
growth or drainage.
• Rooting potential: indicates the resistance of the soil to root
penetration, which depends mainly on the soil's bulk density and on
mechanical strength.
• Soil structure: is a characteristic which describes the arrangement
and size of particle aggregates. The presence of organic matter and
plant roots play a major role in developing and maintaining soil
structure.
 PLANT AND SOIL
Soil Water Relation
• The soil water potential is determined mainly by the physical
properties of a soil.
• Roots will take up water when their water potential is less than that
of the soil.
• Field Capacity - Moisture content remaining when a soil has drained
freely under gravity.
• Permanent Wilting Point - moisture content at which plants will not
normally recover if soil moisture is further reduced.
• The available water capacity (AWC) of a soil is the proportion of soil
water normally available to plants. It is the difference in water
content between field capacity and the permanent wilting point
 PLANT AND SOIL
Soil Water Relation
• The profile available water (PAW): the total water over the whole soil
profile, and represents the quantity of water available for plant
growth.
• The soil moisture deficit (SMD): the cumulative reduction in soil
moisture content below field capacity as potential evaporation
exceeds rainfall over the summer months.
• Droughtiness: It is a soil moisture of the likely intensity of moisture
stress which a plant will experience.
 PLANT AND CLIMATE
• The climate factors affect plant behavior and performance.
• Climatic factors are growing season, moisture regime, exposure and
rainfall seasonality and rainfall etc.
Parameters of Bio Climate
• Rainfall - precipitation recorded on daily basis and compiled monthly,
seasonally, yearly or for long term averages
• Potential Evapo-transpiration - Estimated water loss from a vegetated
surface calculated from records of sunshine, temperature, wind and
humidity
• Rainfall Erosivity - Estimate of the power of rainfall to erode soil based on
records of intensity and energy of rain
• Growing Season - An estimate of length & intensity of growing season
• Exposure - relative elevation & aspect
• Bioclimatic factors can be used to assess the overall site potential for plant
growth.
 PLANT PROPAGATION
• Plant propagation is the process of creating new plants from a variety
of sources.
Three Methods:
 Seed production
 Vegetative for example by runners, suckers or buds
 Cuttings, layering and tissue culture have been used

There are three widely used techniques of propagation appropriate for

engineering and landscaping:
 Seeding,
 Planting nursery-raised plants, and
 Planting cuttings
 PLANT PROPAGATION
1) Seeding
• Plants vary in their seed production strategies.
• Many grasses produce a large quantity of very small seeds.
• Small-seeded plants are often susceptible to desiccation (dryness)
early in establishment.
• Some trees produce a smaller quantity of large seeds.
• Large seed may subjected to degradation.
PLANT PROPAGATION
 PLANT PROPAGATION
Propagation from seed has 3 stage:
 The period for the dormancy to break: this may simply involve the
seed absorbing sufficient water for metabolism to begin.
 Germination of the seed: Where the seed coat splits and the young
root emerges and penetrates the soil. Adequate moisture is essential
for good germination
 Establishment of the young plant in a favorable environment

• Moisture is the most critical factor during these stages. If the seed is
unproduced, the chances of its drying out before the root grows to
sufficient depth in the soil are quite high
 PLANT PROPAGATION
2) Planting Nursery Raised Plant (Polypot seedling)
• It is method of replanting of grown up plant.
• A plant which is transplanted will inevitably suffer disruption of its
root system.
• Fibrous roots are easily damaged and quickly dry out when exposed
to the atmosphere.
• Large fleshy roots are more resistant to desiccation and therefore
regenerate more rapidly.
• Younger plant has higher probability to success.
PLANT PROPAGATION
 PLANT PROPAGATION
3) Planting cuttings
• A plant cutting is a piece of a plant that is used for plant propagation.
• A piece of the stem or root of the source plant is placed in a suitable
medium such as moist soil.
• If the conditions are suitable, the plant piece will begin to grow as a
new plant independent of the parent.
• Plants that are propagated vegetative (from cuttings) usually grow
faster and larger than those they raised from seed.
PLANT PROPAGATION