MODULE 1

Basic Concepts in the Development of Construction Plans

Construction Planning:
Basic Concepts in the Development of Construction Plans
Construction planning is a fundamental and challenging activity in the management and
execution of construction projects. It involves the choice of technology, the definition of work
tasks, the estimation of the required resources and durations for individual tasks, and the
identification of any interactions among the different work tasks. A good construction plan is the
basis for developing the budget and the schedule for work. Developing the construction plan is a
critical task in the management of construction, even if the plan is not written or otherwise
formally recorded. In addition to these technical aspects of construction planning, it may also be
necessary to make organizational decisions about the relationships between project participants
and even which organizations to include in a project. For example, the extent to which sub-
contractors will be used on a project is often determined during construction planning.

Forming a construction plan is a highly challenging task. As Sherlock Holmes noted:

Most people, if you describe a train of events to them, will tell you what the result would be.
They can put those events together in their minds, and argue from them that something will come
to pass. There are few people, however, who, if you told them a result, would be able to evolve
from their own inner consciousness what the steps were which led up to that result. This power is
what I mean when I talk of reasoning backward. [1]

Like a detective, a planner begins with a result (i.e. a facility design) and must synthesize the
steps required to yield this result. Essential aspects of construction planning include the
generation of required activities, analysis of the implications of these activities, and choice
among the various alternative means of performing activities. In contrast to a detective
discovering a single train of events, however, construction planners also face the normative
problem of choosing the best among numerous alternative plans. Moreover, a detective is faced
with an observable result, whereas a planner must imagine the final facility as described in the
plans and specifications.

In developing a construction plan, it is common to adopt a primary emphasis on either cost

control or on schedule control as illustrated in Fig. 9-1. Some projects are primarily divided into
expense categories with associated costs. In these cases, construction planning is cost or expense
oriented. Within the categories of expenditure, a distinction is made between costs incurred
directly in the performance of an activity and indirectly for the accomplishment of the project.
For example, borrowing expenses for project financing and overhead items are commonly
treated as indirect costs. For other projects, scheduling of work activities over time is critical and
is emphasized in the planning process. In this case, the planner insures that the proper
precedences among activities are maintained and that efficient scheduling of the available
resources prevails. Traditional scheduling procedures emphasize the maintenance of task
precedences (resulting in critical path scheduling procedures) or efficient use of resources over
time (resulting in job shop scheduling procedures). Finally, most complex projects require
consideration of both cost and scheduling over time, so that planning, monitoring and record
keeping must consider both dimensions. In these cases, the integration of schedule and budget
information is a major concern.

Construction planning is not an activity which is restricted to the period after the award of a
contract for construction. It should be an essential activity during the facility design. Also, if
problems arise during construction, re-planning is required.

Defining Work Tasks

At the same time that the choice of technology and general method are considered, a parallel step
in the planning process is to define the various work tasks that must be accomplished. These
work tasks represent the necessary framework to permit scheduling of construction activities,
along with estimating the resources required by the individual work tasks, and any necessary
precedences or required sequence among the tasks. The terms work "tasks" or "activities" are
often used interchangeably in construction plans to refer to specific, defined items of work. In
job shop or manufacturing terminology, a project would be called a "job" and an activity called
an "operation", but the sense of the terms is equivalent. The scheduling problem is to determine
an appropriate set of activity start time, resource allocations and completion times that will result
in completion of the project in a timely and efficient fashion. Construction planning is the
necessary fore-runner to scheduling. In this planning, defining work tasks, technology and
construction method is typically done either simultaneously or in a series of iterations.
The definition of appropriate work tasks can be a laborious and tedious process, yet it represents
the necessary information for application of formal scheduling procedures. Since construction
projects can involve thousands of individual work tasks, this definition phase can also be
expensive and time consuming. Fortunately, many tasks may be repeated in different parts of the
facility or past facility construction plans can be used as general models for new projects. For
example, the tasks involved in the construction of a building floor may be repeated with only
minor differences for each of the floors in the building. Also, standard definitions and
nomenclatures for most tasks exist. As a result, the individual planner defining work tasks does
not have to approach each facet of the project entirely from scratch.

While repetition of activities in different locations or reproduction of activities from past projects
reduces the work involved, there are very few computer aids for the process of defining
activities. Databases and information systems can assist in the storage and recall of the activities
associated with past projects. For the scheduling process itself, numerous computer programs are
available. But for the important task of defining activities, reliance on the skill, judgment and
experience of the construction planner is likely to continue.

More formally, an activity is any subdivision of project tasks. The set of activities defined for a
project should be comprehensive or completely exhaustive so that all necessary work tasks are
included in one or more activities. Typically, each design element in the planned facility will
have one or more associated project activities. Execution of an activity requires time and
resources, including manpower and equipment, as described in the next section. The time
required to perform an activity is called the duration of the activity. The beginning and the end
of activities are signposts or milestones, indicating the progress of the project. Occasionally, it is
useful to define activities which have no duration to mark important events. For example, receipt
of equipment on the construction site may be defined as an activity since other activities would
depend upon the equipment availability and the project manager might appreciate formal notice
of the arrival. Similarly, receipt of regulatory approvals would also be specially marked in the
project plan.

The extent of work involved in any one activity can vary tremendously in construction project
plans. Indeed, it is common to begin with fairly coarse definitions of activities and then to further
sub-divide tasks as the plan becomes better defined. As a result, the definition of activities
evolves during the preparation of the plan. A result of this process is a natural hierarchy of
activities with large, abstract functional activities repeatedly sub-divided into more and more
specific sub-tasks. For example, the problem of placing concrete on site would have sub-
activities associated with placing forms, installing reinforcing steel, pouring concrete, finishing
the concrete, removing forms and others. Even more specifically, sub-tasks such as removal and
cleaning of forms after concrete placement can be defined. Even further, the sub-task "clean
concrete forms" could be subdivided into the various operations:

 Transport forms from on-site storage and unload onto the cleaning station.
 Position forms on the cleaning station.
 Wash forms with water.
 Clean concrete debris from the form's surface.
 Coat the form surface with an oil release agent for the next use.
 Unload the form from the cleaning station and transport to the storage location.

This detailed task breakdown of the activity "clean concrete forms" would not generally be done
in standard construction planning, but it is essential in the process of programming or designing a
robot to undertake this activity since the various specific tasks must be well defined for a robot
implementation.

It is generally advantageous to introduce an explicit hierarchy of work activities for the purpose
of simplifying the presentation and development of a schedule. For example, the initial plan
might define a single activity associated with "site clearance." Later, this single activity might be
sub-divided into "re-locating utilities," "removing vegetation," "grading", etc. However, these
activities could continue to be identified as sub-activities under the general activity of "site
clearance." This hierarchical structure also facilitates the preparation of summary charts and
reports in which detailed operations are combined into aggregate or "super"-activities.

More formally, a hierarchical approach to work task definition decomposes the work activity into
component parts in the form of a tree. Higher levels in the tree represent decision nodes or
ummary activities, while branches in the tree lead to smaller components and work activities. A
variety of constraints among the various nodes may be defined or imposed, including precedence
relationships among different tasks as defined below. Technology choices may be decomposed to
decisions made at particular nodes in the tree. For example, choices on plumbing technology
might be made without reference to choices for other functional activities.

Of course, numerous different activity hierarchies can be defined for each construction plan. For
example, upper level activities might be related to facility components such as foundation
elements, and then lower level activity divisions into the required construction operations might
be made. Alternatively, upper level divisions might represent general types of activities such as
electrical work, while lower work divisions represent the application of these operations to
specific facility components. As a third alternative, initial divisions might represent different
spatial locations in the planned facility. The choice of a hierarchy depends upon the desired
scheme for summarizing work information and on the convenience of the planner. In
computerized databases, multiple hierarchies can be stored so that different aggregations or
views of the work breakdown structure can be obtained.

The number and detail of the activities in a construction plan is a matter of judgment or
convention. Construction plans can easily range between less than a hundred to many thousand
defined tasks, depending on the planner's decisions and the scope of the project. If subdivided
activities are too refined, the size of the network becomes unwieldy and the cost of planning
excessive. Sub-division yields no benefit if reasonably accurate estimates of activity durations
and the required resources cannot be made at the detailed work breakdown level. On the other
hand, if the specified activities are too coarse, it is impossible to develop realistic schedules and
details of resource requirements during the project. More detailed task definitions permit better
control and more realistic scheduling. It is useful to define separate work tasks for:

 those activities which involve different resources, or

 those activities which do not require continuous performance.
For example, the activity "prepare and check shop drawings" should be divided into a task for
preparation and a task for checking since different individuals are involved in the two tasks and
there may be a time lag between preparation and checking.

In practice, the proper level of detail will depend upon the size, importance and difficulty of the
project as well as the specific scheduling and accounting procedures which are adopted.
However, it is generally the case that most schedules are prepared with too little detail than too
much. It is important to keep in mind that task definition will serve as the basis for scheduling,
for communicating the construction plan and for construction monitoring. Completion of tasks
will also often serve as a basis for progress payments from the owner. Thus, more detailed task
definitions can be quite useful. But more detailed task breakdowns are only valuable to the extent
that the resources required, durations and activity relationships are realistically estimated for
each activity. Providing detailed work task breakdowns is not helpful without a commensurate
effort to provide realistic resource requirement estimates. As more powerful, computer-based
scheduling and monitoring procedures are introduced, the ease of defining and manipulating
tasks will increase, and the number of work tasks can reasonably be expected to expand.

Example 9-3: Task Definition for a Road Building Project

As an example of construction planning, suppose that we wish to develop a plan for a road
construction project including two culverts. Initially, we divide project activities into three
categories as shown in Figure 9-2: structures, roadway, and general. This division is based on
the major types of design elements to be constructed. Within the roadway work, a further
subdivision is into earthwork and pavement. Within these subdivisions, we identify clearing,
excavation, filling and finishing (including seeding and sodding) associated with earthwork, and
we define watering, compaction and paving sub-activities associated with pavement. Finally, we
note that the roadway segment is fairly long, and so individual activities can be defined for
different physical segments along the roadway path. In Figure 9-2, we divide each paving and
earthwork activity into activities specific to each of two roadway segments. For the culvert
construction, we define the sub-divisions of structural excavation, concreting, and reinforcing.
Even more specifically, structural excavation is divided into excavation itself and the required
backfill and compaction. Similarly, concreting is divided into placing concrete forms, pouring
concrete, stripping forms, and curing the concrete. As a final step in the structural planning,
detailed activities are defined for reinforcing each of the two culverts. General work activities
are defined for move in, general supervision, and clean up. As a result of this planning, over
thirty different detailed activities have been defined.

At the option of the planner, additional activities might also be defined for this project. For
example, materials ordering or lane striping might be included as separate activities. It might
also be the case that a planner would define a different hierarchy of work breakdowns than that
shown in Figure 9-2. For example, placing reinforcing might have been a sub-activity under
concreting for culverts. One reason for separating reinforcement placement might be to
emphasize the different material and resources required for this activity. Also, the division into
separate roadway segments and culverts might have been introduced early in the hierarchy. With
all these potential differences, the important aspect is to insure that all necessary activities are
included somewhere in the final plan.
 Figure 9-2 Illustrative Hierarchical Activity Divisions for a Roadway Project

Defining Precedence Relationships Among Activities

Once work activities have been defined, the relationships among the activities can be specified.
Precedence relations between activities signify that the activities must take place in a particular
sequence. Numerous natural sequences exist for construction activities due to requirements for
structural integrity, regulations, and other technical requirements. For example, design drawings
cannot be checked before they are drawn. Diagramatically, precedence relationships can be
illustrated by a network or graph in which the activities are represented by arrows as in Figure 9-
0. The arrows in Figure 9-3 are called branches or links in the activity network, while the circles
marking the beginning or end of each arrow are called nodes or events. In this figure, links
represent particular activities, while the nodes represent milestone events.
 Figure 9-3 Illustrative Set of Four Activities with Precedences

More complicated precedence relationships can also be specified. For example, one activity
might not be able to start for several days after the completion of another activity. As a common
example, concrete might have to cure (or set) for several days before formwork is removed. This
restriction on the removal of forms activity is called a lag between the completion of one activity
(i.e., pouring concrete in this case) and the start of another activity (i.e., removing formwork in
this case). Many computer based scheduling programs permit the use of a variety of precedence
relationships.

Three mistakes should be avoided in specifying predecessor relationships for construction plans.
First, a circle of activity precedences will result in an impossible plan. For example, if activity A
precedes activity B, activity B precedes activity C, and activity C precedes activity A, then the
project can never be started or completed! Figure 9-4 illustrates the resulting activity network.
Fortunately, formal scheduling methods and good computer scheduling programs will find any
such errors in the logic of the construction plan.

Figure 9-4 Example of an Impossible Work Plan

Forgetting a necessary precedence relationship can be more insidious. For example, suppose that
installation of dry wall should be done prior to floor finishing. Ignoring this precedence
relationship may result in both activities being scheduled at the same time. Corrections on the
spot may result in increased costs or problems of quality in the completed project. Unfortunately,
there are few ways in which precedence omissions can be found other than with checks by
knowledgeable managers or by comparison to comparable projects. One other possible but little
used mechanism for checking precedences is to conduct a physical or computer based simulation
of the construction process and observe any problems.
Finally, it is important to realize that different types of precedence relationships can be defined
and that each has different implications for the schedule of activities:

 Some activities have a necessary technical or physical relationship that cannot be superseded.
For example, concrete pours cannot proceed before formwork and reinforcement are in place.

 Some activities have a necessary precedence relationship over a continuous space rather than
as discrete work task relationships. For example, formwork may be placed in the first part of
an excavation trench even as the excavation equipment continues to work further along in the
trench. Formwork placement cannot proceed further than the excavation, but the two
activities can be started and stopped independently within this constraint.

 Some "precedence relationships" are not technically necessary but are imposed due to
implicit decisions within the construction plan. For example, two activities may require the
same piece of equipment so a precedence relationship might be defined between the two to
insure that they are not scheduled for the same time period. Which activity is scheduled first
is arbitrary. As a second example, reversing the sequence of two activities may be technically
possible but more expensive. In this case, the precedence relationship is not physically
necessary but only applied to reduce costs as perceived at the time of scheduling.

In revising schedules as work proceeds, it is important to realize that different types of

precedence relationships have quite different implications for the flexibility and cost of changing
the construction plan. Unfortunately, many formal scheduling systems do not possess the
capability of indicating this type of flexibility. As a result, the burden is placed upon the manager
of making such decisions and insuring realistic and effective schedules. With all the other
responsibilities of a project manager, it is no surprise that preparing or revising the formal,
computer based construction plan is a low priority to a manager in such cases. Nevertheless,
formal construction plans may be essential for good management of complicated projects.

Example 9-4: Precedence Definition for Site Preparation and Foundation Work

Suppose that a site preparation and concrete slab foundation construction project consists of nine
different activities:

A. Site clearing (of brush and minor debris),

B. Removal of trees,
C. General excavation,
D. Grading general area,
E. Excavation for utility trenches,
F. Placing formwork and reinforcement for concrete,
G. Installing sewer lines,
H. Installing other utilities,
I. Pouring concrete.

Activities A (site clearing) and B (tree removal) do not have preceding activities since they
depend on none of the other activities. We assume that activities C (general excavation) and D
(general grading) are preceded by activity A (site clearing). It might also be the case that the
planner wished to delay any excavation until trees were removed, so that B (tree removal) would
be a precedent activity to C (general excavation) and D (general grading). Activities E (trench
excavation) and F (concrete preparation) cannot begin until the completion of general excavation
and grading, since they involve subsequent excavation and trench preparation. Activities G
(install lines) and H (install utilities) represent installation in the utility trenches and cannot be
attempted until the trenches are prepared, so that activity E (trench excavation) is a preceding
activity. We also assume that the utilities should not be installed until grading is completed to
avoid equipment conflicts, so activity D (general grading) is also preceding activities G (install
sewers) and H (install utilities). Finally, activity I (pour concrete) cannot begin until the sewer
line is installed and formwork and reinforcement are ready, so activities F and G are preceding.
Other utilities may be routed over the slab foundation, so activity H (install utilities) is not
necessarily a preceding activity for activity I (pour concrete). The result of our planning are the
immediate precedences shown in Table 9-1.

TABLE 9-1 Precedence Relations for a Nine-Activity Project Example

Predecessors
Activity Description
A Site clearing ---
B Removal of trees ---
C General excavation AA
D Grading general area B,C
E Excavation for utility trenches B,C
F Placing formwork and reinforcement for concrete D,E
G Installing sewer lines D,E
H Installing other utilities F,G
I Pouring concrete

With this information, the next problem is to represent the activities in a network diagram and to
determine all the precedence relationships among the activities. One network representation of
these nine activities is shown in Figure 9-5, in which the activities appear as branches or links
between nodes. The nodes represent milestones of possible beginning and starting times. This
representation is called an activity-on-branch diagram. Note that an initial event beginning
activity is defined (Node 0 in Figure 9-5), while node 5 represents the completion of all
activities.
 Figure 9-5 Activity-on-Branch Representation of a Nine Activity Project

Alternatively, the nine activities could be represented by nodes and predecessor relationships by
branches or links, as in Figure 9-6. The result is an activity-on-node diagram. In Figure 9-6, new
activity nodes representing the beginning and the end of construction have been added to mark
these important milestones.

These network representations of activities can be very helpful in visualizing the various
activities and their relationships for a project. Whether activities are represented as branches (a
sin Figure 9-5) or as nodes (as in Figure 9-5) is largely a matter of organizational or personal
choice.

Figure 9-6 Activity-on-Node Representation of a Nine Activity Project

It is also notable that Table 9-1 lists only the immediate predecessor relationships. Clearly, there
are other precedence relationships which involve more than one activity. For example,
"installing sewer lines" (activity G) cannot be undertaken before "site clearing" (Activity A) is
complete since the activity "grading general area" (Activity D) must precede activity G and must
follow activity A. Table 9-1 is an implicit precedence list since only immediate predecessors are
recorded. An explicit predecessor list would include all of the preceding activities for activity G.
Table 9-2 shows all such predecessor relationships implied by the project plan. This table can be
produced by tracing all paths through the network back from a particular activity and can be
performed algorithmically. [7] For example, inspecting Figure 9-6 reveals that each activity
except for activity B depends upon the completion of activity A.
TABLE 9-2 All Activity Precedence Relationships for a Nine-Activity Project
Predecessor Activity Direct Successor Activities All Successor Activities All Predecessor
Activities

A C,D E,F,G,H,I ---

B E,F G,H,I ---
C E,F G,H,I AA
D G,H II A,B,C
E G,H --- A,B,C
F II --- A,B,C,D,E
G --- --- A,B,C,D,E
H --- --- A,B,C,D,E,F,G
I

Estimating Activity Durations

In most scheduling procedures, each work activity has associated time duration. These durations
are used extensively in preparing a schedule. For example, suppose that the durations shown in
Table 9-3 were estimated for the project diagrammed in Figure 9-0. The entire set of activities
would then require at least 3 days, since the activities follow one another directly and require a
total of 1.0 + 0.5 + 0.5 + 1.0 = 3 days. If another activity proceeded in parallel with this
sequence, the 3 day minimum duration of these four activities is unaffected. More than 3 days
would be required for the sequence if there was a delay or a lag between the completion of one
activity and the start of another.

TABLE 9-3 Durations and Predecessors for a Four Activity Project Illustration
Activity Predecessor Duration (Days)

Excavate trench --- 1.0

Place formwork Excavate trench 0.5
Place reinforcing Place formwork 0.5
Pour concrete Place reinforcing 1.0

All formal scheduling procedures rely upon estimates of the durations of the various project
activities as well as the definitions of the predecessor relationships among tasks. The variability
of an activity's duration may also be considered. Formally, the probability distribution of an
activity's duration as well as the expected or most likely duration may be used in scheduling. A
probability distribution indicates the chance that a particular activity duration will occur. In
advance of actually doing a particular task, we cannot be certain exactly how long the task will
require.
A straightforward approach to the estimation of activity durations is to keep historical records of
particular activities and rely on the average durations from this experience in making new
duration estimates. Since the scope of activities are unlikely to be identical between different
projects, unit productivity rates are typically employed for this purpose.
For example, the duration of an activity Dij such as concrete formwork assembly might be
estimated as:

(9.1)

where Aij is the required formwork area to assemble (in square yards), Pij is the average
productivity of a standard crew in this task (measured in square yards per hour), and Nij is the
number of crews assigned to the task. In some organizations, unit production time, Tij, is defined
as the time required to complete a unit of work by a standard crew (measured in hours per square
yards) is used as a productivity measure such that Tij is a reciprocal of Pij.

A formula such as Eq. (9.1) can be used for nearly all construction activities. Typically, the
required quantity of work, Aij is determined from detailed examination of the final facility
design. This quantity-take-off to obtain the required amounts of materials, volumes, and areas is
a very common process in bid preparation by contractors. In some countries, specialized quantity
surveyors provide the information on required quantities for all potential contractors and the
owner. The number of crews working, Nij, is decided by the planner. In many cases, the number
or amount of resources applied to particular activities may be modified in light of the resulting
project plan and schedule.

Finally, some estimate of the expected work productivity, Pij must be provided to apply Equation
(9.1). As with cost factors, commercial services can provide average productivity figures for
many standard activities of this sort. Historical records in a firm can also provide data for
estimation of productivities.

The calculation of a duration as in Equation (9.1) is only an approximation to the actual activity
duration for a number of reasons. First, it is usually the case that peculiarities of the project make
the accomplishment of a particular activity more or less difficult. For example, access to the
forms in a particular location may be difficult; as a result, the productivity of assembling forms
may be lower than the average value for a particular project. Often, adjustments based on
engineering judgment are made to the calculated durations from Equation (9.1) for this reason.

In addition, productivity rates may vary in both systematic and random fashions from the
average. An example of systematic variation is the effect of learning on productivity. As a crew
becomes familiar with an activity and the work habits of the crew, their productivity will
typically improve. Figure 9-7 illustrates the type of productivity increase that might occur with
experience; this curve is called a learning curve. The result is that productivity Pij is a function
of the duration of an activity or project. A common construction example is that the assembly of
floors in a building might go faster at higher levels due to improved productivity even though the
transportation time up to the active construction area is longer. Again, historical records or
subjective adjustments might be made to represent learning curve variations in average
productivity.

Figure 9-7 Illustration of Productivity Changes Due to Learning

Random factors will also influence productivity rates and make estimation of activity durations
uncertain. For example, a scheduler will typically not know at the time of making the initial
schedule how skillful the crew and manager will be that are assigned to a particular project. The
productivity of a skilled designer may be many times that of an unskilled engineer. In the
absence of specific knowledge, the estimator can only use average values of productivity.

Weather effects are often very important and thus deserve particular attention in estimating
durations. Weather has both systematic and random influences on activity durations. Whether or
not a rainstorm will come on a particular day is certainly a random effect that will influence the
productivity of many activities. However, the likelihood of a rainstorm is likely to vary
systematically from one month or one site to the next. Adjustment factors for inclement weather
as well as meteorological records can be used to incorporate the effects of weather on durations.
As a simple example, an activity might require ten days in perfect weather, but the activity could
not proceed in the rain. Furthermore, suppose that rain is expected ten percent of the days in a
particular month. In this case, the expected activity duration is eleven days including one
expected rain day.

Finally, the use of average productivity factors themselves cause problems in the calculation
presented in Equation (9.1). The expected value of the multiplicative reciprocal of a variable is
not exactly equal to the reciprocal of the variable's expected value. For example, if productivity
on an activity is either six in good weather (ie., P=6) or two in bad weather (ie., P=2) and good
or bad weather is equally likely, then the expected productivity is P = (6)(0.5) + (2)(0.5) = 4, and
the reciprocal of expected productivity is 1/4. However, the expected reciprocal of productivity
is E[1/P] = (0.5)/6 + (0.5)/2 = 1/3. The reciprocal of expected productivity is 25% less than the
expected value of the reciprocal in this case! By representing only two possible productivity
values, this example represents an extreme case, but it is always true that the use of average
productivity factors in Equation (9.1) will result in optimistic estimates of activity durations. The
use of actual averages for the reciprocals of productivity or small adjustment factors may be used
to correct for this nonlinearity problem.

The simple duration calculation shown in Equation (9.1) also assumes an inverse linear
relationship between the number of crews assigned to an activity and the total duration of work.
While this is a reasonable assumption in situations for which crews can work independently and
require no special coordination, it need not always be true. For example, design tasks may be
divided among numerous architects and engineers, but delays to insure proper coordination and
communication increase as the number of workers increase. As another example, insuring a
smooth flow of material to all crews on a site may be increasingly difficult as the number of
crews increase. In these latter cases, the relationship between activity duration and the number of
crews is unlikely to be inversely proportional as shown in Equation (9.1). As a result,
adjustments to the estimated productivity from Equation (9.1) must be made. Alternatively, more
complicated functional relationships might be estimated between duration and resources used in
the same way that nonlinear preliminary or conceptual cost estimate models are prepared.

One mechanism to formalize the estimation of activity durations is to employ a hierarchical

estimation framework. This approach decomposes the estimation problem into component parts
in which the higher levels in the hierarchy represent attributes which depend upon the details of
lower level adjustments and calculations. For example, Figure 9-8 represents various levels in
the estimation of the duration of masonry construction. At the lowest level, the maximum
productivity for the activity is estimated based upon general work conditions. Table 9-4
illustrates some possible maximum productivity values that might be employed in this
estimation. At the next higher level, adjustments to these maximum productivities are made to
account for special site conditions and crew compositions; table 9-5 illustrates some possible
adjustment rules. At the highest level, adjustments for overall effects such as weather are
introduced. Also shown in Figure 9-8 are nodes to estimate down or unproductive time
associated with the masonry construction activity. The formalization of the estimation process
illustrated in Figure 9-8 permits the development of computer aids for the estimation process or
can serve as a conceptual framework for a human estimator.
TABLE 9-5 Possible Adjustments to Maximum Productivities for Masonry Construction/caption

Figure 9-8 A Hierarchical Estimation Framework for Masonry Construction

In addition to the problem of estimating the expected duration of an activity, some scheduling
procedures explicitly consider the uncertainty in activity duration estimates by using the
probabilistic distribution of activity durations. That is, the duration of a particular activity is
assumed to be a random variable that is distributed in a particular fashion. For example, an
activity duration might be assumed to be distributed as a normal or a beta distributed random
variable as illustrated in Figure 9-9. This figure shows the probability or chance of experiencing
a particular activity duration based on a probabilistic distribution. The beta distribution is often
used to characterize activity durations, since it can have an absolute minimum and an absolute
maximum of possible duration times. The normal distribution is a good approximation to the
beta distribution in the center of the distribution and is easy to work with, so it is often used as an
approximation.

If a standard random variable is used to characterize the distribution of activity durations, then
only a few parameters are required to calculate the probability of any particular duration. Still,
the estimation problem is increased considerably since more than one parameter is required to
Characterize most of the probabilistic distribution used to represent activity durations. For the
beta distribution, three or four parameters are required depending on its generality, whereas the
normal distribution requires two parameters.

As an example, the normal distribution is characterized by two parameters µ and σ and

representing the average duration and the standard deviation of the duration, respectively.
Alternatively, the variance of the distribution σ2 could be used to describe or characterize the
variability of duration times; the variance is the value of the standard deviation multiplied by
itself. From historical data, these two parameters can be estimated as:
where we assume that n different observations xk of the random variable x are available. This
estimation process might be applied to activity durations directly (so that xk would be a record of
an activity duration Dij on a past project) or to the estimation of the distribution of productivities
(so that xk would be a record of the productivity in an activity Pi) on a past project) which, in
turn, is used to estimate durations using Equation (9.4). If more accuracy is desired, the
estimation equations for mean and standard deviation, Equations (9.2) and (9.3) would be used to
estimate the mean and standard deviation of the reciprocal of productivity to avoid non-linear
effects. Using estimates of productivities, the standard deviation of activity duration would be
calculated as:

where is the estimated standard deviation of the reciprocal of productivity that is calculated
from Equation (9.3) by substituting 1/P for x.

Estimating Resource Requirements for Work Activities

In addition to precedence relationships and time durations, resource requirements are usually
estimated for each activity. Since the work activities defined for a project are comprehensive, the
total resources required for the project are the sum of the resources required for the various
activities. By making resource requirement estimates for each activity, the requirements for
particular resources during the course of the project can be identified. Potential bottlenecks can
thus be identified, and schedule, resource allocation or technology changes made to avoid
problems.

Many formal scheduling procedures can incorporate constraints imposed by the availability of
particular resources. For example, the unavailability of a specific piece of equipment or crew
may prohibit activities from being undertaken at a particular time. Another type of resource is
space. A planner typically will schedule only one activity in the same location at the same time.
While activities requiring the same space may have no necessary technical precedence,
simultaneous work might not be possible.

The initial problem in estimating resource requirements is to decide the extent and number of
resources that might be defined. At a very aggregate level, resources categories might be limited
to the amount of labor (measured in man-hours or in dollars), the amount of materials required
for an activity, and the total cost of the activity. At this aggregate level, the resource estimates
may be useful for purposes of project monitoring and cash flow planning. For example, actual
expenditures on an activity can be compared with the estimated required resources to reveal any
problems that are being encountered during the course of a project. However, this aggregate
definition of resource use would not reveal bottlenecks associated with particular types of
equipment or workers.

More detailed definitions of required resources would include the number and type of both
workers and equipment required by an activity as well as the amount and types of materials.
Standard resource requirements for particular activities can be recorded and adjusted for the
special conditions of particular projects. As a result, the resources types required for particular
activities may already be defined. Reliance on historical or standard activity definitions of this
type requires a standard coding system for activities.

In making adjustments for the resources required by a particular activity, most of the problems
encountered in forming duration estimations described in the previous section are also present. In
particular, resources such as labor requirements will vary in proportion to the work productivity,
Pij, used to estimate activity durations in Equation (9.1). Mathematically, a typical estimating
equation would be:

where R k ij are the resources of type k required by activity ij

Dij is the duration of activity ij
Nij is the number of standard crews allocated to activity ij, and
Ukij is the amount of resource type k used per standard crew.

For example, if an activity required eight hours with two crews assigned and each crew
required three workers, the effort would be R = 8*2*3 = 48 labor-hours.

From the planning perspective, the important decisions in estimating resource requirements are
to determine the type of technology and equipment to employ and the number of crews to
allocate to each task. Clearly, assigning additional crews might result in faster completion of a
particular activity. However, additional crews might result in congestion and coordination
problems, so that work productivity might decline. Further, completing a particular activity
earlier might not result in earlier completion of the entire project.

Example 9-5: Resource Requirements for Block Foundations

In placing concrete block foundation walls, a typical crew would consist of three bricklayers and
two bricklayer helpers. If sufficient space was available on the site, several crews could work on
the same job at the same time, thereby speeding up completion of the activity in proportion to the
number of crews. In more restricted sites, multiple crews might interfere with one another. For
special considerations such as complicated scaffolding or large blocks (such as twelve inch
block), a bricklayer helper for each bricklayer might be required to insure smooth and productive
work. In general, standard crew composition depends upon the specific construction task and the
equipment or technology employed. These standard crews are then adjusted in response to
special characteristics of a particular site.

Example 9-6: Pouring Concrete Slabs

For large concrete pours on horizontal slabs, it is important to plan the activity so that the slab
for a full block can be completed continuously in a single day. Resources required for pouring
the concrete depend upon the technology used. For example, a standard crew for pumping
concrete to the slab might include a foreman, five laborers, one finisher, and one equipment
operator. Related equipment would be vibrators and the concrete pump itself. For delivering
concrete with a chute directly from the delivery truck, the standard crew might consist of a
foreman, four laborers and a finisher. The number of crews would be chosen to insure that the
desired amount of concrete could be placed in a single day. In addition to the resources involved
in the actual placement, it would also be necessary to insure a sufficient number of delivery
trucks and availability of the concrete itself.

9.7 Coding Systems

One objective in many construction planning efforts is to define the plan within the constraints of
a universal coding system for identifying activities. Each activity defined for a project would be
identified by a pre-defined code specific to that activity. The use of a common nomenclature or
identification system is basically motivated by the desire for better integration of organizational
efforts and improved information flow. In particular, coding systems are adopted to provide a
numbering system to replace verbal descriptions of items. These codes reduce the length or
complexity of the information to be recorded. A common coding system within an organization
also aids consistency in definitions and categories between projects and among the various
parties involved in a project. Common coding systems also aid in the retrieval of historical
records of cost, productivity and duration on particular activities. Finally, electronic data storage
and retrieval operations are much more efficient with standard coding systems.

In North America, the most widely used standard coding system for constructed facilities is the
MASTERFORMAT system developed by the Construction Specifications Institute (CSI) of the
United States and Construction Specifications of Canada. After development of separate
systems, this combined system was originally introduced as the Uniform Construction Index
(UCI) in 1972 and was subsequently adopted for use by numerous firms, information providers,
professional societies and trade organizations. The term MASTERFORMAT was introduced
with the 1978 revision of the UCI codes. MASTERFORMAT provides a standard identification
code for nearly all the elements associated with building construction.

MASTERFORMAT involves a hierarchical coding system with multiple levels plus keyword
text descriptions of each item. In the numerical coding system, the first two digits represent one
of the sixteen divisions for work; a seventeenth division is used to code conditions of the contract
for a constructor. In the latest version of the MASTERFORMAT, a third digit is added to
indicate a subdivision within each division. Each division is further specified by a three digit
extension indicating another level of subdivisions. In many cases, these subdivisions are further
divided with an additional three digits to identify more specific work items or materials. For
example, the code 16- 950-960, "Electrical Equipment Testing" are defined as within Division 16
(Electrical) and Sub- Division 950 (Testing). The keywords "Electrical Equipment Testing" is a
standard description of the activity. The seventeen major divisions in the UCI/CSI
MASTERFORMAT system are shown in Table 9-6. As an example, site work second level
divisions are shown in Table 9-7.

TABLE 9-6 Major Divisions in the Uniform Construction Index

0 Conditions of the contract
9 Finishes
1 General requirements
10 Specialties
2 Site work
11 Equipment
3 Concrete
12 Furnishings
4 Masonry
13 Special construction
5 Metals
14 Conveying system
6 Wood and plastics
15 Mechanical
7 Thermal and moisture prevention
16 Electrical
8 Doors and windows

While MASTERFORMAT provides a very useful means of organizing and communicating

information, it has some obvious limitations as a complete project coding system. First, more
specific information such as location of work or responsible organization might be required for
project cost control. Code extensions are then added in addition to the digits in the basic
MASTERFORMAT codes. For example, a typical extended code might have the following
elements:

0534.02220.21.A.00.cf34

The first four digits indicate the project for this activity; this code refers to an activity on project
number 0534. The next five digits refer to the MASTERFORMAT secondary division; referring
to Table 9-7, this activity would be 02220 "Excavating, Backfilling and Compacting." The next
two digits refer to specific activities defined within this MASTERFORMAT code; the digits 21
in this example might refer to excavation of column footings. The next character refers to the
block or general area on the site that the activity will take place; in this case, block A is
indicated. The digits 00 could be replaced by a code to indicate the responsible organization for
the activity. Finally, the characters cf34 refer to the particular design element number for which
this excavation is intended; in this case, column footing number 34 is intended. Thus, this
activity is to perform the excavation for column footing number 34 in block A on the site. Note
that a number of additional activities would be associated with column footing 34, including
formwork and concreting. Additional fields in the coding systems might also be added to
indicate the responsible crew for this activity or to identify the specific location of the activity on
the site (defined, for example, as x, y and z coordinates with respect to a base point).

As a second problem, the MASTERFORMAT system was originally designed for building
construction activities, so it is difficult to include various construction activities for other types
of facilities or activities associated with planning or design. Different coding systems have been
provided by other organizations in particular sub-fields such as power plants or roadways.
Nevertheless, MASTERFORMAT provides a useful starting point for organizing information in
different construction domains.
In devising organizational codes for project activities, there is a continual tension between
adopting systems that are convenient or expedient for one project or for one project manager and
systems appropriate for an entire organization. As a general rule, the record keeping and
communication advantages of standard systems are excellent arguments for their adoption. Even
in small projects, however, ad hoc or haphazard coding systems can lead to problems as the
system is revised and extended over time.

TABLE 9-7 Secondary Divisions in MASTERFORMAT for Site Work

02-010 Subsurface investigation 02-350 Piles and caissons
02-012 Standard penetration tests 02-355 Pile driving
02-016 Seismic investigation 02-360 Driven piles
02-370 Bored/augered piles
02-380 Caissons

02-050 Demolition 02-450 Railroad work

02-060 Building demolition
02-070 Selective demolition
02-075 Concrete removal

02-080 Asbestos removal 02-480 Marine work

02-100 Site preparation 02-500 Paving and surfacing

02-110 Site clearing 02-510 Walk, road and parking paving
02-115 Selective clearing 02-515 Unit pavers
02-120 Structure moving 02-525 Curbs
02-530 Athletic paving and surfacing
02-540 Synthetic surfacing
02-545 Surfacing
02-550 Highway paving
02-560 Airfield paving
02-575 Pavement repair
02-580 Pavement marking

02-140 Dewatering 02-600 Piped utility materials

02-150 Shoring and underpinning 02-660 Water distribution

02-160 Excavation supporting system 02-680 Fuel distribution

02-170 Cofferdams 02-700 Sewage and drainage

02-200 Earthwork 02-760 Restoration of underground

02-210 Grading pipelines
02-220 Excavating, backfilling and
 02-230 compaction 02-770 Ponds and reservoirs
02-240 Base course
02-250 Soil stabilization
02-270 Vibro-floatation 02-800 Power and communications
02-280 Slope protection
02-290 Soil treatment
Earth dams

02-300 Tunneling 02-880 Site improvements

02-305 Tunnel ventilation
02-310 Tunnel excavating
02-320 Tunnel lining 02-900 Landscaping
02-330 Tunnel grouting
02-340 Tunnel support systems