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INTRODUCTION TO HISTROY

Definition of History

History is commonly defined as the study of the story of the past. Some have defined history as
they study of the past so as to understand the present and inform the future.

Interpretations of History

History has over the years been subjected to varying degrees of analysis and/ or interrogation
by historians from different walks of life. The different analyses have tended to result in
different versions of the same history/ historical fact being produced. This thus shows that there

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are different interpretations of history. It is for this reason that it is important to use different
sources of history whenever we study the subject.

Sources of History

There are two major sources of historical information. These are primary and secondary
sources.

Primary Sources of Historical Information

Primary sources are documents, images or artefacts that provide first-hand information about a
historical topic. Primary sources are original documents created at the same time/ era
(contemporaneously) with the event being researched or investigated. These sources enable
historians to get as close as possible to what actually happened during an historical event or
time period.

Examples of Primary Sources of Historical Information

• photographs
• audio recordings
• video recordings
• eye witness accounts
• letters
• diaries
• government publications
• oral history/ traditions
• autobiographies
• artefacts /archaeological remains such as clothing, costumes, furniture

Validity/ Accuracy of Primary Sources of Historical Information

1) Oral History/ tradition

This refers to the story of the past that has been passed from one generation to the
other by word of mouth. One example of an oral tradition is the story of Matsieng which
seeks to explain the origins of the Tswana.

Oral traditions are important because they provide information about a topic or time
period that may otherwise lack documentation in written or archival records. This is
particularly the case in societies that did not preserve their past in writing.

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 Even though oral history is a useful piece of historical information/ knowledge, it can be
easily distorted by some people for personal gain. Sometimes the distortion comes from
the fact that people who know oral history are usually old and therefore tend to forget
some useful information. Oral traditions also do not provide exact dates about events
that occurred in the past. This thus brings their validity into doubt.

2) Archaeology refers to the study of material culture, that is, objects that people who lived
years ago left behind. These objects/ items include pottery, stone tools, ash, hut floors,
iron tools, animal bones among others.

Archaeological remains help historians and archaeologists to recreate the lives of

societies that existed before the introduction of writing, especially among African
societies.

Even though archaeology is a useful source of historical information, it should not be

relied solely upon. This is because some material culture such as animal bones and plant
matter that are older than 50 000 years cannot be dated accurately.

3) Art is an important primary source of historical knowledge. Forms of art such as

paintings, drawings, engravings and sculptures can provide useful information about
beliefs, practices and activities of some societies. Most of our knowledge about Stone
Age societies was derived from the rock paintings and engravings they left in places such
as the Tsodilo hills.

Stone Age societies did not keep written records before contact with Europeans. They
used paintings and engravings to preserve their history.

Art should however, be used with other forms of historical knowledge in recreating the
histories of Stone Age peoples. This is because what the artists drew was merely what
appealed to them and not a complete picture of what life was like in their societies.

Secondary Sources of Historical Information

These are sources of historical information that contain second- hand information. This
information is mainly interpretations of historical events by authors of history books.

Examples of Secondary Sources of Historical Information

• History books
• journal articles

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 • published speeches
• book reviews
• research reports
Validity of Secondary Sources of Historical Knowledge

Secondary sources of historical knowledge provide accurate dates. The events being talked
about are usually given numerical dates thus making them believable, for example,
Botswana attained her independence in 1966.

It is worth noting that some secondary sources of information are biased. This is because some
historians, especially from Europe tend to present a version of history about Africans that seeks
to portray Africans in certain ways. Such types of history are a distortion of historical fact.

REVISION QUESTIONS

(a) State any four examples of primary sources of historical information [4]

(a) Describe any two examples of secondary sources of historical information [4]

(b) Explain any two weaknesses of oral

traditions [6]

(b) Explain any two reasons why secondary sources of historical information are important [6]

ORIGINS OF HUMANKIND

Traditional/ Indigenous/ Cultural

Explanations

In the distant past Africans developed stories/ myths that attempted to explain the origins of
humankind. These stories were not written down but were instead passed from one generation
to the other through the word of mouth.

All traditional explanations suggest that a super natural force or person was responsible for the
coming into existence of humankind and life in general on earth.

These explanations further show that humankind had the power to dominate all other forms of
life on earth.

Below are examples of traditional explanations on the origins of humankind.

[Objective: Describe the indigenous and cultural explanations of the origins of humankind.]

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Origins of the Tswana

“Long, long ago in the time of Lowe when the rocks were still soft, our ancestor, the one
legged giant, Matsieng, lived below the ground with his people, cattle and wild animals. One
day he heard a bird calling above him and, looking up, saw the sky through a hole. He climbed
up through the hole and was followed by his people, cattle and the wild animals”.

The Tswana believed that human beings were descendent from a one legged giant called
Matsieng. Matsieng was believed to have inhabited the underground world. This was a very
long time ago during the time of Lowe when rocks were still soft. This giant later on emerged
out of his underground world.

The Tswana believed that before Matsieng came out of his underground world there was no
human life on earth. All human beings lived in the underground world. According to this
explanation, Matsieng was the first person to come out of the underground world. He was later
followed by his people, domesticated animals and plants. As the rocks were still soft Matsieng’s
feet sank into them and the foot prints hardened over time. The foot prints/ marks found on
the rocks in Rasesa are believed to have been Matsieng’s.

Origins of the Herero

“A very long time ago, at the beginning of time, there were no human beings on earth. The
only form of life found on earth was the tree of life. All forms of life were contained in this
tree. Mukuru then made a hole in this tree and out came a man, woman and livestock”.

The Herero believed that a very long time ago there was only a tree of life on earth. This tree
was known as “Omuborumbonga” (Motswere). The Herero believed that all living things were
contained in this tree. According to this story a super natural being, Mukuru, at some point
made a hole in the tree of life. Human beings then came out of this hole and thereafter they
were followed by different animals and plants.

This explanation indicates that a man was the first person to emerge out of the tree of life. He
was then followed by a woman and finally all the different plants and animals.

Origins of the Hambukushu

The Hambukushu believed that a very long time ago there was no life on earth. At some point
a man and his cattle were lowered from the upper sky to the summit of the Tsodilo Hills with a
rope. Humankind is believed to have inhabited the earth for the first time after they were
lowered on the top of the Tsodilo hills.

The Hambukushu believed that the grooves in the rocks at Tsodilo hills were made by the cattle
as they were being lowered on earth.
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Origins of the Zulu

“Long time ago, there were no people on earth. God, Unkulunkulu [the Great One] then
created mankind from the reed. After God had created human beings, he gave them the sun
and the moon to be their light so that they could see. Then God created cattle and said, ‘let
them be your food, eat their flesh and drink their milk’”.

The Zulu believed that a very long time ago there was no human life on earth. According to the
Zulu myth of the origins of humankind, humankind was created from a reed by a super natural
being,
“Unkulunkulu” (the great one).

The story further indicates that after Unkulunkulu had created humankind he provided him with
animals, plants, the sun and the moon. The Zulu therefore believe that Unkulunkulu was the
originator of all forms of life.

Observations

➢ All traditional explanations suggest that a supernatural being was responsible for the
coming into existence of humankind and life in general.
➢ They also claim that of all living things found on earth, people (human beings) were the
first to come into existence. This may suggest that people are superior to other forms of

life and therefore have the power over them and hence they could use them as they
please.
➢ Traditional explanations also indicate that a man was the first human being to come into
existence and also inhabit the earth. This probably is meant to justify men’s dominance
over women.
➢ Events being talked about in cultural explanations do not have specific time frames (lack
numerical dating). They do not state exactly when. for example Matsieng emerged from
his underground world. They instead only indicate that events occurred “a very long time
ago”, “during the time of Lowe” or “at the beginning of time”.
➢ The stories are many and regional. They are mainly specific to particular areas and
communities as for example the Herero, Tswana, Hambukushu and Zulu have their own
explanation. This has therefore resulted in traditional explanations lacking universal
appeal.

Religious Explanations

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[Objective: Describe the major religious explanations of the origins of humankind.] Christian
Explanation (Christianity)

“Let us make man in our own image, after our likeness. So God created man in his own image,
male and female he created them. And God blessed them and said to them, ‘Be fruitful and
multiply, and fill the earth and subdue it; and have dominion over the fish of the sea and over
the birds of the air and over every living thing that moves upon the earth”.

Christians believe in the biblical story of creation. Christians believe that humankind was
created by a supreme known as God. In fact, they believe that this god created the universe and
everything living found in it.

The creation explanation indicates that god created humankind in his own image. It also
suggests that a man, who was given the name Adam, was created first and sometime
afterwards, his female companion, Eve, was eventually created.

Islamic Explanation

“O mankind! Worship your Lord who hath created you and those before you, so that you may
ward off evil. Who hath appointed the earth a resting place for you and the sky a canopy and
causeth water to pour down from the sky thereby producing fruits for you.”

Muslims believe that humankind was created by a god called Allah. This explanation states that
the first human being was created from seven (7) soils from different geographic areas.

Observations

➢ Religious explanations attribute the origins of human life to a supreme being (God, Allah).
This Supreme Being is believed to be monotheistic

(he is the only god and there is no any other god above him).

Scientific Explanation

[Objective: Describe major scientific theories of the origins of humankind.]

Scientists believe that human beings came into existence through the process of evolution. This
theory maintains that living things evolved from non-living matter and changed through the
ages to more complex living things. This means that living things evolved from simple to
complex forms. The theory of evolution was developed by Charles Darwin in 1859.

Evolution refers to the gradual (slow) physical and genetic (chemical) modifications (changes)
which take place in living things.

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The theory of evolution is therefore the belief that living things (human beings and plants)
developed through a gradual (slow) process of physical and genetic (chemical) changes.

The theory of evolution attempts to show how changes in the environment followed each other
and how these changes finally led to the emergence of new kinds of living things which were
different from their ancestors.

The theory of evolution further shows that human beings developed from hominids (earlier
human like creatures) millions of years ago. According to this theory, the earliest human beings
were subjected to slow physical and genetic changes until they ultimately developed into
modern human beings.

Key points about Theory of Evolution

Adaptation is one of the key points of the theory of evolution. According to the theory of
evolution living things found in a new environment must undergo changes themselves if they
are to survive in that environment. These changes will enable them to fit in the new
environment.

There is also natural selection which is also known as survival of the fittest. Natural selection is
a process through which organisms best suited to their environment become the most likely to
survive. Natural selection suggests that all organisms are in a continuous struggle for survival.
Organisms which are able to develop new characteristics survive and have great reproduction
potential. Once they reproduce, they pass on survival traits to their offspring. Those who fail to
develop new characteristics die and become extinct. Natural selection becomes survival of the
fittest because it is nature which actually selects the fittest for survival and discards the weak for
extinction.

Speciation is another key point of the theory of evolution. This is a process by which several
species develop from one common ancestor and separate into several populations. These
populations will then become isolated and begin to develop different traits through the process
of natural selection.

There is also heredity. This is the process of passing on survival traits by parents to their young
ones. Once the young ones have acquired these characteristics, they will now be equipped with
tools which will enable them to survive in their environment.

Africa is probably the cradle of humanity. Charles Darwin suggested that the earliest forms of
human beings developed first in Africa. After a period of time which was followed by major
evolutionary developments, newer forms of human beings evolved, for example, the Homo
erectus, which was the first to migrate from Africa to other continents

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Finally, there is extinction. If organisms fail to adapt to their environment they die and become
extinct. Extinction will affect organisms which would have failed to develop new physical and
genetic changes necessary for survival in a new environment.

WHY IS THE THEORY OF EVOLUTION A CONVINCING EXPLANATION ON THE ORIGINS OF

HUMANITY?

The theory of evolution is a convincing explanation on the origins of humanity because it has
been supported by archaeological evidence. This evidence is in the form of the earliest/ oldest
remains of the earliest/oldest tools used by humanity. These tools, known as Oldowan tools, are
believed to have been made by the Homo habilis.

Palaeontological evidence also makes the theory of evolution convincing. This evidence is in the
form of the earliest remnants of the earliest forms of human beings. This evidence consists of
the skeletal remains of the Australopithecus, Homo habilis and Homo erectus.

Scientific evidence is also convincing as it has been supported by the mother- tongue theory.
This theory suggests that the earliest forms of language are those that are indigenous to the
African continent.

IS AFRICA THE CRADLE OF HUMANITY?

Africa is believed to be the cradle (birthplace/ original home) of humankind because of scientific
evidence. This evidence is in the form of biological studies. After studying genes of human
beings, biologists discovered that indigenous Africans have the oldest gene patterns when
compared to Caucasians (Europeans) and Mongols
(Asians). From this evidence, it can therefore be concluded that Africa is the birthplace of
humankind as its indigenous people are the oldest.

It is also believed that Africa is the cradle of humanity because of linguistic evidence. This
evidence is known as the mother- tongue theory. According to this evidence/ theory, indigenous
African languages are the oldest languages spoken today while Caucasian and Mongol languages
are fairly recent. If indigenous African languages are the earliest forms of language, then it
follows that Africa is the cradle of humanity.

Africa is also thought to be the homeplace of humanity because of its suitable climatic
conditions. Unlike Europe and Asia, for example, the African continent did not experience
adverse/ extreme climatic conditions for long periods of time. As the earliest forms of human
beings such as the Australopithecus and the Homo habilis did not have the ability to make fire
or construct shelter, it would have been impossible for them to survival in areas that
experienced adverse climatic conditions for prolonged periods of time such as Europe and Asia.

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It is therefore reasonable to conclude that human beings developed in Africa before spreading
to other parts of the world.

Archaeological evidence has also been used to explain why Africa should be viewed as the
cradle of humanity. This evidence is in the form of the earliest/ oldest tools ever used by
humankind. The earliest humanmade tools, called Oldowan tools, have only been found in
Africa. These tools were found mostly in East Africa in places such as Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania.
As these tools have only been found in Africa, it is reasonable to conclude that human beings
developed in Africa before migrating to other parts of the world.

Paleontological evidence has also been used as evidence to support the view that Africa is the
cradle of humanity. This evidence is in the form of the earliest/ oldest skeletal remains of the
Australopithecus and Homo habilis. The oldest remains of the Australopithecus were found in
Taung, South Africa. The earliest remains of Homo habilis have been found in Olduvai Gorge. It
should also be noted that even though the remains of the Homo erectus have been found in
Europe and Asia, these remains were not older than those found in Africa in places such as
Hadar, Ethiopia. As these remains have only been found in Africa, it follows that Africa is the
original birthplace of humanity.

STAGES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Introduction

Scientists believe that millions of years ago there were no human beings on earth. They only
came into existence after they evolved from the primate family of hominids. These hominids
were forced to adapt to their continually changing environment and climate.

The early hominids were used to the tropical forests and as these forests began to disappear,
they found themselves in an entirely new environment. The changes in the environment were
brought about by changes in the climate. The climatic changes led to the emergence of open
grasslands. The hominids as a result began to learn to stand upright and later began to walk on
two legs. This was the beginning of bipedal locomotion.

Bipedal locomotion brought about the following benefits to the hominids:

➢ Ability to spot predators while they were still far away;

➢ Increased mobility;
➢ Enhanced defence skills;

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 ➢ Hands became adapted for other functions, for example picking fruits, making and using
tools.

It is generally accepted that due to changes in the environment and the climate the earliest
hominids underwent five distinct stages of evolution. These are described immediately below.

The first stage of human development was characterised by the emergence of the
Australopithecines also known as the Southern Ape. The Australopithecus walked on two legs
on the open plains during the day and spent the night on tree tops away from predators.

The Australopithecus was smaller than the modern human being. On average adult
Australopithecines stood between 105cm- 135cm and weighed between 26kg- 45kg. Their light
body weight enabled them to easily climb and sleep on trees. The ability to easily climb trees
was also enhanced by their long arms. Furthermore, they had a fully developed hand like
structure on their forelimbs and this also enabled them to climb trees easily. The hand like
structure also enabled them to pick food on the open plains during the day.

Australopithecines also had small brain capacities which measured about 400cc. Because of
their small brain size, the Australopithecines could not make tools. They also had large flat
topped teeth and long jaws which were well suited for grinding (chewing) up hard food.

There is overwhelming evidence of the existence of the Australopithecines in Africa. In 1924

the fossils (remains) of an Australopithecus was found in Taung, South Africa, by Raymond Dart.
Many other discoveries of the remains of the
Australopithecines have also been found in the East African rift valley.

The oldest remains of this hominid indicate that they lived between 3 and 4 million years ago
and these oldest remains were only discovered on the African continent. The discovery of
theses remains, dating about 4 million years has made some scholars (scientists) to conclude
that human beings first emerged in Africa, that is, Africa is the cradle (home place) of humanity.

The second stage of the development of humankind was represented by the Homo habilis
also known as the handy/ clever man. This hominid emerged between 2.5 and 1.5 million
years ago. The remains of the Homo habilis were discovered in Olduvai Gorge in 1962 by
Jonathan Leakey. Other discoveries were also made in Lake Turkana.

The Homo habilis had a brain capacity of between 500cc and 600cc. Because of his bigger brain,
the Homo habilis could make and use simple tools from stone and wood. He produced stone
tools by knocking off flakes from pebbles to produce sharp edges. The flakes were probably
used as cutting tools. The tools produced by the Homo habilis have come to be known as
Oldowan tools as they were first excavated at Olduvai Gorge.

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The Homo habilis walked upright and this freed his arms for activities such as tool making. He
also had a flatter face and smaller teeth. The smaller teeth were adapted to eating meat
scavenged from the kills of other animals.

The Homo erectus who was also known as the upright man represented the third stage of the
development of humankind. This hominid emerged about 1.8 million years ago. He stood at
180cm and weighed about 65kg- 70kg.

The Homo erectus had a brain capacity of about 900cc. Because of their large brains, the Homo
erectus made more refined tools such as the hand axe. They made various tools for different
purposes. These tools are today referred to as early Stone Age tools. Early Stone Age tools were
first found in the French village of St. Acheul and they have since come to be known as
Acheulian tools. Other early Stone Age tools have since been found in Botswana in several
places such as Okwa River, Lake Ngami and Boteti River.

The Homo erectus also had the ability to make and use fire. This was probably because of their
great intelligence. The Homo erectus might have used fire to keep warm, roast meat and to
scare away predators at night. The Homo erectus might have ceased to sleep in trees because
of the use of fire.

The Homo erectus may have primarily communicated through gestures with the head and
hands. They may also have had communicated by making sounds through their mouths.
Communications was important to the Homo erectus as they had plans which they had to carry
out together.

The Homo erectus had large teeth and long jaws. These features were well suited to a diet of
meat. Meat could have been obtained by chasing predators such as lions from their kills and
also by catching small animals such as young antelope, tortoises and mice.

It is believed that it was during the time of the Homo erectus that humankind began to migrate
to other continents. This is because tools which are believed to have been made by the Homo
erectus have been found in Asia, China and Europe.

Racial variations are also traced to the time of migration to other continents. This is because
the Homo erectus which were found in other continents had well pronounced differences in
pigmentation. These changes were mainly a result of adaptive modifications to different
climatic conditions.

The fourth stage of the development of humankind was represented by the Homo sapiens
who was also known as the knowledgeable man.

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The Homo sapiens had a brain capacity of about 1400cc. This enabled them to make a variety
of tools. They made long thin blades which may have been used as knives, scrapping tools,
adzes, hammers, small points which may have been used for drilling holes and as spearheads.
Some of these may have been fixed (hefted/ mounted) into wooden handles to produce spears
for example. The Homo sapiens also made the hand axe but it was much smaller. The tools
which were produced during this era have come to be known as Middle Stone Age tools.

The Homo sapiens also knew how to make fire. This can be associated to their bigger brain
capacities.

As the Homo sapiens were extremely intelligent, they constructed their own shelter, mainly out
of grass and tree branches. Other Homo sapiens may have used stone to construct their own
shelter. Communication was vital during the construction of shelter and hence the Homo
sapiens communicated through language.

Homo sapiens walked on two legs like modern human beings. They like modern people used
the big toe to spring forward from step to step.

The final stage of human development is represented by the Homo sapiens sapiens also
known as modern people. Homo sapiens sapiens evolved from the Homo sapiens about 50 000
years ago.

The Homo sapiens sapiens had a brain capacity of about 1400cc. The big brain capacity denoted
intelligence and this explains why the Homo sapiens sapiens had developed a complex common
language, could make strategic plans and even artistic ability. This artistic ability was expressed
through rock paintings and engravings.

The increased intelligence also resulted in the appreciation of beauty. The Homo sapiens
sapiens produced beauty ornaments such as beads from ostrich eggshells and mussel shells.
The Homo sapiens sapiens also worked skins to produce clothes and blankets.

The Homo sapiens sapiens also made various tools for different activities. Very small stone
tools known as microliths were made. These included augers, drills and scrappers. Mounted
tools were also produced. These mounted tools were produced by mounting several stone
tools on a piece of wood to produce for example long knives, sickles for cutting grass, points
and barbs for arrows and spears.

Bone tools such as needles, awls, harpoons for spearing fish and shafts for arrows. The bow and
arrow was also made and used during this era. This tool enabled the Homo sapiens sapiens to
hunt bigger animals. Tools which were produced by the Homo sapiens sapiens have come to be
known as Late Stone Age tools.

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By producing various tools, the Homo sapiens sapiens could now practice numerous economic
activities, for example fishing and hunting.

The Homo sapiens sapiens lived in many parts of Botswana. They were probably the ancestors
of the modern day Khoesan people.

Reference:

History of Botswana; Tlou. T and Campbell A; Chapter 2. Pp. 10- 21.

Revision Questions

2016

(a) Describe any two methods used by archaeologists to find evidence about the past. [4]

2014

(a) Name any four religions that explain the origins of humankind. [4]

(b) Explain the way of life of the Homo

habilis. [6]

(c) How far do the following explain the origins of humankind:

(i) the Tswana Mythology,

(ii) the Herero Mythology,

(iii) the Hambukushu Mythology?

Explain your answer referring to (i), (ii) and (iii) above [10]

2013
(a) Describe the physical features of any two stages in the evolution of humankind. [4]

(b) Explain Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution. [6]

(c) “The “Out of Africa Theory” is more convincing than the other theories on the origins of
humankind.” How far do you agree with this statement? Explain your answer. [10]

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2011
(b)Explain the weaknesses of the cultural explanations of the origins of humankind.
[6]

2009
a) Describe any one cultural myth on the origins of humankind. [4]

b) Explain how the increased brain size affected the development of the Homo
erectus. [6]

c) ‘Humankind originated in Africa.’ How far do you agree with this statement? Explain
your answer [10]

2008
Explain how the increased brain size of the
Homo erectus influenced their lifestyle. [6]

2004
a) State four important points from Charles
Darwin’s ‘Theory of Evolution’ [4]

b) Explain how environmental changes affected the physical development of

Australopithecus [6]

c) ‘Africa is the original place of human beings’. Do you agree with this statement?
Explain your answer. [10]

2002
a) Describe the process of ‘Natural
Selection’. [4]

b) Explain why Africa is regarded as the home of humankind. [6]

c) How far is the theory of evolution a convincing explanation of the origins of

humankind? Explain your answer. [10]

2000
a) Briefly describe the main stages in the early development of humankind. [4]

b) Explain two different African cultural

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beliefs about the origins of humankind [6]

c) ‘Humankind originated in Africa and spread to other parts of the world.’ How far do you
agree with this statement? Explain your answer. [10]

TRANSFORMATION FROM STONE AGE TO IRON AGE IN SOUTHERN AFRICA

The Stone Age

The Stone Age was a period which was characterised by hunting and gathering, nomadic
existence, production of tools from available raw materials such as wood and stone and living in
small groups (small human populations).

This period consisted of the Early Stone Age, Middle Stone Age and Late Stone Age. Humankind
who existed during the different phases of the Stone Age period had varying levels of
intelligence. This is because the sizes and shapes of the tools they manufactured changed
during the different phases of the period.

Technological Developments and

Characteristics of the Early Stone Age

Tools made during this period were not refined, that is, they were crude. The final shape of the
tool was determined by the structure of the stone used. Early Stone Age tools were made by
chipping off flakes from the main stone, called the core. The sharp core would then be used as
a tool especially for cutting and chopping purposes. The hand axe is associated with this period.

Technological Developments and

Characteristics of the Middle Stone Age

Middle Stone Age tools were more refined/ developed as compared to the Early Stone Age
tools. This period was characterised by a widespread use of blade tools which could have been
used as knives and spear heads.

Some Middle Stone Age tools were made by attaching flakes/ blades to wooden shafts. These
hafted tools could have been used as digging tools. The blades were attached to the wooden
shafts by either vegetable glue or twine.

The Middle Stone Age era was therefore characterised by the production and use of blade
tools, hafted tools, vegetable glue and twine.

Technological Developments and

Characteristics of the Late Stone Age

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There were further improvements in the art of tool making during the Late Stone Age. During
this period the tools that were produced were smaller in size when compared to those made
during the Middle Stone Age era. These tiny tools were mainly produced from tiny [Link]
were also referred to as microlith tools. They were pre-determined

The following are some of the key technological developments of this era:

i. Production of microliths;
ii. Use of bows and poisoned arrows;
iii. Mining of ochre and specularite; iv. Use of animal sinews for sewing; v. Use of
vegetation glue;
vi. Use of hafted tools;
vii. Use of digging sticks;
viii. Production of bone tools such as needles, fish hooks, barbs and harpoons;
ix. Artistic development in the form of rock paintings and engravings;
x. Manufacture of egg shell beads.

THE LATE STONE AGE HUNTER- GATHERERS (THE SAN)

The San (Basarwa) were the only inhabitants of Southern Africa until about 2000 years ago.
They were therefore the first inhabitants of Southern Africa.

Social Organisation / Way of Life

The San practised early marriages. Boys of between 14 and 15 years married girls of ages 7 and
8 years. This could have been the norm because at these ages boys and girls could hunt and
gather. As hunters and gatherers, the married boys and girls could support themselves with the
wild game meat they hunted and wild fruits they gathered.

San men also performed suitor services before they could marry. A man was required to hunt
for the woman’s family for some time to prove his capability.

The San believed in a Supreme Being whom they thought inhabited the upper skies. This
Supreme Being was believed to be responsible for the creation of the earth,
animals and plants. The San offered sacrifices to their Supreme Being to thank
him for providing them with rain, animals to hunt and plants to gather.

The San also initiated their children into adulthood. During this initiation San boys were taught
how to hunt and about medicine while girls were taught how to gather. This initiation was done
to equip San children with skills they needed to survive in adulthood.
Page 18 of 100
The San also led a nomadic lifestyle. They moved from one camp to the other in search of
animals to hunt and plants to gather. This type of lifestyle was thus dictated by necessity.

In most instances, the San lived in small groups of between 20 to 50 people. These small
numbers allowed groups to be self supporting as food was scarce to find.

Economic Organisation / Way of Life

The San were hunters. Each clan had its own hunting territory and no other clan could hunt in it
without the permission of its owners. The San hunted animals such as eland and giraffe among
others. Hunting was a source of food. It was also a source of hides which the San used to make
clothes.

The San were also gatherers. Gathering was mainly done by women. San women and
sometimes men gathered wild plants, tortoise and wild honey. Gathering was thus a source of
food which supplemented the meat they got from the animals they hunted.

Some San communities also practised fishing. This was particularly the case with San groups
around the Boteti and Okavango Rivers. Fish supplemented the San’s diet.

The San also practised bartering. San groups exchanged ostrich eggshells jewellery and wild
game meat for milk, grains and iron tools. Bartering thus enabled the San to obtain food items
with which they could supplement their diet. It was also a source of iron tools which enabled
them to hunt bigger animals which increased the amount of meat in the camp.

Political Organisation / Way of Life

Chieftainship among the San was not hereditary. Leadership among the San was determined by
skills an individual possessed. These skills included hunting and medicinal skills. A San chief
therefore had to possess these skills so that he could use them to benefit the clan. Chieftainship
may not also have been hereditary as the San led a nomadic lifestyle.

A San chief could not take important decisions alone. Decisions that affected the clan were
taken after discussions with adult clan members. This may have been done to ensure that
leaders could not impose their will on their subjects.

The San did not have a standing (permanent) army. This may have been the case because the
San lived in small numbers. If some of the San men were to only focus on military
responsibilities, a clan’s ability to hunt effectively would have been compromised.

Page 19 of 100
THE LATE STONE AGE PASTORALISTS (KHOEKHOE)

The Khoekhoe are closely related to the San. Some historians believe that the Khoekhoe might
have been hunter- gatherers who acquired livestock.

Social Organisation/ Way of life

Marriage took place after initiation. This initiation occurred after puberty. Khoekhoe children
would have acquired skills which would enable them to take care of their families. Such skills
included herding livestock, hunting and gathering.

The Khoekhoe paid bride wealth before they could marry. The bride wealth was mainly paid in
the form of sheep. Bride wealth was paid to show appreciation to the bride’s family.

The Khoekhoe believed in a Supreme Being called Tsuigoab. This god was represented by the
praying mantis on earth. The Supreme Being was believed to be the provider of rain and good
health. The Khoekhoe offered their Supreme Being sacrifices so that he could provide them
with rain.

The Khoekhoe lived in large settlements which could consist of about 600 to 2000 people. The
Khoekhoe lived in these large numbers because they could readily obtain milk and sometimes
meat from their livestock.

The Khoekhoe lived in temporary shelters. These shelters were made out of mats and wooden
poles. The shelters were temporary because the Khoe were nomadic pastoralists who had to
move around in search of pastures as seasons changed.

The Khoekhoe wore clothes made out of animal skins. These skins were obtained from the
animals they reared and also from the animals they occasionally hunted. These animal skins did
not only cover their nakedness but also protected them from cold temperatures.

Economic Organisation

Khoekhoe people were pastoral farmers. They reared fat tailed sheep and long horned cattle.
These animals provided them with milk and sometimes meat. The milk from these animals
provided the Khoekhoe with a reliable source of food. As food was readily available, the Khoe
could afford to have large families.

The Khoekhoe also practiced hunting. This activity was done on a part time basis. The meat
from the animals they hunted supplemented their regular diet of milk.

Gathering was also practiced by the Khoe. It was also done on a part time basis. The wild plants
and small animals gathered supplemented their diet.

Page 20 of 100
Some Khoekhoe communities who lived around rivers practised fishing. Although this was a
part time activity, the fish they caught supplemented their diet.

Bartering was also another economic activity the Khoekhoe practised. Milk and sometimes
livestock were exchanged for grains and iron tools with the Bantu. The grains obtained through
bartering supplemented the Khoe’s diet while the iron tools enabled them to hunt bigger
animals. Political Organisation

Chieftainship was hereditary. Khoekhoe chiefs could pass their thrones to their sons once they
were too old to rule or in the event of death. This tradition could have been practised to reduce
competition for rulership/ leadership in a given Khoekhoe village.

Although chieftainship was hereditary, Khoekhoe chiefs were required to rule with the
assistance of a council of advisors. These advisors were mostly relatives of the chief. The
council’s duty may have been to ensure that the chief could not impose his will or wishes on his
subjects.

The Khoekhoe had a standing army. This was made possible by the fact that they lived in large
numbers. The purpose of this army was to guard livestock and protect the territory owned by
respective Khoekhoe communities.

Contact Between the Khoesan and other Groups

The San were pushed out of their land by the Bantu and the Boers. As a result, the San were
forced to flee to the desert areas of the Kalahari and the Namib Deserts. This exposed them to
poverty as animals and plants to hunt and gather were scarce to find. The loss of land also
forced some San groups to attach themselves to the Bantu and the Boers. This resulted in loss
of culture.

The Boers treated the San with contempt. They called them belittling names such as
“bushmen”. This eroded their self-esteem. They were also hunted down like wild animals by
the Boers. This reduced their population.

Many Khoekhoe lost their lives due to the outbreak of diseases such as smallpox. The Khoe did
not have a natural immunity to smallpox hence many of them died. These deaths reduced their
populations hence they could not effectively use their numbers to resist Boer takeover of their
land and livestock.

The Khoekhoe also lost their livestock to the Boers. Boers raided and captured Khoekhoe
livestock easily as they had superior European guns. The loss of livestock impoverished the
Khoekhoe. Once the Khoe had lost their animals, they were forced to attach themselves to the

Page 21 of 100
Boers. This eroded their culture as they were now forced to speak the Dutch language and even
acquire their religion.

Both the Khoe and the San traded and or bartered with both the Bantu and the Boers. The
Khoesan may have exchanged ivory and wild game meat for grains, iron, brass and glass beads.
This trade benefited the Khoesan as they would supplement their diet with the grains they
obtained from the Bantu. The iron they obtained from the Bantu was used to make iron tools
which made their hunting to be more effective as they could now kill bigger animals. The brass
their obtained from the Boers was used to make ornaments with which Khoesan
women adorned themselves.

REVISION QUESTIONS

2018
(a) Name any four Iron Age sites in Botswana
[4]

(b) Explain any two ways in which Iron technology influenced the lifestyle of the
Toutswe people. [6]

2017

(a) State any four economic activities of the Early Iron Age communities in Southern
Africa before 1800 [4]

(b) Explain how mining influenced the lifestyle of the people of Toutswemogala
[6]

(c) ‘Loss of culture among the San communities was the most important effect of the arrival of
the Bantu speakers in Southern Africa before 1800.’ How far do you agree with this
statement? Explain your answer, using two other effects [10]

2016
(a) Explain any two differences in the political organization of the San and the
Khoikhoi. [6]

2013
(a) Describe any two characteristics of the
Late Stone Age period. [4]

Page 22 of 100
(b) Explain the importance of cattle in the
social lifestyle of Late Iron Age societies. [6]

(c) “Trade was the most important economic activity in the development of
Domboshaba”. How far do you agree with
this statement? Explain your answer. [10]

2012
a) State any four early Iron Age sites in
Botswana. [4]

b) Explain the social organisation of the

Herero up to 1830. [6]

c) Was one of the following factors more important than the others in the development of the
Shona before 1800: i) iron technology; ii) agriculture; iii) trade?
Explain your answer. [10]

2010
2009
a) State any four technological
developments of the Late Stone Age. [4]

b) Explain the impact of agriculture on the social welfare of the people of Domboshaba.
[6]

c) Was one of the following factors more important than the others in the development of
the people of
Toutswemogala:
i) mining; ii) hunting; iii) trade?
Explain your answer, referring to i), ii) and iii) above. [10]

2008
a) State any four characteristics of the Iron
Age period. [4]

b) Explain how the Iron Age technology improved the social welfare of the people of
Toutswemogala before the 14th century [6]

c) Was one of the following factors more important than the others in the

Page 23 of 100
a) What were the features of the Stone Age? development of Toutswemogala
settlement:
[4] (i) trade; (ii) agriculture;
b) Explain how agriculture influenced the (iii) hunting and gathering?
lifestyle of the Toutswemogala people. Explain your answer referring to i), ii) and
iii)
[6] above. [10]

c) Was one of the following factors more 2007

important than the others in the collapse Explain why the Toutswemogala settlement
of Toutswemogala: collapsed. [6]
i) the rise of Mapungubwe;
ii) drought; iii) diminishing natural 2005
resources? a) Describe the technological development
Explain your answer, referring to i), ii) and iii) of the Late Stone Age people [4]
above. [10]

b) Explain how arable farming contributed  To lead the army during battles.
to the development of the lives of people at  To try serious crimes.
Domboshaba. [6]
 To sanction the ploughing/ planting
season.
c) The emergence of Mapungubwe was the
only cause for the decline of  To sanction hunting expeditions.
Toutswemogala’. How far do you agree with  To control the long distance trade.
this statement? Explain your answer.
[10] Way of life of the Sotho- Tswana Before 1800
2003
Social Organization
a) What was the Iron Age? [4]
 The Sotho- Tswana practised b) Explain how Iron Age technology led to
initiation ceremonies. Young men the improvement of arable farming. [6] and
women were sent to initiation schools before they could get c) Pastoral
farming was the most important married. In the initiation schools the activity in the
development of the lives of the young men and women were taught
Toutswe people. How far do you agree with
this statement? Explain your answer. their tribal cultural beliefs or
[10]

SHONA, SOTHO- TSWANA, SOUTH

Page 24 of 100
 CENTRAL BANTU COMMUNITIES UP TO
1800: BANTU SPEAKING PEOPLE

The Bantu are thought to have originated from the areas around modern day Cameroon. By
about 2000 years ago the Bantu speakers could be found in the Great Lakes region. It is from
here where they continued their migration southwards. The various groups of migrants arrived
in Southern Africa between AD 250 and AD 400.

Duties of Bantu Chiefs in Southern Africa before 1800

 To allocate land.
 To lead religious ceremonies.

practices, tribal history and about adult life in general (boys were taught the duties of men
while girls were taught the duties of women). After initiation these young men and women
could marry as they now had acquired the skills of parenthood.

 Among the Sotho- Tswana it was the norm that before a man could marry, he paid bride
wealth to his prospective wife’s parents (girl’s parents). The bride wealth was paid in
cattle. Bride wealth was not actually a form of payment rather it was done to show
appreciation to the girl’s family (the bride’s parents were being thanked for having
raised a wife for the groom).

 Polygamy was also an important trait of the way of life of the Sotho- Tswana. It was a
practice that was particularly common among men who had large herds of livestock.
Such men could afford to marry more than one wife because they could afford to pay
bride wealth in cattle; they also would not struggle to support large families as food in
the form of meat and milk could be readily obtained from the cattle they reared. As the
Sotho- Tswana were mixed farmers, they may have practiced polygamy so that they
could have many children who would help look after the cattle and the growing of crops.
Children were also viewed as insurance in old age.

 The Sotho- Tswana also practised ancestor veneration (they believed in ancestors).
Ancestors were viewed as a link between the living and God. As a result, they were
offered sacrifices in the form of livestock regularly so as to appease/ please them. It was
believed that if ancestors were angered by not being offered sacrifices, they would not
send the people’s messages to God.

Page 25 of 100
  Rain making ceremonies were also a common practice among the Sotho- Tswana. The
rain making ceremonies were done to ensure prosperity. These ceremonies were led by
the chief as he was believed to possess divine powers.

Economic Organization
 The Sotho- Tswana were arable farmers who grew sorghum, millet, watermelons among
other crops. These crops provided the people with a reliable source of food. As food was
abundant, the Sotho- Tswana tended to have large families. Excess crops could also be
bartered within the kingdom/ chiefdom or outside the kingdom for important items such as
iron tools, livestock, game meat, furs and ivory.

 Pastoral farming was another important economic activity among the Sotho- Tswana. These
people reared goats, sheep and cattle. These animals provided them with food in the form
of meat and milk. They could also use hides from these animals to make clothes, blankets
and mats for protection against elements of the weather (cold).

 The Sotho- Tswana were also miners and metal workers. After mining iron and copper, they
smelted them to produce tools and ornaments respectively. The smelted iron was used to
produce tools and weapons. Iron hoes and axes were used to clear large pieces of land for
crop production. From these large fields, a variety of crops were grown thus ensuring that
enough food was produced. As food was now abundant, the Sotho- Tswana could afford to
have large families. Some of the iron tools produced were exchanged for livestock or even
grains. This ensured that those who originally did not own livestock acquired them hence
generating wealth and prestige for themselves.

 Long distance trade was also practiced especially with coastal people. This trade enabled
the Sotho- Tswana to acquire exotic goods such as glass beads, cloth and sea shells. In
exchange for these goods, the coastal traders were given ivory and furs. The acquisition of
exotic goods generated more wealth for the Sotho- Tswana especially the ruling elites who
controlled it.

 The Sotho- Tswana also practised hunting on a part time basis. Hunting provided the people
with wild game meat, ivory and furs. The meat supplemented the people’s diet and it was
communally shared. The furs and ivory were used as commodities of trade with coastal
peoples.

Page 26 of 100
 Political Organization
 Chieftainship among the Sotho- Tswana was hereditary. When the incumbent chief died
or was unable to lead his people due to sickness or
ill health, his eldest son (usually from the first wife) took over the throne. This system of
rulership may have been used to reduce competition between members of the ruling family
for the throne or even to ensure that people with no royal descent could not claim
chieftainship.

 Sotho- Tswana chiefs ruled with the assistance of a council of advisors. These advisors
were drawn from both members of the royal family and important members of the tribe.
The council gave advise to the chief although he could sometimes disregard it. However,
most of the times the chief took decisions based on the advice that was offered by his
advisors. The council of advisors may have been set up to prevent the chief from
oppressing his subjects.

 The Sotho- Tswana also had a standing army which consisted of graduates from the
initiation school. This army was led by the chief. The primary duty of this army was to
defend the kingdom/ chiefdom from external threats. It also went out on hunting parties
on behalf of the chief. Because of their large populations, the Sotho- Tswana could afford
to have a standing army.

 Sotho- Tswana chiefs exacted tribute from their subjects. This could be in the form of
game meat, ivory, furs or even grains. Subject peoples were required to pay tribute as a
sign of loyalty to the king. Although the tribute could be distributed to the subject
peoples, it in most instances was used to further increase the wealth of the king/ chief.

Way of life of the Shona before 1800

Social way of life

 Among the Shona, marriage between people of the same totem was forbidden. These
people belonged to the same extended family and they were therefore considered to be
related.

 The Shona also believed in “Shave” and “Vadzimu” spirits. The Shave spirits were
associated with people living outside Shona society or even animals. Vadzimu spirits
were associated with the ancestors. Vadzimu spirits protected the society. They could

Page 27 of 100
 however withdraw such protection if Shona morals were not respected. This explains
why sacrifices were made to these spirits.

 Traditionally, the Shona used music as a medium of instruction. Through music, young
people were taught values and expectations of adulthood. Music was also used to seal
and bond social relations in society in general, for example, an aggrieved daughter in
law could use music to express her unhappiness towards her mother in law.

 It is also important to note that the Shona like other Bantu speaking groups such as the
Sotho- Tswana also practised polygamous marriages. Polygamy was practised for the
same reasons as the Sotho- Tswana.

Economic Way of life

 The Shona were arable farmers who grew various crops such as millet, sorghum,
peanuts and pumpkins. These groups provided them with a reliable source of food. As
food was readily available, the Shona could afford to have many children. This therefore
helps explain why they lived in large numbers.

 Pastoral farming was also an important activity among the Shona before 1800. They
raised cattle, sheep and goats. These animals provided them with food in the form of
meat and milk. These items supplemented their diet. Cattle were also important
amongst the Shona because they used them to pay bride price.

 Hunting was also practised by the Shona before 1800. They hunted to obtain meat
which they used to supplement their diet. They also hunted so that they could obtain
ivory and furs which were important commodities of trade especially with traders at the
east African coast.

 The Shona were also metal workers. Iron was smelted and used to make weapons and
tools. Hoes and axes were used on the crop fields to till the land so that a lot of crops
could be produced. Arable farming was therefore efficiently carried out as the people
had suitable tools for the activity. Iron tools were also used during bartering.
Blacksmiths exchanged iron tools for grains and even livestock. This helped them to
acquire wealth.

Page 28 of 100
 Political Way of life
 Political power among the Shona was centralised- power was concentrated in the hands
of the chief/ king. The king had absolute authority as he made and took decisions on all
important matters in his kingdom. He also assumed a leading role in religious
ceremonies. This could have been because the chief was believed to possess divine
powers.

 Although Shona chiefs had absolute authority, they ruled with the assistance of a
council of advisors. These advisors gave advisor on all important matters in the kingdom.
This council served as a checks and balances- it ensured that the chief did not oppress or
misrule his people.

 Shona chiefs before 1800 obtained tribute from their subjects. The tribute could be paid
in the form of ivory. Subjects people paid this tribute to show appreciation for the
protection they were given.

South Central Bantu before 1800

 Wayei/ Bayei
 Herero/ Baherero
 Basubiya
 Hambukushu/ Bambukushu

Social Way of life of the South Central Bantu

 They practised polygamy. South Central Bantu men may have married many wives
because they wanted to have many children who would provide additional labour in
agricultural activities such as arable and pastoral farming. Children were also seen as
insurance in old age hence the many one family had the better the chances it had to lead
a secured life.

 The South Central Bantu also practised intermarriage. This practice preserved and
promoted good relations between the South Central Bantu and other Bantu communities.
 The South Central Bantu were also religious as they believed in the existence of supreme
beings who they communicated with through ancestors. Sacrifices were offered to
ancestors so as to please and thank them. It was widely believed that if ancestors were
not offered sacrifices they may become angry and therefore refuse to send people’s
messages to god. The ancestors were therefore a link between the people and god.

Page 29 of 100
  They also practised suitor service. Before a man could marry, he could be required to
hunt, herd livestock, plough or fish on behalf on the wife’s family. This was meant to
gauge his capabilities.

Economic Way of Life of the South Central Bantu

 All South Central Bantu speaking communities practised pastoral farming. They reared
livestock such as cattle, sheep and goats. Livestock provided these people were a reliable
supply of food in the form of milk. They would also occasionally slaughter them for meat. As
food was readily available the South Central Bantu could afford to have large families.
Livestock was also a source of hides/ skins. These skins were used to make clothes, blankets
and mats which protected them from cold temperatures.
 Trade was also an important activity among the South Central Bantu. These people
exchanged goods within their respective villages- bartering. Livestock could be exchanged
for iron tools and this enhanced crop production. The South Central Bantu also practised
the long distance trade. This trade was a source of exotic goods such as cloth, glass beads
and sea shells. People who could possess these goods were considered to be wealthy and
they were therefore accorded respect.

 Hunting was another important activity among these people. Wild animals were hunted for
meat, ivory and fur. The meat was used to supplement the people’s diet while the ivory and
fur were used as trade commodities. As a result of this trade, the South Central Bantu
groups managed to enhance their wealth.

 Fishing was especially practised by the Wayei, Hambukushu and

Basubiya. Fish was therefore used to supplement their diet.

 Arable farming was particularly practised by the Wayei, Hambukushu and Basubiya. These
people grew crops such as sorghum, millet, groundnuts and pumpkins among others. The
various crops they grew provided them with a reliable source of food and hence they had
large families. The crops they produced could sometimes be exchanged for livestock or iron
tools.

Political Way of Life of the South Central Bantu

 They had a loose political system as each village in the chiefdom was allowed a great
degree of autonomy. Chiefs in the several villages that made up the chiefdom had the

Page 30 of 100
 freedom to make laws in their villages for example. This autonomy promoted and
maintained peaceful relations between the different villages in the chiefdom.

 The South Central Bantu may have had a standing army. Their large numbers could have
allowed them to set aside a number of men whose primary concern was to defend the
chiefdom from external threats.

REVISION QUESTIONS

(c) Was one of the following factors more important than the others in the development of
Tswana societies before 1800:

(i) the ivory trade; (ii) iron hoes;

(iii) coloured beads?

Explain your answer referring to (i), (ii) and

(iii) above [10]

2017
(a) Name any four Nguni groups in Southern Africa before 1800 [4]

(b) Explain two ways in which the political lifestyle of the Sotho- Tswana differed
from that of the San before 1800 [6]

(c) Was one of the following factors more important than the others in the development of
Herero society before 1800:
(i) pastoral farming; (ii) hunting; (iii) trade?
Explain your answer, referring to (i),
(ii) and (iii) above [10]
2016
(c) Was one the following factors more important than the others in the political development
of the Bantu speaking people before 1800: (i) arable farming;
(ii) trade; (iii) mining?
Explain your answer, referring to (i), (ii) and
(iii) above. [10]

2015
(a) Name any four Bantu groups that settled
in Southern Africa before 1800. [4]

Page 31 of 100
(b) Explain the political organization of the
Iron Age Shona before 1800. [6]

(c) “Iron technology was the most important factor in the development of the Iron Age
communities before 1800.” How far do you agree with this statement? Explain your answer
using two other factors. [10]

2013
(a) State any four duties of Bantu chiefs in
Southern Africa before 1800. [4]

(b) Explain the economic organization of the

Sotho Tswana before 1800. [6]

(c) Was pastoralism the only reason for the development of the Bayei before 1800?
Explain your answer. [10]

2012
Explain the role played by cattle in the lives
of the Khoikhoi before 1800. [4]

2011
a) Name any four South Central Bantu groups in Southern Africa before 1800.
[4]

b) Explain the social organisation of the

Sotho-Tswana before 1800. [6]
c) ‘Trade was the most important factor in the development of the Shona.’ How far do you
agree with this statement? Explain your answer. [10]

2010
Explain how the social organization of the
b) Explain the differences between the social organization of the South-Central Bantu and
the Khoikhoi before 1800. [6]

c) Was one of the following factors more important than the others in the development of
the Sotho-Tswana before 1800:
i) agriculture ii) trade iii) mining?
Explain your answer referring to (i), (ii) and
(iii) above. [10]

Page 32 of 100
2006
a) Describe the religious organisation of the
Shona before 1800. [4]

b) Explain the differences between the political organisations of the Sotho-Tswana

and the san before 1800. [6]

c) ‘The arrival of the Sotho-Tswana in Southern Africa before 1800 brought only negative
effects on the san.’ How far do you agree with this statement explain your
answer [10]

2004
San differed from that of the Khoikhoi. Shona before
1800. [4]
[6]
b) Explain how the religious
2008 organization of the Shona differed from that
Explain the effects of the Sotho-Tswana of the Sotho-
activities on the economic organization of Tswana before 1800 [6]
the Khoisan before 1800. [6]
c) ‘The following were all equally
2007 important in the development of the Shona:
a) Describe the political organization of the i) agriculture; ii) trade; iii) mining’.
Sotho-Tswana. [4] Do you agree with this statement? Explain
your answer referring to (i), (ii) and (iii)
above. [10]
a) Outline any four political activities of the 2002
Explain the differences between the political organization of the Khoikhoi and that of the
San before 1800. [4]

2000
a) Briefly describe the economic way of life
of the San. [4]

b) How far did the San’s political structure differ from that of the Bantu speakers?
Explain your answer. [6]

c) ‘Contact with the Bantu brought only benefits to the San.’ How far do you agree with this
statement? Explain your answer.
[10]

Page 33 of 100
a) What were the main social activities of the
Iron Age Shona? [4]
b) Explain how the uses of iron affected the way of life of the Iron Age Shona. [6]

c) ‘The following were all equally important in the development of the lives of the Iron Age
Shona: i) trade; ii) agriculture iii) mining.’
Do you agree with this statement? Explain your answer referring to i), ii) and iii) above.
[10]

PORTUGUESE COLONIZATION OF ANGOLA

1482- 1700

Kongo Kingdom before Contact with the Portuguese

The Kongo kingdom was established around 1400 by immigrants from the chiefdom of Bungu.
This chiefdom consisted of Ambundu (Mbundu) and Ambwela (Mbwela) ethnic groups. These
groups were led by a certain Wene.

After conquering and occupying Mbanza, Wene made political marriage alliances with the
rulers of the area. Wene eventually became the supreme leader of the area and assumed the
title of ne Kongo/ Mani Kongo- Lord of the Kongo.

The Mani Kongo primarily built his kingdom through military conquest. For example, Mpemba,
Nsundi, Mbamba, Soyo, Mpangu and Mbata chiefdoms became part of the Kongo state after
they were all conquered. Even though the Kongo state was a product of military conquest, the
rulers of the conquered chiefdoms were given some degree of political independence and
administrative authority. This therefore shows that the Kongo kingdom was a confederacy.
They were for example given the authority to collect tribute from their subjects. The tribute
could be in the form of slaves, ivory, hides and special seashells. This tribute in turn boosted the
Mani Kongo’s wealth.

The Kongo kingdom was economically very stable before contact with the Portuguese. This
economic strengthen was a result of the various economic activities which took place in the
kingdom. The Bakongo were skilled metal workers who mined and smelted copper and iron.
They were also expert hunters as they had to have ivory which was a vital trade commodity.

The Bakongo were also skilled arable and pastoral farmers. As pastoralists, they reared cattle,
sheep, pigs and fowls. The Bakongo arable farmers grew various crops such as millet and
sorghum. Arable and pastoral farming was thus important as it provided them with a reliable
source of food.

Page 34 of 100
 Nature of Early Portuguese Contact with the Kongo Kingdom

Early relations between the Portuguese and Bakongo were peaceful. This is because of the
following reasons:

 A few years after establishing contact with the Kongo kingdom, the Portuguese set up
an embassy in Mbanza, the capital of the kingdom. The work of the embassy was to
facilitate trade between Portugal and the Kongo kingdom.
 The good relations between the two countries was also symbolised by the building of
churches and schools in the Kongo by the Portuguese. The churches were set up so that
the conversion of Bakongo to Christianity could be speeded up. The schools on the other
hand were set up to help the Bakongo to acquire western education- especially basic
reading and writing skills.
 The Portuguese also sent agricultural experts to the Kongo. This was intended to
improve agriculture in the kingdom.

Portuguese Attempts to Colonise the Kongo Kingdom

The Portuguese used diplomacy to try to colonise the Kongo kingdom. By establishing
diplomatic ties with the Kongo kingdom, the Portuguese were attempting to bring the Kongo
kingdom under their control. Once the Kongo kingdom was under their control, it would then
become easier for the Portuguese to obtain raw materials from Kongo.

Christianity was also used as a tool that could bring about the colonization of the Kongo. The
Portuguese intended to first convert the Bakongo to Christianity and then colonise them.
Portuguese missionaries were sent to the Kongo to set up churches so that the process of
converting the Bakongo to Christianity could be speeded up.

The Portuguese also used the policy of divide and rule in their attempt to colonise the Kongo
kingdom. After Christianity was introduced in the Kongo kingdom, some Bakongo converted to
Christianity while others maintained their traditional practices. Following the death of Nzinga
Kuwu in 1506, the Portuguese supported Affonso who was a Christian against his traditionalist
brother, Mpanzu Kitima in a succession dispute.

Finally, the Portuguese used the conquest method in an attempt to colonise the Bakongo. In
1665 they invaded the kingdom. The invasion of the kingdom resulted in the deaths of the Mani
Kongo Antonio I, the nobility and many of the chiefs. The death of the rulers therefore made
colonisation possible.

Page 35 of 100
 Failure of Westernisation of Kongo Kingdom

The slave trade contributed immensely to the failure of westernization of the Kongo. The
Portuguese in the Kongo treated the Bakongo with contempt. They soon began to sell the
Bakongo into slavery. Instead of modernising the Kongo kingdom,
Portuguese officials and missionaries looked to profit from the now lucrative slave trade
business. School and church work was neglected in the process. The involvement of Portuguese
officials in the slave trade business therefore created suspicious between the two and hence
working together towards the modernization of the Kongo kingdom became impossible.

The failure of the regimento also contributed to the failure of westernization of the Kongo
kingdom. The regimento was a document which contained instructions on how westernization
was to be achieved in the Kongo. King Manuel of Portugal sent Simao da Silva to the Kongo to
implement the regimento. However, not all contents of the regimento were accepted by
Affonso who was the king of the Kongo kingdom. The regimento could therefore not bring
about westernization as it was overly ambitious. It also could not bring about westernization
because Simao da Silva, the man who was to implement it died before he could implement it.

Portuguese interest in Ndongo (Angola) especially during the reign of John III of Portugal also
contributed to the failure of the modernization of the Kongo kingdom. The Portuguese believed
that Ndongo had enormous mineral deposits. The Portuguese therefore abandoned the Kongo
so that they could colonise Ndongo and exploit its natural resources especially minerals such as
silver.

Communication breakdown between Kongo and Portugal also contributed to the failure of
westernization. Affonso wrote several letters to his counterpart, John III, complaining about the
slave trading activities of the Portuguese in Kongo. John III’s replies were usually very late and
unhelpful. Sometimes Affonso’s letters never reached Portugal. The Portuguese in Sao Thome
(Tome) did not pass on the letters to John III because they wanted to continue using Bakongo as
slaves in their sugar cane plantations.

Effects of Portuguese activities on the Kongo Kingdom

Political Effects

 There were divisions within the royal family and the kingdom as a whole. These divisions
came about as a result of the introduction of Christianity in the Kongo. Some members
of the royal family converted to Christianity while others did not. This was also the case
amongst ordinary people in the kingdom. These divisions resulted in

Page 36 of 100
 a series of civil wars, especially those that were caused by succession disputes. There
was a succession dispute in 1506 between the Christian Affonso and the traditionalist
Mpanzu Kitima. There were also other succession disputes in 1545 and 1561.

Civil strife weakened the Kongo kingdom politically so much so that it could no longer
defend itself against its enemies. The defeat the Kongo kingdom suffered at the hands of
the Ndongo kingdom in 1556 and the Jaga in 1568 were a result of this weakness.
 On the other hand, the Bakongo benefited from Portuguese colonization. The Portuguese
fought on the side of the Bakongo in a war against the Tyo (Teke) in the 1400s. They also
fought from the same corner against the Jaga in the 1500s. Portuguese assistance at the
time strengthened the Bakongo militarily.

Social Effects

 The Portuguese slave trade activities in the Kongo kingdom led to a decline in population.
Thousands of Bakongo were captured and sold into slavery. The slave trade also resulted in
families breaking up. The slave trade negatively affected the economy of the kingdom as
able bodied men and women were taken to Sao Thome as slaves to work in Portuguese
owned sugar plantations.
 The introduction of a western culture, especially Christianity, in the
Kongo kingdom resulted in the Bakongo losing their culture. Those who did not convert to
Christianity were looked down upon. These people therefore lost their dignity as they were
now treated as lesser beings/ second class citizens in their land.
 The Portuguese set up schools in Kongo. The Bakongo acquired western literacy skills such
as reading and writing and this benefited them as they would later get clerical jobs in the
colonial administration. Economic Effects

 Agricultural production went down in the Kongo kingdom as a result of the slave trade
business. The able bodied Bakongo who were sold into slavery were responsible for
agricultural activities. Once they were gone, agricultural activities were left to the old. The
collapse of agriculture resulted in hunger and starvation amongst the Bakongo.
 Bakongo traded with the
Portuguese and this benefited the Bakongo as they acquired exotic goods. These exotic
goods generated wealth for some
Bakongo especially those of them
who controlled the trade. Some exotic goods such as cloth enhanced the status of
people who could possess them.

Page 37 of 100
 Factors that Contributed to the Collapse of the Kongo Kingdom

Civil wars contributed to the collapse of the Kongo kingdom. These wars came about as a result
of succession disputes between members of the royal family. All in all, civil wars weakened the
kingdom hence it could not defend itself against its enemies.

The slave trade also contributed to the collapse of the Kongo kingdom. The loss of able bodied
men and women led to a decline in agricultural output. The slave raiding activities of the
Portuguese did not also accord the Bakongo time to till their land as they had to consistently
run away from the slave raiders. Due to the slave trade, the Kongo kingdom was no longer the
economic giant it was before contact with the Portuguese.

The Portuguese invasion of 1665 was yet another factor that contributed to the collapse of the
kingdom. The Portuguese invaders butchered the rulers of the kingdom during the battle of
Mbwila. The death of the rulers was followed by a period of political instability which made it
easier for the Portuguese to completely takeover the Kongo kingdom.

Revision Questions

2019
(a) Describe any two ways in which the Portuguese related with the Bakongo between 1482 and
1500. [4]

(c) ‘The following factors equally contributed to the failure of westernisation of the Kongo
kingdom:

(i) the attitudes of some Bakongo;

(ii) insufficient Portuguese workers;
(iii) the ascension to power of John III.’

How far do you agree with this statement? Explain your answer referring to (i), (ii) and
(iii) above. [10]

2016
(a) State any four reasons why the Portuguese developed interest in the Kongo
Kingdom in the late thirteen century [4]

(b) Explain any two reasons why the Regimento failed to help Affonso I of Kongo

Page 38 of 100
westernize the Kongo Kingdom. [6]

(c) ‘The slave trade was the most important reason for the collapse of the Kongo Kingdom.’
How far do you agree with the statement? Explain your answering using two other reasons.
[10]

2011
a) Describe the main features of the Portuguese policy in the Kongo Kingdom during early years
of contact. [4]

2010
a) Describe any two aspects of the
Regimento. [4]

b) Explain why the westernization of the

Kongo Kingdom failed. [6]

2007
a) Describe the early relations between the Portuguese and the Bakongo in the late
fifteenth century. [4]

b) Explain how Affonso I benefitted from his alliance with the Portuguese between 1505
and1543. [6]

c) Was one of the following factors more important than the others in contributing to the
collapse of the Kongo Kingdom: i) succession disputes ii) slave trade iii) Jaga invasion of 1568?
Explain your answer, referring to (i), (ii) and
(iii) above. [10]

c) ‘The following were equally important for the failure of the Portuguese to westernize the
Kongo:
i) the Regimento; ii) the attitude of Bakongo; iii) the lack of Portuguese official support’.

Do you agree with this statement? Explain your answer with reference to i), ii) and iii)
above [10]

2002
a) Describe the Portuguese policy in the Kongo Kingdom during the early years of contact.
[4]

Page 39 of 100
THE PORTUGUESE IN ANGOLA 1575- 1836

The Ndongo kingdom was founded in about 1500 by the Mbundu. Ndongo was initially a
tributary state of the Kongo kingdom. This status however changed in 1556 when Ndongo
wrestled her independence from the Kongo kingdom. The ruler of this new kingdom assumed
the title “Ngola”.

For a long time, the Portuguese did not show interest in Ndongo. When the Ngola asked for
Portuguese missionaries, technicians and merchants in 1519 the Portuguese did not respond
accordingly. Instead, they sent out an expedition to explore for silver, something that the Ngola
did not ask for.

From the 1540s, the Portuguese began to develop interest in Ndongo. Portuguese traders from
Sao Thome made frequent visits to Kabasa, the capital of Ndongo. These were followed by an
official Portuguese expedition in 1560 led by Paulo Dias de Novaes. This mission was sent out
for trade purposes and missionary work. The leader of the mission was instead detained at
Kabasa for five years. While in detention, the Ngola used Paulo Dias as his advisor. Most of the
Jesuit missionaries who had accompanied him died.

Reasons for Portuguese interest in Angola

The Portuguese believed that Ndongo had a lot of minerals especially silver. They therefore
wanted to exploit the mineral wealth of Ndongo for their own economic benefit.

Ndongo also interested the Portuguese because of its lucrative slave trade. Thus, the
Portuguese wanted to take part in the slave trade business in Ndongo. This would enable them
to get slaves freely and or cheaply who could be sent to work on Portuguese owned sugar
plantations.

The Portuguese may also have wanted to spread Christianity in Ndongo. This is because they
had sent Jesuit missionaries/ priests to Ndongo in 1560. This was intended to spread
Portuguese culture.

They also wanted land on which they could settle and practice agriculture, probably the
growing of cash crops such as sugar. This is explained by the fact that Paulo Dias was
accompanied by families who were later given land on which to settle and seeds and
agricultural tools so that they could grow crops. This was intended to improve Portugal’s
economy.

Portuguese attempts to Colonise Angola

In the 1650s, the Ndongo kingdom was faced with threats from within and from outside. Some
of the Ndongo people undermined the authority of Ngola Ndambi. The stability of the kingdom
Page 40 of 100
was threatened by its hostile powerful neighbours. As a result, the Ngola asked for Portuguese
military assistance. In 1575 Paulo Dias de Novaes who was earlier imprisoned by the Ngola
returned to Ndongo with a military expedition.

Dias de Novaes was given a donatario by the king of Portugal. Portuguese Jesuit missionaries
played an important role in the granting of the donatario. This was a document that gave him
rights and powers to colonise Ndongo. It stated the following:

 Dias de Novaes was to colonise Angola at his own expense.

 The Southern part of Ndongo was to belong to Dias de Novaes as his personal property.
 Dias de Novaes was to have authority over the whole of the new colony of Angola
during his lifetime.
 Dias de Novaes had to take with him 400 soldiers and 100 Portuguese families so that
the new colony could be established effectively.

Factors leading to Portuguese Colonization of Angola

Civil wars which were caused by succession disputes made it easy for the Portuguese to
colonize Angola. After the death of Ngola Ndambi in 1575, there was a civil war. Even after a
successor was chosen, he became preoccupied with the internal unrest in the kingdom. The
Portuguese therefore took advantage of this and proceeded with their mission of colonizing
Angola.

The colonization of Angola was also made possible by the fact that the Kongo kingdom was
itself under Portuguese military occupation. Kongo still considered Ndongo as its province.
When the Portuguese set forth with their colonizing mission, the Kongo kingdom could not
assist Ndongo to defend her independence.

The direct involvement of the Portuguese government also contributed to the colonization of
Angola. Even though this was opposed by Portuguese settlers who had acquired land and other
forms of property, the Portuguese government sent reinforcements to Angola. The military
strength of the Portuguese finally enabled them to complete the colonization of Angola.

The donatario also contributed to the colonization of Angola. This was a special trade monopoly
that the king of Portugal gave to Paulo Dias de Novaes. The donatario contributed to
colonization as it gave Paulo Dias the powers to colonize Ndongo at his personal expense.

NB: Even though the Portuguese succeeded in colonising Angola, the Angolans continued their
war of resistance against Portuguese colonial rule. This war of resistance spread to many areas
in the region. Groups such as the Jaga joined in this war.

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By 1619 the Portuguese succeeded in breaking up the Ndongo kingdom. This was followed by a
peace agreement in 1622. This agreement was negotiated by the Ngola’s sister, Nzinga Nbandi,
also known as Anna Nzinga.

The peace agreement of 1622 stated the following:

 The Ngola would be allowed to return to Kabasa, his capital.

 The Ngola would return all prisoners of war.

The terms of the peace treaty were, however, not immediately implemented. As a result of
this, the Mbundu- Portuguese relations remained strained.

The Ngola died in 1623 and was succeeded by his sister Anna Nzinga.

Slave Trade in Angola

By the 18th century the slave trade was the most lucrative business in Angola. The Portuguese
had established a port at Luanda which shipped out millions of slaves from Angola between
1580 and 1836. Over 50 per cent of these slaves were taken to Brazil, 30 per cent to the
Caribbean and 10-15 per cent to the River Plate.

Different methods were used to obtain these slaves as shown below:

 Vassal chiefs raided for slaves on behalf of the Portuguese. Once these slaves were
captured, they were taken to Portuguese fortresses.
 Pombeiros (special trading agents) were also used by the Portuguese to capture slaves
from the interior. These Pombeiros were mostly men of mixed race. They were paid in
cloth, spirits (alcohol) and metal instruments.
 The kuata! kuata! were also used to raid for slaves. These were organised slave raiding
parties who went into the interior of Angola to raid for slaves on behalf of the
Portuguese.
 Slaves were also obtained from sobabas. These were densely populated areas which
were owned by priests, soldiers and government officials. The owners of the sobabas
demanded slaves from people living in their land.
 There were also wars which were provoked by the Portuguese and some chiefs so that
they could capture men, women and children for sale into slavery. Wars against the
Matamba in 1739- 44, Hungu and Sosso in 1765 were deliberately provoked so that the
captives could be sold into the lucrative slave trade business.

Page 42 of 100
The Career of Queen Anna Nzinga of Angola

After she assumed power, Queen Nzinga entered into anti Portuguese alliances with
neighbouring groups such as the Jaga, Imbangala, Kissama and Ovimbundu. These alliances
strengthened Nzinga’s army and hence she intensified her resistance against Portuguese
colonization.

Queen Nzinga also encouraged the kimbares (African soldiers in the Portuguese armies) to
rebel against the Portuguese. This move significantly weakened the Portuguese.

Slaves who had run away from their Portuguese masters were also admitted into the kingdom.
The loss of slave labour weakened the Portuguese economy as it was dependent of free labour.
Once the economy was weakened the intensity of Portuguese attacks on the Angolans
somewhat went down.

Queen Nzinga also encouraged vassal chiefs (chiefs in areas that were controlled by the
Portuguese) to rebel against their Portuguese rulers. She encouraged such chiefs to join
Ndongo in the war of resistance against Portuguese colonization. This clearly boosted the
military strength Ndongo.

In 1656 Nzinga signed a peace treaty with the Portuguese. Although she lost most of her
kingdom, she retained some territory on which her subjects could settle. The peace treaty also
brought about some degree of political stability in Ndongo.

Queen Nzinga died in 1663 having converted to Christianity. She also had a mission established
at her capital. This clearly went a long way in speeding up the conversion of the Ndongo into
Christianity.

Effects of Portuguese Colonization on Angola

Social Effects

 Many Angolans were killed in the wars they fought against the Portuguese from the
1570s. As a result of these wars, the Angolans became depopulated. A reduction in
population weakened Angola militarily as the military strength of the kingdom
depended on its large population.
 The slave trade which was practised by the Portuguese colonialists depopulated Angola.
Millions of able bodied Angolans were shipped out slave ports such as Luanda especially
during the 18th century. The loss of these able bodied men and women led to a total
collapse of agricultural activities. Angolans thus lost the economic power they had prior
to contact with the Portuguese.

Page 43 of 100
  Schools were set up in Angola to educate the Angolans. One such school was a technical
school which was established so that it could equip Angolans with technical skills that
they could later use to get employment in the colonial administration.

Economic Effects

 The Portuguese built infrastructure such as sea ports in places such as Luanda. These
ports facilitated the movements of goods into the interior of Angola. Thus the Angolans
now had access to various exotic goods which they could use to enhance their wealth
and status.
 Angola’s natural resources were left undeveloped during the colonial period. This was
because the Portuguese were mainly focused on the lucrative slave trade business. As a
result, Angola stagnated economically during the colonial period.
 Angolans lost land to the Portuguese colonisers. This loss of land began in 1575
following the arrival of Paulo
Dias de Novaes who was accompanied by a group of
Portuguese families and soldiers. These people were to be given land on which they
would settle and also farm. Even Portuguese priests were later given land which
traditionally belonged to the Angolans. Angolans settled in sobabas had some of them
sold into slavery thus taking away their dignity.

Political Effects

 Portuguese colonization destabilized Angola. This was because of the wars which
were instigated by the Portuguese so that they could raid for slaves easily. Angolan
people were constantly running away from the slave raiders and this certainly made
it very difficult for them to practice agriculture.
 Portuguese colonization also intensified ethnic hatred between African groups,
especially the Mbundu and Jaga. In 1619 the Portuguese who were assisted by the
Jaga defeated the Angolans. This defeat resulted in damage to property and heavy
losses in human life among the Angolans. This ethnic hatred made it impossible for
African groups to unite in their wars against Portuguese colonialism.

REVISION QUESTIONS

Refer to Portuguese in Kongo handout

COLONIALISM DEVELOPMENT SUCH AS SLAVERY AND LAND ALIENATION

Definition of Concepts
Page 44 of 100
  Colony refers to a country that is held and governed by another country for the purpose
of economic exploitation. It may also refer to a territory or people in a country or
territory that is ruled both politically, economically and socially by another country.

 Colonialism means the policy or practice of establishing political control by a country

over another for economic gain especially during the 16th century. This political control is
usually achieved through the use of military force.

 Colonization refers to the establishment of a colony by a group of immigrants who seek

to take total control of a territory so that they could spread their civilization and culture
into that territory. Colonization was achieved through conquest (use of military force),
treaty system, trickery and protectorate system.

Reasons for European Colonization of Southern Africa before 1830

The need for raw materials was one of the reasons why European countries colonized Southern
Africa. European countries wanted to obtain raw materials such as minerals from Southern
Africa because they needed to use them in industries back home. These raw materials were
used to produce finished goods which in turn would be sold back to Africa at a profit. African
raw materials were cheaply or freely obtained even though they were of the highest quality.

European countries also needed markets for their finished goods. The colonization of Southern
Africa was therefore meant to provide European countries with reliable markets. Goods sold in
these markets had their prices inflated and this generated a lot of wealth for the European
powers.

Some European countries colonized

Southern Africa for strategic reasons. Some parts of Southern Africa were seen as suitable to
occupy for business and military reasons. The Dutch for example colonized the Cape in 1652 as
it was half way between Europe and the east where they had business interests.

The colonization of Southern Africa was also motivated by European countries’ desire for free
labour. These countries wanted slaves who could work in their plantations in Africa and abroad.
This may help explain why Africans were shipped out to the Americas to work in sugar cane,
banana, tobacco and cotton plantations.

Southern Africa may also have been colonized for prestige/ pride by some European countries.
During the colonial period, European countries with many colonies were viewed as powerful by
others. The desire to be viewed as powerful therefore resulted in some European countries
setting up sprawling empires.

Page 45 of 100
European countries may have colonized Southern Africa because of the desire to spread
Christianity. They may have wanted to spread Christianity in Southern Africa because they
wanted to curb the spread of Islam. By Christianizing Southern Africa, Europeans also wanted to
spread their culture in Southern Africa and in the process civilizing Africans. Christianizing
Southern Africa also helped to prepare the African people for colonization. This is why the
European missionaries first converted members of the royal family to the new religion.

Methods Used by Europeans to Colonize Southern Africa before 1830

Force or conquest was used by Europeans to colonise Southern Africa. This is because
Europeans had superior weapons than Africans- they had machine guns and dynamite while
Africans had traditional spears, bows and arrows. Europeans also used steamships which
enabled them to launch attacks from the sea. During the wars/ battles of conquest, the
majority of African groups were easily defeated.
Africans thus offered little resistance.

Trickery was yet another method of colonization used by Europeans. African rulers who could
not read or write were asked to sign agreements called treaties whose contents they did not
understand. This they usually did after they had sought the assistance of European
missionaries. Once the rulers had put a cross on the papers they were asked to sign, they were
in actual fact giving away their political independence and rights to land.

The protectorate method also facilitated the European colonization of Southern Africa.
Europeans missionaries persuaded African rulers to ask for protection from European countries.
In most of the cases, African rulers heeded the advice of missionaries whom they trusted.
Missionaries wanted their respective countries to colonize African territories so that they could
spread Christianity and at the same time promote European commerce.

Revision Questions

2016
(a) What is colonization? [4]

2015
(a) Describe any two factors that led to the European colonization of Southern Africa
before 1830. [4]

2002
“The following were equally important reasons for the European colonization of Southern Africa
before 1830:
(i) strategic reasons;
(ii)need for raw materials; (iii) need for slaves”.
Page 46 of 100
Do you agree with this statement? Explain your answer referring to (i), (ii) and (iii) above. [10]

2009
(a) Describe any two methods that were used by Europeans to colonize Africa. [4]

THE DUTCH AT THE CAPE 1652- 1806 References:

1) Shillington K: History of Southern Africa; Chapter 4; Pp. 42 – 55.

2) Davis N. E.: A History of Southern Africa; Chapter 3; Pp. 19 – 30.
3) Parker G. and Pfukani P.: History of Southern Africa; Chapter 3; Pp. 30 – 46 and Chapter 4;
Pp. 47 – 49.
4) Were G: A History of South Africa (New Edition); Chapter 2; Pp. 17 –
35.

By the 17th century European powers such as Great Britain and The Netherlands (Holland) had
established trade links with India and the East Indian Islands (East Indies). This trade was
controlled by private companies such as the English East India Company and the Dutch East
India Company. The English East India Company and Dutch East Indian Company controlled
trade between Great Britain and India and between The Netherlands and the East
Indian Islands respectively.

These European powers mainly obtained gold and spices from India and the East Indian Islands.
The journey from Europe to these places was however long and hazardous. As the Suez Canal
was not in existence at the time, British and Dutch ships had to sail right round the African
continent.

Sailors sometimes got lost at sea. At other times they died because of disease outbreaks. As the
sea voyages were very long, sailors usually ran out of fresh food and water. The lack of fresh
fruits and vegetables exposed the sailors to scurvy. Indeed many of them died because of this
disease.

Because of the losses in human life the companies experienced, they decided to set up
refreshment stations along the way. The sailors were to stop and stock up on fresh supplies and
also get the necessary medical attention at these refreshment stations. Thus the first
refreshment station was set up on the small island of St. Helena. Because of the high volumes
of ships passing through this station, it soon ran out of essential supplies. A new refreshment
station therefore had to be established elsewhere.

Page 47 of 100
 Dutch establishment of a refreshment station at the Cape in 1652

In 1647 the Haarlem, which was a Dutch trade ship, broke down at the Cape while on its way
back to the Netherlands. Its crew made it safely to the shore. The survivors sustained
themselves by growing vegetables and bartering with the local Khoekhoe. They were rescued
after 6 months and when they got to the Netherlands, they recommended to the directors (The
Council of Seventeen) of the Dutch East India Company that they turn the Cape into a
refreshment station.

In 1652 the Dutch East India Company sent Jan van Riebeeck to the Cape to set up a
refreshment station. He was accompanied by three ships namely: “The Reiper”, “Dromendarin”
and “Goede Hoep.” Jan van Riebeeck and his crew of sailors arrived on 6th April 1652.

Instructions given to Jan van Riebeeck

 To build a fort to protect the station from attacks from rival European ships and the
Khoekhoe.
 To build a hospital to give sick sailors medical help.

 To start vegetable gardens and orchards to produce fresh vegetables and fruits to supply
passing ships with fresh produce.
 To establish friendly relations with the Khoekhoe for bartering purposes.

Reasons for Dutch settlement at the Cape in 1652

 The Cape was strategically located. This was the case because the Cape was almost half
way between Europe and the East Indies. This made the Cape an ideal refreshment
station where sailors could rest, mend their ships and stock up on fresh water and fruits
and vegetables before they could resume their journeys.
 The availability of cattle at the Cape also led to the establishment of a refreshment
station at the Cape. The Khoekhoe who inhabited the Cape owned large herds of cattle.
The Dutch could therefore obtain them through bartering so that they could supply
passing ships with meat.
 The Dutch also considered the climatic conditions of the Cape to be ideal for European
settlement. The Cape had a Mediterranean climate which was very similar to the
climatic conditions in Europe.
 The “availability” of land also led to the establishment of a refreshment station at the
Cape. The Dutch believed that land was plentiful at the Cape. They were looking forward

to using that land for settlement and agricultural activities as the soils were very fertile.

Page 48 of 100
Problems faced by Jan van Riebeeck

 There was a drought at the Cape when Jan van Riebeeck arrived. As a result of this drought
Jan van Riebeeck was unable to grow fruits and vegetables.
 There was also shortage of labour as some company servants (workers) refused to work
while other worked half-heartedly as they were unhappy with their wages. Others refused
to work because they were lazy. The Khoekhoe also refused to work for the Dutch settlers
as they were selfsufficient. This shortage of labour negatively affected the production of
fruits and vegetables in the new settlement.
 Jan van Riebeeck was also unable to get cattle from the Khoekhoe who had moved deep in
the interior in search of pastures for their livestock. This resulted in Jan van Riebeeck being
unable to supply passing ships with fresh meat.
 There was also an outbreak of disease in the new settlement. This occurred at the beginning
of the rainy season. The settlers were attacked by an outbreak of dysentery which killed
some of them. This further worsened the problem of shortage of labour.

 The company servants also complained about shortage of women at the Cape. This may
also have affected the productivity of the company servants.

Solutions to the Problems

Jan van Riebeeck attempted to solve the problem of shortage of labour by introducing the
freeburgher system in1657. Under this system 9 company servants were freed from their
contracts.
These men were given farms on
Khoekhoe grazing land. They were given seeds and farm implements so that they could
grow crops to supply passing ships. The freeburghers were however not allowed to sell their
produce directly to the passing ships nor barter directly with the Khoekhoe.

Slavery was also introduced to solve the problem of shortage of labour as the freeburghers
were determined not to do manual/ farm work. Slaves were therefore imported from
Angola and Benin. Later slaves also brought in from
Madagascar, Mozambique and
Indonesia. Jan van Riebeeck could not enslave the Khoekhoe as it was feared that they
would resist enslavement and such resistance would be too costly to the Dutch East India
Company. The Khoekhoe also refused to work on Dutch farms regularly as they still their
livestock to depend on.

Jan van Riebeeck introduced the policy of intermarriages between the company servants
and Khoekhoe women. This policy was intended to solve the problem of shortage of

Page 49 of 100
 women. This policy also intended to increase labour in the Cape. This was because children
born out of the union between the settlers and Khoekhoe women would be made to also
work on Dutch farms.

Dutch- Khoesan Relations

The Khoe traded with the Dutch. They exchanged their sick and old livestock for brass, copper,
beads, tobacco and alcohol. The Khoe got pleasure from the alcohol and tobacco they got from
the Dutch. Copper and beads were used to make ornaments which the Khoe adorned
themselves with.

The Khoesan lost their land to the Dutch. The Khoesan lost land on which they could settle,
hunt, gather and especially for the Khoekhoe, land on which they could rear livestock. The
Khoesan were pushed into the dry and desert areas of the Namib and Kalahari. These people
were thus impoverished as food and water were difficult to find in the desert areas where they
now lived. Because of poverty, Khoesan populations went down drastically.

The Dutch stole the livestock of the Khoekhoe. They sometimes used force to obtain livestock
from the Khoekhoe. The Khoekhoe were as a result left with little or no livestock at all. This
therefore forced them to work as labourers on Dutch farms and as domestic workers in Dutch
homes. The economic independence they enjoyed before was lost as they now had to depend
on the Dutch for survival. As labourers and domestic workers, the Khoekhoe were treated by
the Dutch as slaves and this eroded their self worth.

The Khoesan especially those who worked on Dutch farms and in Dutch homes lost their
culture especially language, religion and dress. They were forced to speak the Dutch
language (Afrikaans) as well as adopting Dutch religious practices. The Khoesan thus lost
dignity.

As the demand for land by the Dutch increased, they used military force to drive the
Khoesan off their land. These wars resulted in many deaths among the Khoesan. The
populations of the Khoesan significantly went down. As a result of this depopulation the
Khoesan were unable to resist Dutch colonialism.

Factors which led to Expansion of the Cape Colony from 1652 to 1800

The expansion of the Cape Colony saw the coming into existence of the following towns:
Stellenbosch (1680), Drakenstein (1688), Graaff Reinet, de Paarl (1687), Swellendam, French
Hoek (1690) and Tulbagh (1699).

Jan van Riebeeck contributed to the expansion of the Cape through the policies he
introduced. These policies included the freeburgher system and intermarriages. After the

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 introduction of this system, many white people applied to be freeburghers. The DEIC gave
them land on which to settle and farm. This resulted in the expansion of the Cape
settlement. The policy of intermarriages between Dutch settlers and Khoekhoe women
resulted in the birth of Coloureds who were used as labourers on Dutch farms. The
freeburghers thus increased the sizes of their farms to fully utilize the readily available
labour. As the farms were expanding, so were the frontiers of the Cape colony.

The freeburgher system also contributed to the expansion of the Cape Colony. Initially 9
company servants were given land on which they could settle and farm. As each one of them
was given a piece of land to farm, away from the original Cape settlement, there was an
increase in the size of the Cape Colony. The successes of the initial freeburghers prompted
many people from Europe to apply so that they too could become freeburghers. The new
arrivals were allocated fresh farm land and this contributed to the expansion of the Cape
Colony. It is also important to note that the influx of European settlers increased the white
population of the colony.

Slavery also contributed to the expansion of the borders of the Cape Colony. These slaves were
imported from countries such as Angola, Benin,
Madagascar, Indonesia and
Mozambique. The availability of slave labour prompted the freeburghers to expand their farms.
As the freeburghers were expanding their farms, so did the borders of the Cape Colony. Slavery
contributed immensely to the development of the Cape Colony. The slaves provided free labour
on the farms. More crops were produced because of the work of the slaves and this boosted
the Cape’s self sufficiency. Some of the slaves especially those from Madagascar were skilled
craftsmen. They contributed to the development of a unique colonial style of architecture in
the Cape. It is worthy to note that most of the imported slaves were men. Some of these men
married Khoekhoe women.
This resulted in the increase of the slave population at the Cape.

Trekboers also contributed to the expansion of the Cape settlement. Trekboers lived on the
frontiers of the colony. They led a nomadic lifestyle as they were predominantly pastoral
farmers. Trekboers had large families and adult male children considered it a birth right to
go out and acquire land on their own. The nomadic lifestyle of the Trekboers and the desire
by their male children to have farms of their own resulted in more land being occupied by
whites. The Cape government kept on expanding its official boundaries so that it could keep
up with the Trekboers. This contributed to the expansion of the Cape Colony.

The arrival of 156 French Huguenots in 1688 also contributed to the expansion of the Cape
colony. These were French Protestants who had fled to the Netherlands following persecution
in France. These immigrants were given land by the Dutch East India Company to farm as they

Page 51 of 100
were skilled vine growers. Once they were given land, the size of the Cape Colony also
increased.

Role of Slavery and Servitude In Cape Society

The Dutch East India Company imported slaves from African countries such as Angola, Benin
and Mozambique. These slaves provided labour on Dutch farmers as they were unskilled. The
availability of free slave labour led to the Dutch farmers expanding their farmers so that they
could further benefit from the free labour.

Slaves were also imported from Asian countries such as Indonesia and Madagascar. Some of
these slaves were skilled architects and carpenters. The skilled Asian slaves contributed
towards the development of a unique Cape infrastructure and furniture.

Female slaves were mostly used as domestic workers. These worked in Dutch homes as
servants who cleaned Dutch homes.

Origins of the Cape Coloured People

The Cape Coloureds were a product of interbreeding (miscegenation) between the European
settlers at the Cape and the local Khoekhoe communities. The first Dutch settlers at the Cape
were not accompanied by women. As a result, they were encouraged to marry the local Khoe
women.

Some of the Cape Coloureds were a product of interbreeding between the Khoekhoe
women and the Cape slaves especially those who were brought in from Madagascar and
Indonesia.

The Cape Coloureds adapted the Dutch culture and language and as a result lost their
African and Asia identities.

The emergence of the Cape Coloureds contributed to the enormous increase in the
population of the Cape Colony. These Coloureds provided the much needed additional
labour on the Dutch farms. Their biological fathers considered them illegitimate and hence
they could not inherit their fathers’ properties.

The Cape under Simon van der Stel

1679 to 1699

Simon van der Stel took over from Jan van Riebeeck in 1679. He was instructed to
strengthen the station and to cut company costs. This was to be achieved by encouraging
immigration and turning the station into a colony. Simon van der Stel began his task of
setting up a colony by establishing a new settlement at Stellenbosch in 1680. 9 families were

Page 52 of 100
 given farms as large as they thought they could cultivate. The establishment of Stellenbosch
further expanded the frontiers of the Cape Colony.

Simon van der Stel set up a Petty Court which tried minor cases/ offenses. This court was made
up of 2 company officials and 2 burghers who were appointed annually. Settlements which
were beyond the Cape Flats had burgher representatives who acted as a local council and petty
court.

At a social level, Simon van der Stel introduced the policy of direct immigration. This policy
encouraged immigrants from Europe to come settle in the Cape. The population of the Cape
expanded because of this policy.

Impact of Dutch Expansion on the Indigenous People of the Cape

Dutch expansion into the interior drove the San and the Khoe away from their ancestral lands.
As the Dutch had superior weapons, they easily drove the Khoesan into the desert areas of the
Kalahari and Namib deserts. While in the deserts, the Khoesan struggled to survive. Food and
water were scarce to find. The Khoesan were thus exposed to long periods of hunger and hence
they eventually died because of starvation. These deaths greatly reduced the populations of the
Khoesan.

The Dutch also stole the livestock of the Khoekhoe they came into contact with. The Khoe
pastoralists thus lost an important source of their livelihood. The loss of livestock forced the
Khoe to work on Boer farms or become migrant labourers. The loss of economic independence
also destroyed the Khoekhoe social structure as they were now forced to live in small numbers.

Dutch expansion also brought them into conflict with Bantu groups such as the Xhosa. In
1779 for example, there was a war between the Xhosa of Rarabe and the Boers. This was
the First Kaffir War (War of Dispossession). During these wars the Xhosa lost large herds of
their livestock. The loss of livestock denied the Xhosa access to a reliable supply of food and
this impoverished them to some extent.

To some extent Dutch expansion benefited some indigenous people of the Cape such as the
San and Khoekhoe. The Dutch for example exchanged tobacco and brass for Khoekhoe
livestock and ivory from the San. The Khoesan derived pleasure out of the tobacco they got
and used the brass to make jewelry which they used to enhance their beauty.

The indigenous people may also have acquired agricultural skills from working on Boer
farms. The Khoekhoe who had lost their livestock were forced to work on Boer farms. Once
they were freed from enslavement they may have used their new skills to improve their
agriculture.

Page 53 of 100
 Decline of the Dutch East India
Company 1790 to 1837

After the Seven year war (1756- 1763) between Britain and France, Britain became the most
dominant trade power. Britain’s control of trade therefore contributed to the collapse of
the Dutch East India Company as it was starved of trade.

Corruption in the company also contributed to its collapse. Company officials were more
interested in pursuing their personal interests and not those of the company. For example,
during the governorship of Adriaan van der Stel corruption became widespread. Senior
company officials allocated themselves large tracts of land.

The company collapsed also because of problems in Holland. As revenue from foreign trade
went down, the
Netherlands did not have money to bail the company out of the financial problems it was
experiencing.

At a political level, Holland also had problems. There were divisions in the country over
whether the country had to remain a monarchy or should become a republican
government.

The DEICo also collapsed because it became bankrupt. Because of bankruptcy the company
did not have funds which it could use to administer the Cape Colony. This lead to it failing to
pay its debts.

REVISION QUESTIONS

2017

(b) Explain the contribution of the Free Burghers to the development of the
Cape from 1652 to 1800 [6]

2016
(b) Explain any two reasons for the Dutch
settlement at the Cape in 1652. [6]

(c) ‘The arrival of slaves at the Cape was the most important reason for the expansion of the
Cape between 1652 and 1800.’ How far do you agree with this statement? Explain your
answer using two other reasons. [10]

2015
(b) Explain two reasons why the rule of the Dutch East India Company at the Cape

Page 54 of 100
collapsed in 1795. [6]

2013
(a) Name any four Boer towns established during the expansion of the Cape settlement from
1679 to 1795. [4]

2012
a) State any four motives for the Dutch
settling at the Cape in 1652. [4]

b) Explain relations between the Dutch and the Khoisan from 1652 to 1854. [6]

c) ‘The arrival of the French Huguenots in 1688 was the most important factor in the
development of the Cape.’ How far do you agree with this statement? Explain your
answer. [10]

2010
a) Describe the problems encountered by Jan van Riebeeck when he was setting up the half way
station at the Cape from 1652 to
1657. [4]
b) Explain how Simon van der Stel contributed to the development of the
Cape
Colony from 1679 to 1699. [6]

c) How far did the indigenous people benefit from the Dutch settlement at the Cape from
1652 to 1800? Explain your answer. [10]

2009
a) State four reasons for the establishment of the Dutch settlement at the Cape in
1652. [4]

b) Explain the effects of the Dutch colonisation of the Cape on the Khoikhoi
between 1652 and 1800. [6]

c) Was one of the following factors more important than the others in causing the rapid
expansion of the Cape Colony between 1652 and 1800:
i) immigration policies of governors; ii) the rise of the Free Burghers; iii) the emergence
of Trekboers?
Explain your answer, referring to i), ii) and iii)
above. [10]

Page 55 of 100
2008
a) State any four instructions that were given to Jan van Riebeeck by the Dutch East India
Company when he was sent to the Cape in
1652. [4]

b) Explain any three factors which led to the expansion of the Cape Colony between 1652
and1800. [6]

c) ‘The Dutch occupation of the Cape had both negative and position effects on the
indigenous people.’ How far do you agree with this statement? Explain your answer.
[10]

2006
a) State any four reasons for choosing the Cape as a refreshment station by the Dutch
East India Company in 1652. [4]

b) Explain how Jan van Riebeeck and Simon van der Stel contributed towards the
expansion of the cape Colony between 1652 and 1700.
[6]

c) ‘The British legal and administrative reforms were the most important causes of the
Boer Trek.’ How far do you agree with
i) the establishment of the circuit Courts in 1811;
ii) the introduction of English as the official language in 1828;
iii) the 50th Ordinance of 1828.’
Do you agree with this statement? Explain your answer referring to i), ii) and iii) [10]

2002
this statement? Explain your answer.
a) Describe the relations between the Dutch and the Khoikhoi at the Cape up to 1659. [4]
[10]

2005
a) State four factors which influenced the
Dutch to settle at the Cape in 1652. [4]

b) Explain the importance of slave labour in the development of the Cape Colony from
1657 to1800. [6]

c) ‘The following were all equally important in the expansion of the Cape Colony between
1652and 1800: i) the free burghers ii) Simon van der Stel iii) the loan farm system’.

Page 56 of 100
Do you agree with this statement? Explain your answer referring to (i), (ii) and (iii)
above. [10]

2003
a) What were the reasons for the Dutch
settlement at the cape in 1652? [4]

b) Explain the impact of the Dutch expansion

on the indigenous people of the Cape. [6]

c) ‘The following were all equally important reasons for the Boer Trek in 1835:
b) Explain the contribution of slaves to the development of the Cape during the
period1652-1806. [6]

c) ‘The following were equally important reasons for the European colonization of South
Africa before 1830: i) strategic reasons; ii) need for raw materials;
iii) need for slaves.’
Do you agree with the statement? Explain
your answer referring to i), ii) and iii) above.
[10]

THE BRITISH COLONIZATION OF THE CAPE UP TO 1835

References: (1) G Parker and P Pfukani: History of Southern Africa; Chapter 4; Pp. 53- 70.

(2) N. E. Davies: A History of Southern Africa; Chapter 4; Pp. 31- 45.

(3) K. Shillington: History of Southern Africa; Chapter 7; Pp. 84- 94.

________________________________

The British occupied the Cape on 10 th February 1806. This marked the end of Dutch rule. Unlike
in 1795 when the British had occupied the Cape, this time around, they had no intention of ever
again handing it back to the Dutch.

Reasons for British takeover of the Cape in 1806

The British did not want the Cape to fall into the hands of the French who were their rivals.
During the Napoleonic Wars (1803- 1815) the Batavian Republic allied itself with France hence
Britain took over the Cape. The British had now realized the strategic importance of the Cape.

Page 57 of 100
They also wanted to maintain the safety of their shipping routes to India. This was important as
Britain was a prominent trading power in the Indian Ocean region following their establishment
of a colony in India.

Furthermore, the British wanted to use the Cape as a refreshment station. The Cape would be
used as a place where British sailors would rest, get medical attention and stock up on fresh
supplies.

The British also wanted to use the Cape as a place where they could settle part of their
population. They wanted to turn the Cape into a colony like the ones they had in Australia and
Canada.

They also wanted to make the Cape more prosperous so that it could pay for its own
government from its own taxes.

Legal and Administrative Changes made by the British Up to 1835

In 1807 the British introduced the Abolition of Slave Trade Act. This law officially stopped trade
in slaves. Slaves could not be imported into the Cape Colony. The introduction of this act
resulted in shortage of labour especially in agricultural activities.

In 1809 the British further introduced the Pass Ordinance/ First Hottentot Code (1809). This
was after Boer farmers complained about the wandering, homeless and jobless Khoekhoe who
lived by raiding (plundering) and stealing from Boer homes. These Khoe were independent of
the laws of the colony. They were only subject to their clan chiefs. The Boers wanted these
Khoe to be treated as vagrants. The British government responded by introducing the Pass
Ordinance/ Law in 1809. This was a law that was introduced by the Governor of the Cape,
Caledon, and it stipulated/ stated that the following:

 The Khoe were to be brought under the law of the Cape unlike before;
 All Khoekhoe in the Cape Colony had to have a permanent address/ home which were
to be registered with the local landrost (magistrate);
 Khoekhoe had to have written contracts of service;
 Khoekhoe could only leave farms where they worked with a pass (permission) from their
employer.

 Khoekhoe who wished to leave the district they lived in had to get a pass from the
landdrost;
 Khoekhoe who did not have a permanent home address were to be arrested and be
handed over to a landdrost who could contract them to a farmer;

Page 58 of 100
  Khoekhoe had to carry passes at all times and those caught without passes would be
handed to a landdrost who could contract them to a farmer.

The Pass Ordinance (1809) had the following effects:

 The Khoekhoe were denied freedom of movement because the pass system limited/
reduced their movement. This was because the Khoekhoe could only move from one
part of the Cape Colony after being given permission to do so by their employers or
landdrost. Such permission was most of the time not given.
 The Khoekhoe were also subjected to forced labour/ the law resulted in the
enslavement of the Khoekhoe by the Boers. This was because Khoekhoe who did not
have or carry passes were almost always contracted to any Boer who needed labour.
This system therefore reduced the problem of shortage of labour that the Boers
experienced in 1807.
 Homeless Khoekhoe benefited from this law as they were accommodated on/ in Boer
farms where they were could be fed by their masters.

The British further introduced the Apprenticeship Act/ Second Hottentot Code in 1811. This
followed complaints from Boers that they were forced to bear the expenses of feeding
Khoekhoe children whose parents worked in their farms. Even though the Boers fed these
children at their own expense, the Khoekhoe children did not have any responsibilities on the
Boer farms. As a result of unending Boer cries, the new governor of the Cape, Lieutenant
General Sir
Francis Cradock, introduced the
Apprenticeship Act/ Hottentot Ordinance in 1811/ 12. The law stated that:

 Any Khoekhoe children born while their parents were still working on Boer farms and
maintained at the expense of the Boer/ employer could be apprenticed for 10 years.
Such an apprenticeship was to begin from the age of 8.

The effects of this law were the following:

 Khoekhoe children were enslaved from a very young age. This clearly further tied the
Khoekhoe to enslavement on Boer farms.
 The Boers had more free labour and therefore the initial problem of shortage of labour
was dealt with.

The Boer farmers were very pleased with this reform as it guaranteed the continuous supply of
free labour for 10 years.

Page 59 of 100
Missionaries complained about the ill treatment of the servants/ Khoekhoe and other Blacks by
their Boer masters. The British government therefore decided to introduce the Circuit Courts
in 1811/ 12. These were mobile courts which moved across the districts of the Cape Colony
hearing cases between blacks and whites. The Circuit Courts were primarily introduced to
promote equality before the law for all races in the Cape Colony. Such equality would also stop
the Boers from ill-treating their servants. The Circuit Courts also recognized the Khoekhoe and
other blacks as citizens of the Cape and the British hoped this would satisfy the Khoekhoe who
would eventually accept their servile position.

Missionaries helped Khoekhoe servants to bring charges of assault and or abuse against their
Boer masters. However, many accusations of violence were about incidents that happened a
long time ago. Many of such cases were dismissed for lack of evidence.

Boers who were traditionally not used to the idea of a servant taking his master to court greatly
resented (hated) the Circuit Courts. To these Boers, it was unchristian or even laughable to be
taken to court by a servant. The Boers also hated the idea of them being put on an equal
footing with their former servants. This was because the Boers considered themselves as a
superior race over the inferior blacks (Khoekhoe). The Boers therefore viewed the introduction
of the Circuit Courts as interference by missionaries and British officials in their god given right
to treat their Khoekhoe servants however they wished/ wanted.

Some Boers were also angered by the fact that some of the Khoekhoe were employed as court
interpreters. These Khoekhoe could speak and understand the English language better than the
illiterate Boers.

The majority of the Boers especially those at the frontiers of the Cape Colony hated the Circuit
Courts so much that they even referred to them as the “Black Circuit”. This was a display of the
belief that the courts favoured the Khoekhoe and other blacks over whites (Boers).

The introduction of the Circuit Courts benefitted the Khoekhoe in the following ways:

 The Khoekhoe were freed from physical abuse since the Boers feared the
embarrassment of being taken to court by their servants;
 The Khoekhoe were now recognized by before laws of the Cape Colony as they were
now placed on an equal footing with the whites;
 The Khoekhoe were employed as court interpreters and hence they could improve their
lives/ well-being with the wages they were paid.

The Circuit Courts had the following effects on the Boers:

Page 60 of 100
  They filled the Boers especially the illiterate Boers in the rural areas, with hatred and
anger towards the missionaries and British government officials. They were angered the
most by being brought before the courts for false accusations.
 The courts contributed to the Boer Trek as the Boers wanted to free themselves from
British control and or interference in their affairs (ill treatment of the Khoekhoe and
other non-whites).

The strong hatred towards the Circuit Courts led to the Slagters’ Nek Incident of 1813- 1815. In
1813 a frontier Boer, Frederick Bezuidenhout, was summoned (ordered) to appear before the
circuit court at Graaff Reinet on a charge of mistreating one of his servants. Bezuidenhout
ignored the summons for 2 years. In 1815 British soldiers accompanied by Khoekhoe were sent
to arrest him. He however, resisted and decided to shoot at the arrest party. He was eventually
shot dead.

Following his death, his family and friends planned to avenge his death. Their plan was to
involve the frontier districts into a rebellion against the British. They also intended to ask for
support from the Xhosa of Gaika whom they promised land on the Zuurveld. Once such a
rebellion had succeeded, they would then form an independent republic.

The rebellion, however, failed as the majority of the burghers refused to take part. The
ringleaders were arrested and put on trial where 6 of them were sentenced to death. One of
the 6 convicts was pardoned by the Cape governor, Lord Charles Somerset. The remaining 5
were publicly hanged at a place called Slagters’ Nek. This incident came to be known as the
“Massacre of Slagters’ Nek” to the Boers. They viewed it as a symbol of British oppression.

The incident had the following results:

 It increased Boer hatred of the British whom they viewed as being very harsh on them
(Boers);
 It contributed to some Boers, especially in the frontiers, deciding to move away from
the Cape Colony.

Throughout the early years of British rule at the Cape, missionary societies were trying to
influence government policy towards the Khoekhoe. At the fore front of this movement was the
London Missionary Society under Dr. John Phillip. In 1826 he went to England to campaign for
the rights of the Khoekhoe. His campaigns resulted in the British government at the Cape
introducing (issuing) the 50th Ordinance in 1828. The Ordinance stipulated (stated) the
following:

 The Hottentot Ordinances of 1809 and 1811 were to be abolished (it cancelled the
Hottentot Ordinance/

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Pass Law of 1809 and the
Apprenticeship Act of 1811);
 The Khoekhoe could work for a wage;
 The Khoekhoe could own land.

The effects of this Ordinance on the Khoekhoe included the following:

 The Khoekhoe were guaranteed freedom of movement as they were no longer required
to carry passes wherever they went;
 They Khoekhoe could no longer work on Boer farms against their will. They now had the
liberty to negotiate contracts with any potential employers;
 Khoekhoe children were freed from bondage as they were no longer required to work as
apprentices on Boer farms;
 Even though the Khoekhoe could own land, they could not take advantage of this law as
they did not have money with which they could purchase land.

The Boers were strongly opposed to this law. This was mainly because of the following effects it
was to have on them:

 There would be loss of labour especially among the poor Boers who could not afford to
pay reasonable wages to attract Khoekhoe workers to their farms;
 The 50th Ordinance also resulted in some Boers deciding to move out of the Cape during
what came to be known as the Boer Trek.

Although the British government had abolished the slave trade in 1807, slavery itself especially
in British colonies was not abolished/ prohibited/ banned. In 1833, the British abolished
slavery throughout their empire which included the Cape Colony.

The Abolition of Slavery Act stated that:

 All slaves were to be freed by 1st December 1834;

 All former/ ex- slaves were to be apprenticed to their former masters for 4 years;
 Slave owners at the Cape were to be compensated for each slave owned;
 Compensation was to be claimed in London.

The effects of the abolition of slavery on the Boers included the following:

 Boers lost their source of free labour hence there was a decline in
agricultural production;
 Boers incurred expenses as they had to pay agents high fees to have them process their
claims in London;
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  It contributed to the Boer Trek as the Boers wanted to move away from British control
so that they could have unlimited access to slave labour in the interior of Southern
Africa.

The Abolition of Slavery had the following effects on the Khoekhoe and other nonwhites at the
Cape:

 The Khoekhoe and other blacks were freed from bondage and thus
reclaimed their dignity (self-worth);
 The Khoekhoe and other blacks could now sell their labour to whoever was willing to
pay them attractive wages for their labour.

Administrative Reforms

From the 1800s, the British introduced several administrative reforms so that they could make
the running of the colony efficient and also so that they could make the Cape Colony a strictly
English colony.

In 1813 the British introduced a land reform policy. The land reforms introduced by the
Governor of the Cape, Cradock, were intended to do away with the Loan farm System which
was used by the Dutch before the British came in. Under the loan farm system Boers were
given freedom to move and settle where they wished. Many Boers thus moved deep into the
interior where the Dutch government could not follow them up with the registration of their
new land or even collect annual rental fees (quit rent) from them.

The new land reform reforms stated that:

 Loan Farms were to be turned into permanent holdings (properties);

 Land would be surveyed;
 Boundaries were to be defined;
 Title deeds were to be issued;
 Land owners would be required to pay an annual quit rent;
 No more loan farms would be given out;
 Land would be bought and sold by auction.

The following were the effects of the land reforms on the Boers:

 The Boers felt that they were robbed of their freedom to settle wherever they wished;
 They also believed their birthright was take away from them since they could no longer
acquire large pieces of land;

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  Boer hatred for British rule intensified especially after the land reforms were tightened
in 1832. This also contributed to the Boer Trek in 1835.

In the 1820s, the British came up with a policy of Anglicization. This was a policy that sought to
make the Cape look English. The policy was characterized by the following changes:

 At the end of the Napoleonic Wars, Britain was faced with high levels of unemployment.
The government therefore feared that this situation could lead to a revolution in the
country. It was therefore decided that a revolution could be avoided by encouraging
British people to emigrate to the Cape. The British parliament thus made money
available to assist those who wished to go. In 1820 the government sent 5000 British
settlers to the eastern Cape. On arrival at the Cape, they were given 40 hectares of land
each. The settlers were to farm this land and at the same time help secure the eastern
frontier. However, the saline soils and climatic conditions of the Zuurveld area where
the settlers were allocated land were not suitable for wheat farming. The 40 hectares
plots they were allocated were also too small to support pastoral farming.

The settlers could also not find enough labour as they were prohibited to keep slaves.
Xhosa raids into the area made life very difficult for the settlers. Many of the settlers
were craftsmen and traders hence they could not successfully practice agriculture. By
1822 many of the settlers had abandoned their farms and settled in towns in the eastern
Cape.

The arrival of the 1820 settlers had the following effects:

 Boers were filled with anger as they believed that the new settlers were impurities who
would contaminate their culture;
 Boers were angered by the settlement of the 1820 settlers on the Zuurveld because they
thought that it was an attempt by the British government to contain Boer
expansion into the interior;
 The settlers introduced aspects of town life in the eastern Cape such as retail trade and
small service
industries;
 The settlers put pressure on the government to free the press and extend educational
opportunities to all in the Cape;

 The settlers increased the population of English speakers at the Cape.

Page 64 of 100
In 1825 the British decided to replace the old Dutch rix Dollar with the English pound. This was
after the Rix dollar had lost value. The move was therefore intended to improve the Cape’s
financial and economic situation.

The introduction of a new currency had the following effects:

 Boers were angered as they still considered the rix dollar as a symbol of Dutch pride;
 Boers were also angered by this change as they thought it was an attempt by the British
to erode Dutch culture;
 The new English currency did not bring about an immediate improvement of the Cape’s
economy.

In 1828 the British introduced English as the official language of the Cape Colony. As the
official language of the colony, the English language was used in courts, schools and
government offices. However, notices in the government gazette continued to be issued in both
English and Afrikaans.

The introduction of English as the official language of the Cape had the following effects:

 It angered the Boers who strongly believed the move was intended to erode their
culture. Afrikaans was an important part of the Boers culture therefore, the Boers felt
that their cultural heritage was being undermined;
 Many Boers especially the old and those who lived in rural areas could not speak nor
understand the English language and as a result, they could not carry out official
transactions in English;
 Boers who could not speak nor understand English had no rely on interpreters some of
whom were Khoekhoe. This left such Boers embarrassed as they thought they were
superior than the Khoekhoe;
 Khoekhoe who understood and spoke English gained employment as court interpreters.
This improved their lives as they were paid wages for their services;
 The Cape became more English as many people now spoke English as opposed to
Afrikaans.

In 1828 the government further introduced reforms in the press. The new press reforms or
laws enabled printing houses to do their work without undue interference from the
government. The press could however not violate libel laws. Printing houses were also required
to pay a £300 deposit before they could be allowed to go into business. Furthermore, printing
houses had to pay a 1 penny tax.

The law had the following effect:

Page 65 of 100
  New printing houses emerged and this resulted in an increase in the number of
newspapers printed in English and Dutch. These newspapers included the Grahamstown
Journal, Zuid Afrikaan and the Commercial Advertiser.

Reforms were also carried out on the church. From 1824, the Dutch Reformed Church was
given some degree of freedom, for example between 1824 and 1828 government officials
stopped attending Synod (Church Council Meetings).

The Roman Catholic Church was also given the right to worship in 1820. The
government further paid the salaries of their priests as it was the case in other
denominations (churches).

Reforms were also introduced in the judiciary between 1828 and 1834. These reforms were
intended to bring about efficiency. In 1827 the government issued the First Charter of Justice.
This charter was implemented in 1828. The new charter introduced a new legal system in the
Cape which was modeled on the English system.

The new judicial system had the following features:

 The establishment of a Supreme Court whose judges were to be appointed by the

British government;
 The court would be independent of the Governor of the Cape and would in criminal
matters (cases) be assisted by a jury of 9 men;
 The Circuit Courts would be held twice in a year;
 The landdrost and heemraden (representatives of burghers who acted like a council
and a petty court) were to be replaced by government appointed resident
magistrates who were to deal with judicial matters;
 The government would also appoint civil commissioners who were to deal with civil
matters;
 The burgher senate was to be done away with;
 English was to become the official language of the courts as the Dutch language was
not spoken by the majority of the population.

The judicial reforms had the following effects:

 There was strong opposition from the Boers as they felt that the British wanted to
kill their culture;
 The judiciary became efficient, reliable and Justas those who carried out justice had
the necessary training.

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In another attempt to improve the running of the Cape, an Advisory Council was set up in 1825.
This council consisted of the governor of the Cape, Chief Justice and Colonial Secretary. The
primary duty of the council was to advise the governor who however could choose not to
accept the advice given. In 1827 2 seats were set aside for the Boer settlers. These members
were to be nominated by the government. This was however met with strong opposition from
the Boer population who showed their opposition by the slogan “No taxation without consent”.

In 1834 a Legislative Council was set up. This replaced the Advisory Council of 1825. The
function of this new body was to debate bills and pass new laws.

REVISION QUESTIONS

2019
(a) Describe any two aspects of the
Freeburgher system. [4]

(b) Explain any two reasons why the British occupied the Cape in 1806. [6]

(c) ‘The arrival of the British at the Cape in 1806 brought only benefits to the Boers.’ How far
do you agree with this statement?
Explain your answer. [10]

2017

(a) Describe the terms of the Hottentot

Ordinance passed by the British in the
Cape Colony in 1809 [4]

2015
(c) “The British takeover of the Cape in 1806 had both positive and negative effects on the
people of South Africa.” How far do you agree with this statement? Explain your answer. [10]
2013
(b) Explain the effects of the Slagters’ Nek incident of 1815 on the Boers at the Cape. [6]

(c) How far did the British reforms of 1809 to 1834 benefit the Africans? Explain your
answer. [10]

2011
(b) Explain any three British reforms at the
Cape from 1806 to 1835. [6]

Page 67 of 100
a) Describe the factors which led to the British occupation of the Cape in 1806.
[4]

b) Explain the factors that led to the Boer Trek (other than the British reforms at the
Cape) [6]

c) How far were the indigenous groups of Southern Africa affected by the Boer Trek up to
1854? Explain your answer.
[10]

2009
a) Describe the changes that were introduced by the British at the Cape in the judiciary system
between 1807 and 1828.
[4]

b) Explain how the Pass Ordinance of 1809

affected the lives of the Khoikhoi. [6]

c) Was one of the following factors more important than the others in causing the Boer Trek:
i) Land reforms of 1813; ii) Fiftieth Ordinance of 1828; iii) Abolition of slavery of 1833-4? Explain
your answer, referring to i), ii) and iii)
above. [10]

2004
a) State any four factors which led to the
British occupation of the Cape in 1806. [4]

b) Explain how the Circuit Courts (1811) and the 50th Ordinance (1828) improved the life
of the non-whites at the Cape. [6]

c) ‘The Boer Trek was mainly caused by the British reforms introduced at the Cape’. How far do
you agree with the statement? Explain your answer. [10]

2000
a) Briefly describe the British legal reforms of the 1820s in the Cape Colony.
[4]

b) How far was the Slagters Nek incident of 1815 a reaction to the British changes at the
Cape? [6]

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c) To what extent did the British reforms listed below benefit the Africans at the Cape?
i) 1811 Circuit Courts; ii) 1828 50th Ordinance; iii) 1833/4 Abolition of Slavery [10]

THE BOER TREK 1835- 1854

References:

(1) K. Shillington: History of Southern Africa; Chapter 8; Pp. 95- 109.

(2) N. E. Davis: A History of Southern Africa: Chapter 5; Pp. 46- 56.

(3) G. S. Were: A History of South Africa (New Edition); Chapter 4; Pp. 53- 67.

(4) G. Parker and P. Pfukani: History of Southern Africa; Chapter 6; Pp. 94- 120.

When the Boers left the Cape during their trek into the interior, they were accompanied by
their Khoekhoe and coloured servants. These servants herded their Boer masters’ livestock and
harnessed and led the trek oxen.

During the trek, the Voortrekkers subsisted on meat and milk of their livestock. They also
hunted wild animals for meat. They also bartered for grains with local African farmers.

Definition of the Boer Trek

It was a movement of angry or unhappy Boers (Voortrekkers) from the Cape into the interior of
Southern Africa from 1835 to 1854.

Leaders of the Boer Trek

When Boers left the Cape during the Boer Trek, they left in several groups under the leadership
of different individuals. Some of the leaders of the trek were:

 Louis Trichardt (Trigardt)

 Jan van Rensburg
 Andries Hendrik Potgieter
 Sarel Cilliers
 Gerrit Maritz
 Piet Retief
 Andries Pretorius
 Piet Uys
Page 69 of 100
 Reasons why the Boers left the Cape
Colony

The Boer Trek was caused by many different factors as it shall been shown below. Some of the
causes of the Boer Trek were directly associated with Boer opposition and hatred of the
reforms introduced at the Cape by the British. Some Boers left the Cape because of the
traditional Boer way of life they led.

 The Boer Trek was caused by the introduction of the Circuit Courts (1811/12) at the
Cape. This angered the Boers as the courts placed them on an equal footing with the
Khoekhoe who they considered to be inferior. Khoekhoe servants could now take their
Boer masters to court if they were abused. The Boers believed that this was heretical
(against God’s law) therefore they decided to move away so that they could uphold
God’s law. The Boers also moved away so that they could save themselves the
embarrassment of being brought before a court of law by their servants.

 Some Boers also moved away from the Cape because of the 50 th Ordinance. This law
also brought about a sense of equality before the law between the Khoekhoe, San and
other free non-whites and Boers. The law repealed the discriminatory Pass Law of 1809
and Apprenticeship Ordinance of 1811. The Khoekhoe now had freedom of movement
like any other resident of the Cape Colony. It also gave the Khoekhoe the freedom of
working for a wage. This angered the Boers as they were now denied free labour as the
majority of them were poor and could therefore not afford to pay decent wages to their
workers. By moving away, Boers wanted to free themselves from British interference in
their affairs.

 The Abolition of Slavery Act of 1833/ 34 also angered the Boers hence they decided to
move away from the Cape. Boers were angered by this law as it called for the freeing of
all slaves. This freeing of slaves resulted in labour shortages on Boer farms. Boers
therefore decided not move away from the Cape Colony into the interior of Southern
Africa so that they could continue using nonwhites as slaves in their farms. This to them
was a part of their culture they had to preserve.

 The British Land Reforms also contributed to the Boer Trek. When then British turned
loan farms into permanent holdings, Boers were angered. The new land reforms
reduced the size of land Boers could have. Boers could also no longer be given loan

Page 70 of 100
 farms. This angered the Boers as they believed that the British were denying them their
birth right. To reclaim this God given right, the Boers decided to move away from the
Cape.

 The introduction of English as the official language of the Cape Colony also resulted in
the Boer Trek. As an official language, English was used in courts and schools. Boers
were opposed to this change as they believed that it was an attempt by the British to
erode their culture. Some Boers especially those who could not speak and understand
English may have left the Cape because they wanted to save themselves the
embarrassment of having their former Khoekhoe servants translating for them in court.

 The reversal of the annexation of the province of Queen Adelaide by the British filled
Boers with anger. During the Kaffir War of 1834, the Boers fought on the side of the
British against the Xhosa. After the Xhosa were defeated, they were pushed out of their
land and Governor Benjamin D’Urban made the area of land between Keiskama and Kei
rivers a part of the Cape Colony. This newly annexed territory, renamed Province of
Queen Adelaide, was to be occupied by European settlers. The Boers were especially
hoping that they would be allowed to claim it as theirs. The annexation of the province
of Queen Adelaide was however nullified by the British Secretary of State Lord Glenelg.
Lord Glenelg believed that the annexation was intended to wipe out the non- whites by
taking away their land. The cancellation of the annexation was viewed by Boers as a
clear message that the British did not consider the Boers and their interests to be
important. It was also seen as a further attempt to deny Boers access to land which was
a birth right.

 Rumours also contributed to the Boer Trek. Some of the rumours which made the Boers
to move away from the Cape included the following: all land would be given to the
Khoekhoe; policy of mixed/ inter marriages would be introduced; compulsory military
service would be introduced; Boers would be forced to abandon their Dutch Reformed
Church and become Roman
Catholics. These rumours, although unfounded, intensified Boer hatred of the British.
Some Boers therefore moved away as they did not want to intermarry with the
Khoekhoe and other non-whites as that would have contaminated their race.

 Most of the Boers were nomadic pastoralists. These Boers moved frequently in search
of better pastures for their animals. This migratory character therefore drove them
further and deep into the interior of Southern Africa.

Page 71 of 100
 Course of the Boer Trek

The first Voortrekkers left the Cape in 1835. This group was led by Jan van Rensburg and
Louis Trichardt. This group consisted of 100 Voortrekkers. The group settled at Soutpansberg
on the edges of the Transvaal Highveld.

From here Jan van Rensburg moved to the Limpopo Valley so that he could open up a trade
route to the coast. While there he clashed with the Tsonga who killed him and all of his
followers.

Trichardt had remained in Soutpansberg until he was eventually forced by shortage of

ammunition in 1838 to follow Van Rensburg to the coast. On the way to the coast, many of the
trekkers including Trichardt, died from malaria. The survivors who were mostly women,
children and one man went by boat to Port Natal in 1839.

Hendrik Potgieter led another trek party from the Cape Colony northwards until he settled at
Thaba Nchu which was an area under the Bataung (Taung) of Chief Makwana (Shillington
suggests that this group settled near the Rolong settlement of Thaba Nchu). Whist still at Thaba
Nchu, Potgieter was joined by other trekkers led by Sarel Cilliers and Barend Liebenberg.

Potgieter’s group was attacked by the Ndebele while he was away to the north where he had
gone to look for an outlet to the sea. Sensing another Ndebele attack the trekkers set up a
laager on the hill of Vegkop. Indeed, the Ndebele attacked in October 1836. A group of 40 Boer
men and boys repelled the 3000 Ndebele warriors. Although the Ndebele were defeated, the
Boers lost all of their cattle and sheep. The trekkers were rescued by a donation of cattle by the
Taung (according to Shillington, the trekkers were rescued by Moroka’s Rolong who lent them
oxen to pull their wagons back to Thaba Nchu).

Gerrit Maritz led another trek party from the Cape Colony to Thaba Nchu. Maritz was elected
landdrost of the united laagers in Thaba Nchu. Following his election, the trek Boers began to
prepare for an attack on the Ndebele. In 1837 the Boers attacked and defeated the Ndebele.
They captured thousands of Ndebele cattle. The victorious party set up the settlement of
Winburg in memory of their victory over the Ndebele. The defeated Ndebele fled northwards
and left their land (Orange Free State) for occupation by the Boers.

Piet Retief led yet another trek away from the Cape northwards. His party consisted of 400
former Boer residents of Grahamstown district. This party arrived at Thaba Nchu in April 1837.
Retief was elected as governor of the united laagers.

In 1837 Piet Retief left Thaba Nchu and headed to Natal where he was hoping to obtain land.
While in Natal Retief met Dingane, the Zulu king at the time. The purpose of the meeting was to
negotiate for land. After lengthy discussions Retief and his followers were given land. However,

Page 72 of 100
before this could happen, Dingane sent Retief out to recapture stolen Zulu cattle. Before Retief
could return the cattle, his supporters set up laagers on Zulu land and this angered the Zulu king
who now believed the Boers could not be trusted. After the cattle were returned to Dingane, a
ceremony was held at the king’s palace to bid farewell to Retief. While the ceremony was still
going on, Dingane sent orders that Retief and his party be killed. Retief and his party were thus
killed and this was in February 1838.

Impact of Boer Invasion on the Indigenous Peoples

The Boer Trek mainly had negative effects on the indigenous people of Southern Africa. There
were however a handful of positive effects on the Africans in the interior of Southern Africa.

One of the negative effects of the Boer Trek was that it led to loss of land by Africans. As the
number of Voortrekkers who moved into the interior increased so did their demand for land. As
pastoralist the Boers needed land on which they could rear livestock. This land could only be
obtained through conquest as the Africans also needed it for settlement, pasture and arable
farming. The Boers used guns and horses to drive Africans out of their land. In 1837 for example
Voortrekkers under the combined leadership of Hendrik Potgieter and Piet Uys defeated the
Ndebele in battle and forced them to flee to the Matopo Hills. The emptied land was
immediately occupied by the victorious Boers. This loss of land disturbed the economic
activities of the Africans especially arable and pastoral farming. This resulted in African groups
raiding their neighbours for crops and livestock.

Many Africans also lost lives during the Boer Trek. Although the Boers were numerically inferior
as compared to the Africans, Voortrekkers killed thousands of Africans during wars over land
and cattle. This was because Boers used modern guns and horses while Africans fought on foot
and used spears. During the Battle of Blood River in December 1838, 3000 Zulu warriors were
killed while only 3 Boers were injured. The huge loss in human life depopulated African groups.
This immense loss in life also contributed to the weakening of African groups as their military
strength was also determined by their numbers.

Many African groups also lost their livestock to the Boers during the Boer Trek. Defeated
African groups had their livestock especially cattle taken away by the victorious Boers. In 1837
the Boers attacked and defeated the Ndebele. The victorious Boers captured 7000 Ndebele
cattle. This enormous loss of cattle reduced the Ndebele to poverty and this explains why the
Ndebele resorted to raiding their neighbours such as the Tswana for cattle. They primarily
wanted to replace the cattle they lost to the marauding (all conquering) Boers.

During the journey into the interior Voortrekkers traded with some local communities they
came into contact with. During the Boer Trek the trekking Boers had no time to grow crops.

Page 73 of 100
They therefore bartered with Africans. Africans were given alcohol, tobacco, iron tools and
cotton clothes in exchange for grains. From the alcohol and tobacco Africans derived pleasure.

Effects of the Boer Trek on the Interior of Southern Africa

The Boer Trek resulted in the establishment of the new “Republic of Natalia” in 1839 with its
parliament at Pietermaritzburg. The new republic was independent from British control. This
spelt trouble for Africans around the new republic. Africans living within the Borders of the
republic were required to provide free labour on the large farms the Boer government had
allocated to the Boers. African children were even captured as apprentices by the Boer farms.
Even though this was the case, there were restrictions on the numbers of African families that
could settle on Boer farms. Thus, the establishment of new republics reduced Africans to
squatters on their land. It finally resulted in the enslavement of the Africans.

Another effect of the Boer Trek was the Sand River Convention of 1852. Voortrekkers in the
Transvaal had complete independence from British control. At the Sand River Convention of
1852, the British recognised the independence of all Voortrekkers republics north of the Vaal
River. These Boer republics had the freedom to treat their African subjects and neighbours
anyhow. The British in other words were not to interfere in the affairs of the Boer republics. It
was also agreed that the British would not sell arms and ammunition to the Africans. However,
the Boers were not to enslave the Africans. As Africans could not buy guns and ammunitions,
they were weakened militarily hence they could not challenge Boer military superiority.

The Napier Treaties of 1843 were signed as a result of the Boer Trek. In 1843 the Cape
Governor, Napier, entered into a treaty with the Sotho under Moshoeshoe and the
Griqua of Dam Kok. The British entered into these treaties because they wanted to use their
independent African neighbours in maintaining peace along the Cape Colony’s borders. On the
other hand, African chiefs believed the treaties would commit the British to stop their Boer
subjects from raiding their territories (lands). This treaty system did not however bring about
peace in the region. The Sotho who were militarily strong dominated the Rolong and Tlokwa
who were determined to maintain their independence. In the 1840s raids between the all-
powerful Sotho and Tlokwa, Rolong and Boers intensified.

The Boer Trek also resulted in Tswana groups such as the Kgatla and Kwena developing close
ties with missionaries from the 1840s. The Tswana knew that once missionaries had set up
missions in their states traders from the Cape would follow. Missionaries were also seen as
allies against Boers. Cape traders were a vital source of guns which the Tswana needed to
especially defend themselves against the hostile Boers of the South Africa Republic. These
Boers intended to force the Tswana to provide them with free labour on their farms. During the
Battle of Dimawe on 30 August 1852, the Kwena successfully defended themselves against a
Boer attack led by a certain Scholtz. The close relationship with missionaries enabled the

Page 74 of 100
Tswana to acquire guns which they successfully used to stop the Voortrekkers from completely
taking over their land.

REVISION QUESTIONS

2017
(c)Was one of the following factors more important than the others in contributing to the Boer
Trek during the 1830s:

(i) Hunger for land; (ii) Emancipation Act of 1834; (iii) Anglicisation of the Cape? Explain your
answering, referring to (i), (ii) and (iii) above (10)

2012
a) Describe the routes followed by any two
Boer leaders during the Boer Trek. [4]

b) Explain how the Boer Trek benefitted the

Boers up to 1854. [6]

c) To what extent was the Boer Trek a culmination of Boer protest against equality between the
Blacks and Whites? Explain
your answer. [10]

2007
a) Name any four Boer leaders during the
Boer Trek. [4]

b) Explain the reasons why the Boer Trek

took place [6]

c) ‘The Boer Trek had both negative and J.D. Omer- Cooper, a Mfecane historian, positive
effects on the economic life of the described the Mfecane as a process of
Sotho-Tswana.’ How far do you agree with
this statement? Explain your answer. political change in Southern Africa

Page 75 of 100
[10] brought about by wars and migrations
which began in the areas around the
2006
Explain how the ‘Great Trek’ affected the economic Tugela River and Delagoa Bay during the
organization of African communities
later part of the 18th and 19th centuries.
in the interior of Southern
Africa up to the 1860s. [6]
Historians have different views regarding
2005
a) What was the ‘Great Trek’? the causes of the
Mfecane. Because of this,
[4]

b) Explain how any two reforms

introduced by the British helped to cause the
‘Great
Trek’. [6] there are two schools of thought/ views
regarding the causes of the Mfecane. These
c) ‘The ‘Great Trek’ disrupted the are: the conventional/old/traditional
economic activities of the African school of thought led by J.D. Omer-
communities in the interior of the present- Cooper and the new school of thought led
day South Africa’. by Julian Cobbing.
How far do you agree with this statement?
Explain your answer.
[10]

THE MFECANE/ DIFAQANE

Definition The Mfecane can be defined as a series of wars and disturbances amongst 'the
Nguni peoples of Southern Africa during the early 19 th century. It can also be referred to as a
series of inter ethnic/ tribal wars between the Nguni of Southern
Africa in the 1820s.

Causes of the Mfecane

Traditional School of Thought

Page 76 of 100
Population Explosion/ Increase
Due to population increase in Nguni land, there was constant friction between the different
ethnic groups (Ndwandwe, Ngwane, Mthethwa, etc) in the area. This population growth was
caused by an abundance of food supplies, favourable climatic and environmental conditions
and the introduction of the high yield crop of maize. There was as a result plenty of food all
year round.

Because of favourable climatic conditions, livestock populations soared. This coupled with
increases in human populations led to a scarcity of land for human settlement, crop
cultivation and livestock rearing.

The Nguni people could not expand anywhere. Expansion within Nguni land was limited by
the geography of the area. To the north for example, was the Pongola River and to the south
the Tugela River to the east was the Indian Ocean and to the west, there was the
Drakensberg range of mountains.

To overcome this serious land shortage, kingdoms in Nguni land started to attack each
other. Defeated groups attacked other groups and so on and so forth. There was a chain
reaction of violence, the Mfecane.
Natural Disasters/ Catastrophes
Severe droughts and famine have also been identified as causes of the Mfecane. Nguni land
was hit by a series of natural disasters during the 19 th century. One of these was the Madlatule
famine which lasted for about ten years. During this period rainfall amount was not enough to
support agricultural activities (crop production and livestock rearing). This famine therefore left
the Nguni people without food supplies for very long periods of time. Lack of food led to
kingdoms attacking each other and, in the process, raiding for food and livestock. Those
kingdoms which failed to defend themselves and raid for food and livestock faced ultimate
disappearance.

Monopoly of Delagoa Bay Trade Delagoa Bay was an important trading centre. The majority of
long distance trade with European ships was conducted there. Africans provided the Europeans

Page 77 of 100
with ivory and in return they got European goods such as beads and cloth. This trade proved to
be very profitable. Different leaders/ rulers of the different Nguni ethnic groups as a result
wanted to control the trade. They each wanted to monopolize it.

A king who controlled the Delagoa Bay trade could become wealthy and powerful. This made
the Nguni leaders such as Dingiswayo and Zwide to compete with each other. In the fullness of
time, this competition led to conflicts and open warfare (Ndwandwe – Mthethwa War of 1818).

Note that the most powerful and therefore important groups in the whole of Nguni land at the
time were the Ndwandwe of Zwide, the Mthethwa of Dingiswayo and the Ngwane of Sobhuza.
War between these groups affected all the other groups in the region.

Rise of the Zulu kingdom and Shaka's revolutionary innovations

The emergence of the Zulu kingdom under Shaka transformed the political landscape of the
whole of Nguni land. The Zulu nation became very strong militarily.

The Zulu were before the Mfecane wars a very small and not so important group. They were
2000 strong at the most. Because of their inferior numbers, they were under the Mthethwa.
After Shaka became the Zulu king, the Zulu became an important player in the politics of
Nguni land.

As a ruler, Shaka introduced some reforms in the military. These reforms led to successes
in battle. The following are some of the reforms:

• He introduced the short stabbing spear. Nguni warriors used long thrown spears. The
Short stabbing spear revolutionized warfare in Nguni land. Once the
enemy had thrown all its spears, the Zulu warriors moved in and stabbed them to
death with their short spears.

• He also introduced the cow horn formation. Under this formation, one or two
regiments engaged the enemy while other regiments cycled round at each side to
enclose it.

Page 78 of 100
 • Shaka further introduced the scotched earth policy. Enemies were totally defeated and
their property taken away from them. Their homes were burnt down. In short, Shaka
introduced total warfare in Nguni land. Defeated chiefs were murdered and their places
were taken by Shaka's trusted indunas.

• The element of surprise was yet another military reform introduced by Shaka.
Spies, smoke signals and runners were used.

• Sandals were also abolished as Shaka believed that they reduced the speed of the
warriors.

• Soldiers were not allowed to marry up until they attained the age of 40 years.

All in all, Shaka’s reforms enabled the Zulu to easily defeat their enemies. Their frequent
victories encouraged them to attack other groups at regular intervals and the defeated
groups would in turn attack their neighbours. There was therefore a chain of violence in
Nguniland.

Modern/ New School of Thought

This view of the causes of Mfecane is led by Julian Cobbing. According to this school of thought,
the Mfecane was caused by external and not internal factors. Remember that the old school of
thought views the Mfecane as having been caused by wars among and between the different
Nguni groups of Southern Africa, that is, it was caused by internal factors. The new school of
thought holds that the Mfecane was not an African problem in that it was caused by external
factors.

Cobbing argues that the Mfecane wars and migrations were not primarily caused by internal
stress and the ravages of Shaka's Zulu as suggested by Omer- Cooper. He however does not
dispute the fact that major disturbances had taken place in Southern Africa during the 1820s.

Cobbing further argued that the idea that the Mfecane was caused by the violent expansion of
the Zulu kingdom was not only wrong but also a deliberate falsification. According to Cobbing

Page 79 of 100
the wars which took place during the 1820s were caused by the expansion of European colonial
settlements and commerce in Southern Africa.

The expansion of slave raiding activities of Europeans from the frontiers of the Cape
Colony and the Portuguese at Delagoa Bay have been identified as the key external factors
which caused the Mfecane wars.

Slave Trading and raiding at Delagoa Bay

According to Cobbing, slave raiding and trade in slaves were taking place at the tip of
Mozambique and Nguni land. The Jere and Tembe were used as middlemen by the Portuguese
to raid for slaves from Nguni land. The slaves were meant for the slave markets at Delagoa Bay.

The raiding activities of both the Jere and Tembe caused conflicts between African kingdoms
south of Delagoa Bay. According to Cobbing the Jere and Tembe, and the Mthethwa and
Ndwandwe wars were caused by the slave raiding activities of the Jere and Tembe. In the
process, weaker groups were subjugated.

Cobbing's argument in short, is that the wars between the Jere and Tembe and the Ndwandwe
and the Mthethwa were caused by the slave trade business and not developments within
African societies as Omer-Cooper argues. Cobbing argues that the explosive expansion of the
Zulu kingdom was not the primary cause of the Mfecane. Shaka was rather reacting to the
entire situation. According to Cobbing Shaka's Zulu did not cause the Mfecane wars.

Demand for labour at the Cape Colony

Julian Cobbing argues that the increasing labour needs of the Cape Colony destabilized many
kingdoms in Nguni land. During the 1820s there was an acute shortage of labour in the Cape
Colony. This was as a result of the abolition of forced labor in the Cape Colony. Farm owners
therefore had to look for alternative sources of labour elsewhere. Europeans opted to hiring
the Griqua and Kora to capture slaves for them from the interior (Nguni land). The Griqua
raided for slaves using horses and guns and this destabilized the southern Highveld areas. These

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slave raiders attacked the Sotho- Tswana and captured their women and children and sold
them as labourers to the Europeans.

Cobbing uses the Battle of Dithakong to support his argument that the Mfecane wars were
caused by raids for slaves. It was widely believed that when Queen Mantatisi attacked the
Batlhaping during the Battle of Dithakong in 1823, she was fleeing from the Zulu. The truth of
the matter according to Cobbing is that the Tlokwa were victims of labour raids caused by the
Kora and Griqua. The Tlokwa were in other words raided for slaves by the agents of Europeans
of the Cape Colony and hence their running away. As it was characteristic of the Mfecane, they
attacked the next weaker people they came into contact with, the Batlhaping.

Age regiments
Age regiments could have not caused the Mfecane wars because they had always been in
existence. Besides this, Cobbing argues, age regiments played an important socio- political role
in African societies. They had never before led to wars of the magnitude of the Mfecane.

Population explosion
The issue of population explosion according to Cobbing could not be used to explain the causes
of the Mfecane. He argues that there was no empirical evidence to support the argument. No
census was carried out to show convincingly that population explosion had reached such
intolerable levels to cause the Mfecane.

In the final analysis, the slave trade and slave raiding make sound explanations than the ones
based on natural causes. External factors contributed immensely to the Mfecane. Put
differently, Africans on their own could not generate the violence which resulted from the
Mfecane.

Effects of the Mfecane Depopulation There was widespread warfare during the
Mfecane. These wars forced thousands of people to flee from their homes.

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Thousands of people also lost their lives during this period. The great losses in human
life led to depopulation. In other words, the demography of Nguni land
was adversely affected by the Mfecane.

Collapse of agriculture
The horrific Mfecane wars negatively affected agriculture. Thousands of people were constantly
running away from their attackers. Some were forced to lead predatory lives. This state of
warfare made it impossible for the people to carry out agricultural activities. Cultivation in
some areas stopped altogether. Some people lost their livestock to the cattle raiders.

Creation of new kingdoms One of the most obvious effects of the Mfecane was the
emergence of larger and more powerful states. One such state was the Zulu state. It was
militarily strong and hence it was able to change the political landscape of Nguni land. On the
Southern Highveld was the Sotho state of Moshoeshoe. Their neighbours paid them tribute.
The northern Highveld was dominated by the strong Ndebele state under Mzilikazi. The
Ndebele were known for their strong army which constantly attacked and raided their
neighbours for cattle. It must be noted that these new powerful states had very capable
military leaders as their kings, for example, Shaka of the Zulu, Mzilikazi of the Ndebele, etc.
The new states took the place of the old states such as the Mthethwa, Ndwandwe and
Ngwane. This means therefore that the Mfecane led to the collapse of old kingdoms.

The Career of Shaka

Shaka was born in about 1787 to a Zulu chief, Senzangakhona, and Langeni princess, Nandi. He
was born out of wedlock and hence he was considered an illegitimate child. As a child Shaka
and his mother were rejected by his father's people. He grew up as a bitter young man as a
result. The rejection by his people made him want to prove that he was a better man than his
half brothers.

Compared to their neighbours, the Zulu were a very small clan/ group, about 2000 strong.
Because of their inferior numbers, the Zulu were soon to be absorbed by the Mthethwa of

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Dingiswayo.
As soon as he was old enough, Shaka joined the Mthethwa army. While in the army he
proved himself a born soldier. He was a brave warrior and also an intelligent tactician.
Dingiswayo recognized his abilities and promoted him to head his regiment. In the process,
he became Dingiswayo's favourite warrior. When his father died in 1816, Shaka seized the
Zulu throne from his half brother, Sigujana. He enjoyed the backing of Dingiswayo.

FACTORS LEADING TO THE RISE OF THE ZULU NATION

The Zulu were a minor clan found around the Upper Mhlatuze River. They were about
2000 strong and were under chief Senzangakhona. Because of their inferior numbers,
they were under the numerically superior and militarily strong Mthethwa of Dingiswayo.

Shaka
As a youngster Shaka was under constant teasing and mocking from his peers. This was
because he was considered to be an illegitimate child. In spite of all this, he grew up to
become a very strong, intelligent and ambitious man. At around the age of 21 he joined the
Mthethwa army. While in the army, he proved himself to be a very good and brave soldier.
This prompted Dingiswayo to promote him to the position of regimental leader. Dingiswayo
also made him one of his military advisors. Following
Senzangakhona's death in 1816, Shaka, who was now a vastly experienced leader and soldier,
challenged for the Zulu throne. With the support of Dingiswayo Shaka was able to overthrow
his half-brother, Sigujana, and become the Zulu chief. Shaka's rise to the position of chief of
the Zulu was the first step towards the rise of the Zulu nation. The reforms he immediately
introduced in his chiefdom contributed immensely to its rise. The reforms transformed the
hitherto minor Zulu into a powerful nation.

Dingiswayo's Death
When Dingiswayo was killed in an ambush by Zwide's Ndwandwe, Shaka seized the
opportunity to succeed him (Dingiswayo). He immediately moved to bring the many
chiefdoms of the Mthethwa kingdom under his control. Their young men were incorporated
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into Zulu age regiments. This boosted the military strength of the Zulu. A strong Zulu nation
was to later on dominate the politics of Nguniland. Shaka also chose the heir to the
Mthethwa throne. The Mthethwa now were under the domineering rule of Shaka. The
handpicked successor to Dingiswayo could not take and make independent decisions
without the approval of Shaka.

Shaka’s Aims
i. Shaka wanted to revenge for the humiliation and suffering he and his mother
experienced when he was growing up.

ii. He also wanted to achieve greatness. iii. Furthermore, Shaka wanted to build a multi
tribal kingdom with all powers concentrated in his hands.

iv. Finally, he wanted to establish a powerful national standing army that would be capable to
defend the Zulu nation.
Military Reforms

Shaka's position as a chief allowed him to tryout his military reforms. The following were
some of the military reforms he introduced:

Short stabbing spear and long shield The short stabbing spear was one very effective weapon
of warfare introduced by Shaka. Shaka's warriors waited for their enemies to throw their long
spears at them. They then rushed in close and stabbed them to death. The Zulu warriors used
long shields to protect them from the long thrown spears from their enemies. Because of the
short stabbing spear the Zulu were able to inflict heavy defeats on their enemies. This method
of fighting promoted bravery.

Use of espionage
Shaka revolutionized warfare in the whole of Nguni land and beyond. This he did through
attacking his enemies when they least expected it. The Zulu army used espionage (spying on

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their enemies). Spies were used to gather information about the enemy. The use of this
method enabled the Zulu to easily defeat their enemies as they would have not been ready for
battle.

Cow horn formation

The cow horn formation was yet another battle tactic introduced by Shaka. In the cow horn
formation one or two regiments engaged the enemy while other regiments cycled round to
totally surround it. As the enemy was almost entirely surrounded, it could not escape and
hence it could be completely annihilated.

Total warfare
Defeated enemies were shown no mercy. Their women and children were killed. Their chiefs
also faced the same fate, that is, they were also killed. In their place Shaka put his trusted
indunas. Further to this, Shaka introduced the scotched earth policy. Under this policy, homes
and crop fields of defeated groups were burnt down. This was mainly done to ensure that the
enemy could not regroup in future and attack the Zulu.

Other military reforms:

• Warriors lived in barracks until they attained the age of

40 years. As active warriors, men were not allowed to marry. Shaka believed
that this would enable the soldiers to focus only on their military duties.

• Soldiers fought bare footed. Sandals were altogether discarded. This was done so
as to improve the speed of warriors during battle.

• Warriors were taught and encouraged to be brave and fearless.

In battle they were
supposed to kill both women and children without hesitation.
Cowardice in battle was punished by death.

• Regular training of warriors was introduced. It was Shaka's belief that warriors

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 needed to be physically fit at all

times.

• Young boys were used to carry the soldiers' baggage. Warriors only had to carry
their spears and shields. This enabled the soldiers to go into battle fresh.

Political Reforms
It is a fact that the Zulu were very strong militarily. However the military strength of the Zulu
was not the only reason why the Zulu were successful in battle. Good political reforms also
contributed to the military strength of the Zulu kingdom. The following are some of the
political reforms introduced by Shaka.

Shaka centralized authority. He was the commander of the army and the chief justice of the
kingdom. In short, all important decisions in the kingdom were taken by Shaka. Before the Zulu
became a too powerful group, kingdoms in Nguni land were loosely controlled by those in
authority. This he did probably to ensure that all military commanders were loyal to him and
therefore could not plot to topple him.

He also created a military state. All males and females aged between 18 and 36 years were
recruited into age regiments (male and female regiments lived in separate barracks). Large
regimental towns were set up around the kingdom. Male regiments looked after the cattle,
usually those captured in warfare. The warriors fed off their milk and meat. The female
regiments cultivated crop fields to feed the warriors and the rest of the kingdom. Military
commanders were solely appointed by Shaka. They were to be in charge of the male
regiments. Shaka's female relatives took charge of the female regiments. They were also to
report disloyal commanders to Shaka. The male regiments formed the main source of
warriors. As the majority of able bodied males in the kingdom were in the military, the Zulu
kingdom was principally a military state. The head of the kingdom was also a military man.

Chiefs from conquered tribes were either made sub chiefs or removed from their positions
and be replaced by Shaka’s appointees. This was done to ensure that they did not have power

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and the importance they had before. The sub chiefs only had power over old men and women.
Without the backing of the young men, these chiefs could not pose any threat to Shaka’s
authority.

Economic reforms
The most significant economic reform introduced by Shaka was placing strict control on trade.
This led to the heavy protection of the Delagoa Bay trade route. The Zulu traded their ivory for
beads and cloth with Delagoa Bay traders. Also, all ivory in the kingdom belonged to the king,
Shaka.

The End of Shaka

Because of Shaka's political reforms, the Zulu kingdom was in a perpetual state of war. After
all warfare made the Zulu kingdom what it were- a strong and feared military state. As Shaka
became all too powerful, more and more people were executed for even the silliest and
pettiest reasons. For example, following the death of Nandi in 1827, many people were killed.
Most of those killed were accused of having failed to show sufficient grief. As the Zulu warriors
were in constant battle with their enemies, both near and far, they in the fullness of time
began to tire. They traveled long distances in search of enemies and also met stronger
enemies. Some people in the kingdom and some of Shaka's generals were tiring of Shaka's
unbecoming habit of unnecessarily executing people. This discontent on the part of the people
of Zululand explains why nobody came to Shaka’s rescue when he was executed by his half
brothers. In 1828 Dingane and Mhlangane assassinated him.

The Career of Mzilikazi

Mzilikazi was the son and successor of Mashobane, chief of the Khumalo. He later on in his life
became chief of the Khumalo.

The Khumalo were a small northern Nguni clan found between the Black Mfolozi and Mkhuze
rivers. They were part of the Ndwandwe kingdom. However, they changed sides and
supported Shaka in the Ndwandwe- Zulu war of 1818-1819/ Mhlatuze River battle. The

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Khumalo were one of a few clans which voluntarily joined the Zulu kingdom. The Khumalo
joined the Zulu kingdom despite the fact that Zwide of the Ndwandwe was Mzilikazi's
maternal uncle and also king. It is said that Mzilikazi joined the Zulu kingdom because he
suspected that Zwide was responsible for the death of his father.

Shaka was pleased by Mzilikazi's action so much so that he allowed him to remain chief and
military commander of the Khumalo regiments. This shows that Shaka trusted Mzilikazi
because no subject chief was ever given such freedom.

During his early years as Shaka's subject, Mzilikazi carried out raids on behalf of his king,
Shaka. All booty from the raids was handed over to Shaka who often rewarded his general. In
the fullness of time, Mzilikazi began to resent and detest having to work for Shaka. In about
1821 Mzilikazi was sent out on a raiding mission on the Sotho speakers close to the Zulu
kingdom. The mission was very successful in that a lot of cattle were raided. Instead of
handing over the cattle to his king, as it was the norm, Mzilikazi kept them for himself. This
angered Shaka. To make matters worse, Mzilikazi ill treated messengers sent to plead with him
to hand over the cattle. Mzilikazi's behaviour was interpreted by Shaka as an open rebellion
against his authority and a clear declaration of war on the Zulu empire. The appropriate
response, Shaka was convinced, was military action against Mzilikazi and his Khumalo
followers. In 1821 the Zulu attacked and Mzilikazi was thoroughly defeated at the battle of
Nthumbane hill.

Although Mzilikazi was defeated, many of his warriors survived the Zulu attack. Fearing for his
security, Mzilikazi led his Khumalo people away from the Zulu northwards in about 1822. This
was the beginning of Mzilikazi’s long nation building career.

Mzilikazi’s Aims
i) To find a home land far away from the Zulu land in which to settle his people.

ii) To establish himself as a powerful political leader.

iii)To create and sustain his own wealth and power as a leader of a powerful kingdom

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iv)To create a very large and powerful and respected kingdom in Central Africa.

Social Reforms
The Ndebele society was divided into classes. At the top were the descendents of the original
Nguni people and these were known as the ‘zansi’. Next in the hierarchy were the descendents
of the Sotho- Tswana groups which were incorporated during the time spent in the Transvaal
and these were known as the ‘enhla’. At the bottom of the ladder were the Shona tribes who
were known as the ‘hole’. These divisions were mainly for purposes of preserving the Ndebele
language and culture.

Mzilikazi also adopted the Mlimo cult of the Shona. The priests of this cult were given a lot of
respect not only by the Shona but also by Mzilikazi himself. He also placed great confidence in
their prophecies. Mzilikazi probably did this to strengthen his control over the newly
conquered Shona groups.

The majority of girls of a marriageable age in the kingdom belonged to Mzilikazi. He used them
as a reward to warriors for their loyalty. However, the warriors had to pay bride wealth to the
king before they could marry them. This certainly boosted Mzilikazi’s personal wealth as the
bride wealth was paid in cattle.

Economic Reforms
Private individuals were allowed to own cattle. However, their use was controlled by the king.
No one could slaughter a beast without the permission of Mzilikazi. This was mainly done to
buttress the belief that all cattle belonged to the king.

King Mzilikazi maintained a strict control of the ivory trade. Only the king could trade in ivory
and as such, all ivory in the kingdom belonged to him. The sale of ivory to Europeans increased
Mzilikazi’s personal wealth.

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Mzilikazi also established a quarantine system in his kingdom. The recently captured cattle
were not mixed with the Ndebele herds until it was established that they were healthy. This
was done for purposes of preventing the spread of cattle diseases.

Political Reforms
Mzilikazi established alliances with whites. In 1852 he signed a peace treaty with the Boers of
the Transvaal. The purpose of this treaty was mainly to stop the Boers from attacking the
Ndebele in future. He also wanted to have good relations with whites especially those of the
Cape because he hoped that they might stop the Griqua and Kora attacks on his people.

Young men (machaha) in the Ndebele state remained permanently in military settlements and
were not allowed to marry. This was probably done to ensure that they only focused on their
military duties. Once these soldiers had proven themselves in battle, they could marry.
Nevertheless, they were still regarded as soldiers and could be called to war at any time. This
therefore shows that the Ndebele state had a permanent standing army and a reserve force.

Power was also centralized. Only Mzilikazi could choose his indunas. These were chosen from
amongst the commoners rather than from the traditional chiefs. These commoners were given
these important positions because Mzilikazi believed that they posed no threat to his position.

The career of Moshoeshoe

Moshoeshoe was born in about 1786 at Menkhoaneng to a minor Sotho chief. He was from the
Mokoteli clan. He distinguished himself as a leader during his youth. His sound personality and
general successes in life attracted people to him.

In 1820 he set up his own small village at Butha Buthe. This was the time of the Mfecane wars
and Moshoeshoe's followers suffered a number of attacks from the Tlokwa, Hlubi, and the
Ngwane. To avoid further Ngwane attacks, Moshoeshoe decided to send their king cattle as
tribute.

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Because of his good leadership, he was able to hold his subjects together. Many people
were as a result attracted to him. These among others included other Sotho clans and other
groups fleeing from the Mfecane wars.

To increase his herds, Moshoeshoe resorted to raiding weaker groups. His following was
further boosted by lending out mafisa cattle to some of his neighbours.

Following his heavy defeat at the hands of the Tlokwa, Moshoeshoe decided to leave his home
of Butha Buthe. He set up a new home at Thaba Bosiu. Thaba Bosiu proved good for defense
purposes.

Moshoeshoe's reputation soared while at Thaba Bosiu. So did his following. Many more people
were attracted to Thaba Bosiu because of the peace and security Moshoeshoe promised them.
Some were attracted by his wealth in cattle. The birth of the Sotho kingdom began here at
Thaba
Bosiu.

Moshoeshoe accepted refugees from surrounding villages/ areas. He offered them

another chance to life by lending them mafisa cattle. Refugees from the Cape were also
accommodated in the new nation. These refugees brought with them valuable technology,
horses and guns. These became useful in defense matters of the kingdom.

Administration
Moshoeshoe's government was built on a loose confederacy, that is, the various chiefdoms
in the kingdom were allowed some degree of independence. Each chiefdom was allowed to
have and keep its regiment. Their chiefs and headmen were allowed to stay in their positions
of authority.

All regiments were however responsible for the defense of the entire kingdom. The Sotho did
not have a standing army in the mould of what the Zulu had for example.

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Intermarriages were encouraged between the different chiefdoms in the kingdom. Even
Moshoeshoe married from among the different groups in the kingdom. This served to
strengthen ties with his subjects.

Royal towns were set up at various points in the kingdom. This was done so as to ensure that
the subject people remained loyal to the king. All decisions of great importance were made and
taken at the 'pitso ' a kgotla gathering of some sort.

Moshoeshoe did not discriminate not even against social misfits such as the cannibals of the
Maluti Mountains. He talked them into discarding their evil habits and gave them cattle. They
in the long run became important members of the kingdom. Once the cannibals were
integrated into Sotho society, Moshoeshoe’s following greatly increased.

Many refugees from many different tribes were allowed to settle in Basotholand. These
included many Basotho who had been working on white farms in the Cape Colony. They came
with cattle they had earned as wages. This increased
Moshoeshoe’s following.

Foreign policy
When it came to kingdom matters, Moshoeshoe used both diplomacy and war against his
neighbours. The following were his important lines of policy:

• paying tribute to more powerful kingdoms

• Use of defensive warfare when attacked

• Restricting cattle raids to distant peoples.

Moshoeshoe paid tribute in the form of cattle to his more powerful neighbours such as the
Ngwane. The Zulu under Shaka were given tribute in the form of feathers and furs.
Moshoeshoe and his people were spared from attacks from these powerful groups because
of his paying them tribute.

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In the 1831 war with the Ndebele Moshoeshoe gave the defeated Ndebele cattle as
provision on their long journey back home. This was a sign that he still considered the
Ndebele as formidable enemies. This was diplomacy of the highest level. The gift of cattle
caused the Ndebele to resolve not to attack Moshoeshoe again.

During the above-mentioned war with the Ndebele, Moshoeshoe instructed his people to roll
down rocks on the advancing Ndebele warriors. As the only passages to the summit of the
mountain were full of people rolling down stones on the Ndebele warriors, it was impossible
for them to capture the Sotho capital. This was a good example of Moshoeshoe’s defensive
warfare.

Moshoeshoe defeated the British at Berea in 1851. Despite emerging victorious, Moshoeshoe
sent the defeated British a letter pleading for mercy. This was Moshoeshoe and his sound
diplomacy.

Guns were very useful in defense matters and Moshoeshoe wanted to have access to them. As
the British could not grant him his wish, he sought the help of the Griqua and Kora.
Moshoeshoe bought guns and even horses from them. In no time the Basotho became highly
skilled mounted gun carrying soldiers. This greatly enhanced the security of the entire kingdom.

Moshoeshoe was also quick to welcome European Christians missionaries to his kingdom. This
he did so that his people could acquire European education. He also believed that their physical
presence could stop the Griqua and Kora from attacking his kingdom. The missionaries would
also provide a useful link between Sotho nationals working in the Cape colony and the
kingdom. In 1833 missionaries from the Paris Evangelical Missionary Society arrived in the
kingdom. Their support was to later prove valuable to Moshoeshoe.

In 1843 Moshoeshoe signed the Napier Treaty with the British at the Cape. Moshoeshoe signed
this treaty because he hoped it would compel the Cape Colony to stop its (British) subjects
(Boers) from raiding his territory.

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Faced with the threat of losing his land to the trek Boers, Moshoeshoe sought British
protection. The Boers from the Orange Free State were a constant threat to the Sotho nation.
British protection was granted in 1868 when the kingdom was annexed and became the British
colony of Basotholand. This stopped the Boers in their tracks from stealing Basotho’s land.

Moshoeshoe the visionary leader and great diplomat died in 1870. This was after he had
achieved so much for his people. The nation of present day Lesotho owes its existence to the
efforts of Moshoeshoe.

The career of Sebetwane

The Kololo of Sebetwane were originally known as the Patsa- Fokeng. They were a Sotho
speaking people. Their nearest neighbours were the Taung of Moletsane. This was before the
Mfecane period. When the Mfecane started they were pushed out by the Tlokwa of Mma
Ntatisi. On their journey they were joined by other defeated Fokeng groups. This had the
ultimate effect of increasing their numbers. Unfortunately for this fleeing Fokeng, they lost their
leader,
Sebetwane's father, who was killed by a lion. The young Sebetwane succeeded his father and
the young leader was more than prepared to establish a new home for his people.

Social Reforms

Policy of fusion
Sebetwane discouraged the Kololo from adopting the attitudes of a dominant aristocracy. He
wanted them to stop treating the other subject groups as inferior. He therefore worked hard
towards bringing the diverse groups together. There was a need to fuse the Kololo and the Lozi
into a single entity. Both the Kololo and Lozi subjects were appointed into leadership positions,
that is, they all could be appointed as headmen.

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Intermarriage was encouraged between the different groups in the kingdom. Sebetwane
himself married wives from amongst the Lozi women. This endeared him to the Lozi people.
This policy also helped to strengthen unity between the general Lozi and Kololo populations.

The Kololo language was made the official language of the kingdom. This served to unify the
kingdom. There was now a feeling of understanding and oneness between the Lozi and the
Kololo. In the fullness of time both groups started to consider themselves as Kololo and
gradually the Lozi indigenous language died.

Sebetwane further allowed the Lozi to practice their traditional culture. For example, he
allowed them to practice their matrilineal system alongside the patrilineal system of the
Kololo. This worn him the respect of all his people, both Lozi and Kololo.

Economic Reforms
Subject peoples were encouraged to do farming and fishing. This was probably done to ensure
that the kingdom became self sufficient in food production.
Hunting and trade were also encouraged. Hunting especially of elephants was important
because it was a source of ivory which was needed for trade with
Europeans. This trade was a vital source of wealth for the king.

Tribute was collected from the various subject peoples. This was done so as to boost
Sebetwane’s personal wealth and to some extent his political power. Sebetwane moved his
capital to Linyanti so as to have easier access to the trade routes to the south.

Political reforms
Villages were grouped into districts/ provinces under the supervision of loyal Kololo
governors. This was done so as to ensure loyalty and at the same time ensuring that the
kingdom became stable. Political and social stability were indeed achieved through this
arrangement.

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Trusted local Lozi chiefs were given some degree of authority. They were allowed to
rule their people at the village level. As they had some degree of authority, it was
probable that they would not rebel against Sebetwane’s authority.

To further boost the security of the kingdom, Sebetwane placed humble and loyal Kololo
families as overlords in the different villages in the kingdom. Their main duty was to monitor
the affairs of the Lozi villages. This enabled them to detect unrest, if any, at an early stage.
Power was shared in the kingdom. Sebetwane ruled with the help of Kololo and Lozi
councilors. This arrangement brought about unity and stability.
A national army made up of both Kololo and Lozi was set up. The main purpose of this army
was to protect the state from both internal and external threats. It also could be used to raid
for livestock.

National unity was further boosted by the introduction of a national slogan: all are the children
of the chief. This strengthened the policy of fusion which was introduced during the early days
of the kingdom. Both the Lozi and the Kololo began to now regard themselves as one people.

REVISION QUESTIONS

2017
(a) State any four of Shaka’s military reforms [4]

(b) Explain any two economic measures that were used by Mzilikazi to strengthen the
Ndebele economy [6]

(c) ‘Moshoeshoe’s diplomacy was the most important factor that contributed to the
building of the Basotho nation.’ How far do you agree with this statement? Explain your
answer, using two other factors
[10]
2016
(a) Name any four Tswana groups which were attacked by Mzilikazi on his way to

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Matebeleland. [4]

(b) Explain any two methods used by Shaka

to build the Zulu Kingdom. [6]

(c) ‘The following equally contributed to the development of the Ndebele Kingdom:
(i) tribute;
(ii) Shona religion;
(iii) regiments.’
How far do you agree with the statement?
Explain your answer, referring to (i), (ii) and
(iii) above. [10]

2015
(a) What is meant by Mfecane? [4]

(b) Explain the measures used by Mzilikazi to establish the Ndebele Kingdom in Western
Zimbabwe from 1846 to 1868. [6]

(c) “The following equally contributed to the outbreak of the Mfecane Wars: (i) population
explosion,
(ii) competition for trade,
(iii) the Madlatule Drought.”
How far do you agree with this statement? Explain your answer referring to (i), (ii) and
(iii) above. [10]

2013
(a) Define the Mfecane. [4]

(b) Explain Julian Cobbing’s theory on the Mfecane wars. [6]

(c) Was one of the following aspects of Moshoeshoe’s domestic policy more important than the
others in building the Basotho Kingdom:
(i) power sharing; (ii) mafisa system; (iii) marriage alliances?
Explain your answer referring to (i), (ii) and
(iii) above. [10]

2012
Explain how Sebetwane unified the Kololo
and the Lozi in Zambia up to 1851. [6]

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2011
a) Name any four Nguni leaders before the outbreak of Mfecane wars. [4]

b) Explain the factors that led to the Mfecane

wars. [6]

c) ‘Mfecane wars brought mainly negative results to the people of Southern Africa.’ How far do
you agree with this statement?
Explain your answer. [10]

2010
Explain any three of Shaka’s military reforms. [6]

2009
a) State four reasons for population increase
in the Nguniland before 1800. [4]

b) Explain any three measures used by Moshoeshoe I to build Basotho into a powerful kingdom.
[6]

c) ‘The rise of the Zulu Kingdom depended only on Shaka’s military reforms.’ How far do you
agree with the statement?
Explain your answer. [10]

2007
a) State any four of Shaka’s aims when he came to power. [4]

b) Explain the political reforms introduced by

Shaka in building the Zulu Kingdom. [6]

c) ‘Mfecane wars benefitted Southern African Bantu groups.’ How far do you agree with this
statement? Explain your answer.
[10]

2006
a) Name any four Nguni kingdoms which
b) Explain the economic reforms introduced by Sebetwane to create a stable economy
for the Kololo Kingdom. [6]

c) ‘The Mfecane wars brought more good than harm to the people of Southern Africa.’ How far
do you agree with this statement?

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Explain your answer. [10]

2004
a) Explain the concept of
‘Mfecane/Difaqane.’ [4]

b) Explain the political reforms introduced by Sebetwane after settling in Western Zambia.
[6]

c) ‘The following were equally important in causing the Mfecane Wars: i) population
expansion; ii) competition for trade; iii) Mhlatuze drought’.
Do you agree with this statement? Explain your answer referring to i), ii) and iii) above.
[10]

2003
were involved in the Mfecane Wars. a) What were Mzilikazi’s aims as the King of
[4] the Ndebele? [4]

b) Explain how Moshoeshoe built the b) Explain two aspects of Ndebele’s social
Basotho Kingdom at Thaba Bosiu. organization under Mzilikazi in
Zimbabwe.
[6] [6]

c) ‘Population explosion was the most c) ‘The following were equally important in
important cause of Mfecane Wars.’ How far the building of the Ndebele Kingdom: i)
do you agree with this statement? Explain Mzilikazi’s character;
your answer. ii) raids on Sotho -Tswana groups;
[10] iii) tribute.’
Do you agree with this statement? Explain
2005 your answer referring to i), ii) and iii) above.
a) State any four causes of the Mfecane [10]
wars. [4]
2002
How did the Difaqane affect different
peoples of Southern Africa between 1822
and 1835? [6]
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