EE1102 PHYSICS FOUNDATION FOR ELECTRICAL AND

ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING
Part 1: Electricity & Magnetism

Chapter 2: GAUSS’S LAW

2.1 Electric Flux

2.2 Gauss’s Law
2.3 Application of Gauss’s Law to Charged Insulators
2.4 Conductors in Electrostatic Equilibrium
 2.1 Electric Flux

◼ For a surface area A normal to an

electric field E, the product of E and A
is proportional to the number of EFLs
penetrating the surface area A.

◼ This product of E and A is defined as

the electric flux E .

ΦE = E A (2.1)
◼ It measures the number of EFLs penetrating through the surface A.

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 2.1 Electric Flux
◼ We have the same number of EFLs crossing the tilted surface and its
projected surface which is normal to the electric field. Therefore E
through the tilted surface is the same as the E through the projected
surface. Since the projected area is given by A’ = A cos , we have:

ΦE = E A' A

= E A cos  (2.2)

A’ = A cos 
A
◼ By defining a surface vector A with a magnitude equals to the surface
area A and a direction normal to the surface, E can be expressed as:
 
ΦE = E A cos  = E  A (2.3) 2
 2.1 Electric Flux
▪ Very often, we are interested in finding E through a closed surface
(sphere, cube etc).
▪ In determining E through a closed surface, the surface vectors A
are by convention defined to be pointing out of the closed surface.
▪ With this convention,
▪ if the EFLs are flowing out of the closed surface, E > 0.
◼ If the EFLs are flowing into the closed surface, E < 0.
 
ΦE = E  A 
E E
 
A A
E < 0 ; E > 0 ;
measures EFLs measures EFLs that
that flow in flow out 3
 2.1 Electric Flux
 
◼ E is a scalar with a unit of Nm2/C. ΦE = E A cos  = E  A 
 
◼ The expression ΦE = E  A is only valid for a uniform E across a
flat surface.

◼ If the surface is not flat, or E is not uniform, the net electric flux E
is given by:
 
 E = lim  Ei  Ai
Ai →0
 
=  E  dA (2.4)
surface

4
 2.1 Electric Flux
◼ Example 2.1
What is the electric flux through a sphere with a radius of 1.00 m and
carries a charge of 1.00 C at its centre?

◼ Solution:
◼ The electric field at a distance r is given by: r̂
 q
E = ke 2 rˆ
r 
1 
k
 e
= 
◼ The electric flux is:  4  o 
 
 E =  E  dA =  (E rˆ )  (dA rˆ) =  E dA = E  dA = ke 2 (4  r 2 )
q
r
q 1.00 10 −6 C
= = = 1.13 10 5
Nm 2
/C
 o 8.8542  10 −12 2
C /Nm 2
5
 2.2 Gauss’s Law
◼ Gauss’s law states that the net electric flux through any closed
surface is proportional to the net charge enclosed by the closed
surface
qin
 E  dA =  E =
o
(2.5)
q4 q5
where qin is the net charge
q2
inside the surface and 0 is E
q1 q3
the permittivity of free space. Gaussian
surface
  q1 + q2 + q3
 E =  E  dA =
o

6
 2.2 Gauss’s Law
◼ To extend the proof to any general
Gaussian surfaces, consider several
other closed surfaces of various shapes
surrounding the point charge

◼ The number of EFLs crossing the

sphere S1 and the other closed
surfaces S2 and S3 are the same.
q qin
ΦE S1 = ΦE S2 = ΦE S3 = =
o o
▪  The net electric flux E through these closed surfaces are the same.

◼ Therefore, the net flux through any closed surface is independent of the shape of
that surface, and is equal to qin /o . (Gauss’s law)

7
 2.2 Gauss’s Law
◼ If a point charge is outside a closed surface of any shape, the net
flux is:
qin 0
ΦE = = =0
o o
◼ This is expected as the number
of EFLs entering the surface
equals those leaving the surface.

8
 2.2 Gauss’s Law
◼ It can be shown that Gauss’s law is also valid in a system of multiple
charges, or a continuous distribution of charge.

◼ Gauss’s law is useful in determining the electric field E of a system

of charges or a continuous distribution of charges, with a high
degree of symmetry.

Coulomb’s law Gauss’s law

 dq     qin 
 E = k e  r 2 
rˆ   E  dA =


o 

9
 2.3 Appl. of Gauss’s Law to Charged Insulators
◼ In general, to solve for E using Gauss’s law, we must be able to
construct a Gaussian surface such that:
1. The value of the electric field can be argued by symmetry to
be constant over the portion of the surface.
2. The dot product can be expressed as a simple algebraic
product E dA because E and dA are parallel.
3. The dot product is zero because E and dA are
perpendicular.
4. The electric field is zero over the portion of the surface.
◼ If such a surface does not exist, then E cannot be solved using
Gauss’s law, though Gauss’s law is still valid. We will need to
apply Coulomb’s law instead.

10
 2.3 Appl. of Gauss’s Law to Charged Insulators
◼ Example 2.3:
Calculate the electric field E at a point (a) outside and (b) inside an
insulating sphere of radius a and having a uniform volume charge
density  (C/m3) and a total positive charge Q.

◼ Solution:
Choose a spherical Gaussian surface of radius r concentric with the
sphere with r > a for (a) and r < a for (b). 11
 2.3 Appl. of Gauss’s Law to Charged Insulators
(a) Outside the sphere, r > a
E
◼

  Q
 E  dA =  E dA = o
Q
E  dA =
o

(
E 4 r 2
)=  Q
o

Q Q
E = = ke 2
4  or 2
r

12
 2.3 Appl. of Gauss’s Law to Charged Insulators
◼ b) Inside the sphere, r < a. The enclosed charge qin is less than Q.

  qin
 E  dA =  E dA = o
E

qin Q
E  dA =
o

(
E 4 r = 2
) qin
o
4 3
  r 
qin  3  r
E = = =
4   or 2
4  or 2
3 o
25
 2.3 Appl. of Gauss’s Law to Charged Insulators

Q
But  =
4
 a3
3
Q
Qr Q
E = = ke 3 r
4 o a 3
a
Q
E = ke r
a3
◼ Inside the sphere, E varies
linearly with r. Outside the
sphere, E decreases inversely
with r 2.

◼ E is maximum at the surface and E → 0 as r → 0 or r → .

14
 2.3 Appl. of Gauss’s Law to Charged Insulators
◼ Example 2.4:
Find the electric field E due to a non-conducting, infinite plane of
positive charge with uniform surface charge density  (C/m2).

15
 2.3 Appl. of Gauss’s Law to Charged Insulators
◼ Solution:
◼ By symmetry, E is normal to the
plane and directed away from it.

◼ Choose a cylindrical Gaussian

surface whose axis is normal
to the plane and whose ends
have each an area A, parallel
and equidistant from the plane.

28
 2.3 Appl. of Gauss’s Law to Charged Insulators
◼ E is parallel to the curved surface of the cylinder and hence the flux
through the curved surface is zero.

◼ Contributions to the flux come only from the flat ends of the cylinder.
      qin A
ΦE =  E  dA = 2
2 flat ends
 E  dA = 2 E  A = 2 E A = =
1 flat end
o o


E = E
A
2 o E
◼ Compare with the
example in Chap 1,
R >> x, Ex =  / 2 o .

17
 2.4 Conductors in Electrostatic Equilibrium
◼ A conductor is in electrostatic equilibrium when there is no net
motion of charges on it and inside it.

◼ There are four properties associated with a conductor in

electrostatic equilibrium.

◼ Property (i): The electric field is zero everywhere inside the

conductor.

▪ If E is non-zero, then free charges in the conductor will experience a

force and move. That implies it is not under electrostatic equilibrium.

▪ In other words, E must be zero in the conductor under electrostatic

equilibrium.
18
 2.4 Conductors in Electrostatic Equilibrium
◼ Property (ii): Any excess charge on an isolated conductor must
reside entirely on the surface.
◼ When in electrostatic equilibrium, the electric field E everywhere inside the
conductor, including the Gaussian surface, is zero.
◼ Since E is zero, the net electric flux E through
the Gaussian surface is also zero. + +
+
  qin
ΦE =  E  dA = =0 +
E=0 +
+
o
◼  the net charge qin inside the + +
qin = 0
Gaussian surface must be zero. E=0
+
◼ If there is any net charge on the +
conductor, it must reside on the surface. E=0
+
+
+
+ +
19
 2.4 Conductors in Electrostatic Equilibrium
◼ Property (iii): The electric field just outside a charged conductor is
normal to the conductor surface and has a magnitude  /o , where 
is the surface charge density (C/m2) at that point.

1 E1 = 1
E2 = 2 2 / o
/ o

▪As the charges do not move along the surface, there is thus no component of E
parallel to the conductor surface. E immediately outside the conductor is normal to
the conductor surface. 20
 2.4 Conductors in Electrostatic Equilibrium
◼ The net flux E through the cylinder arises only from the flat
face outside the conductor, which is normal to the electric field.

  qin A
ΦE = E  A = E A = =
o o A
E

E = (2.6)
o E=0


21
 2.4 Conductors in Electrostatic Equilibrium
◼ Property (iv): On an irregularly shaped conductor, the electric field E
just outside the conductor is greatest when the radius of curvature
of the surface is smallest (i.e. E is greatest at the sharpest point).

◼ The surface charge density  can be shown to be higher at sharper

points where the radius of curvature are smaller. Since E =  /o for a
charged conductor, the electric field is also larger at sharper points.

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 2.4 Conductors in Electrostatic Equilibrium
◼ What if a cavity exists inside a conductor under electrostatic
equilibrium?
i. E = 0 inside a conductor. Is it zero inside the cavity?
ii. Any excess charge resides only on the outer surface. Do we
find excess charge on the surface of the cavity?

◼ Case 1: No charge inside the cavity.

Consider any Gaussian surface constructed
within the cavity. Since there is no net
charge enclosed, the net flux must be zero.
  qin
 E  dA = = 0
o
▪ For the electric flux to be always zero irrespective of the shape of
Gaussian surfaces constructed within the cavity, then E must be
zero inside the cavity. 23
 2.4 Conductors in Electrostatic Equilibrium
◼ Consider any Gaussian surface constructed within the conductor
and encloses the cavity. The flux through the surface is zero since E
is zero in the conductor under electrostatic equilibrium.
  qin
 E  dA = = 0
o
▪ Thus the net charge enclosed is zero,
E=0
implying that there is no charge residing
on the inner surface of the conductor.

▪ Any excess charges reside only on the

outer surface of the conductor.

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 2.4 Conductors in Electrostatic Equilibrium
◼ Case 2: Net charge Q exists inside
the cavity. Consider any Gaussian
surface constructed within the cavity.
Since there is net charge enclosed,
the net flux is not zero.

  qin
 E  dA =  0o Q

▪ In general, E is not zero inside the cavity.

25
 2.4 Conductors in Electrostatic Equilibrium
▪ Consider any Gaussian surface constructed within the conductor
and encloses the cavity. The flux through the surface is zero since E
is zero in the conductor. Thus the net charge enclosed is zero.

  qin
 E  dA = = 0
o
▪ This implies that an equal amount of E=0
opposite charge (-Q) must be
induced on the inner surface of the
conductor.

▪ Charges in general reside on the Q

inner and outer surfaces. −Q

26
 More Examples
◼ Example:
Calculate the electric field E at a point (a) outside and (b) inside a
thin spherical shell of radius a and having a total charge Q
distributed uniformly over its surface. (Fig. 24.13)

Fig.24.13

◼ Solution:
◼ Choose a spherical Gaussian surface of radius r concentric with the
shell, where r > a for (a) and r < a for (b). 27
 More Examples
◼ (a) Outside the shell, r > a
 
( Q
 E  dA = E  dA = E 4  r = o
2
)
Q Q
E = = ke 2
4  o r 2
r
E
r
Q
Q

◼ The electric field E at a point outside the shell is the same as that
due to a point charge Q located at the centre.
28
 More Examples
▪ (b) Inside the shell, r < a, the net charge qin is zero.
  0
 E  dA = E  dA =  o E

E = 0
◼ The electric field E inside
the spherical shell is zero.
The electric field for a
spherical shell of
radius R.
Q
E = ke 2
r

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