DIGESTIVE

SYSTEM Carina C. Batol

Associate Professor IV
Bataan Peninsula State University
 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
• Digestion – process of breaking down large
molecules of food into small soluble molecules that
can be absorbed and used by cells.
 Chemical Digestion – breaks down food particles through
a series of metabolic reactions involving enzymes.
 Mechanical Digestion – involves physical mean such as
chewing, and the churning movements of the stomach
and small intestine to mix food with enzymes and
digestive juices
• The digestive process, assisted by the enzymes, takes
place in the digestive tract, or alimentary canal
 TISSUE STRUCTURE
• The walls of the various portions of the tract have the same basic
organization. The wall of the tube (from the inside out) consists of four
main layers of tissue: mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa, and
serosa
 MOUTH
• Also called the oral cavity
• Lips (labia) – protect its anterior opening
• Cheeks – form its lateral wall, the hard palate forms its anterior roof, and the
soft palate forms its posterior roof
• Uvula – fleshy finger-like projection of the soft palate, which extends
downward from its posterior roof
• Vestibule – space between the lips and cheeks externally and the teeth and
gums internally
• Oral Cavity Proper – area contained by the teeth
• Tongue – occupies the floor of the mouth; has several bony attachments –
hyoid bone and styloid processes of the skull; on its surface are papillae
containing taste buds/taste receptors
• Frenulum – fold of mucous membrane, secures the tongue to the floor of the
mouth
• Palatine Tonsils – paired masses of lymphatic tissue
• Lingual Tonsil – covers the base of the tongue just beyond
 PHARYNX

• It serves as both an air passage during breathing

and a food passage during swallowing.
THREE PARTS:
1. Nasopharynx – superior to the soft palate
2. Oropharynx – from the soft palate to the
esophagus
3. Laryngopharynx – posterior to the epiglottis,
which joins the cavities
 ESOPHAGUS
• A muscular, membranous tube, about 25 cm (10 in.) long
• The inner mucosa of the esophagus is lined with non-keratinized stratified
squamous epithelium arranged in longitudinal folds.
• Several mucous glands in the mucosa and submucosa provide film of
lubricating mucus that facilitates the passage of food to the stomach
• The middle muscularis externa consist wholly of skeletal muscle in the upper
third of the esophagus, a combination of smooth and skeletal muscle in the
middle third, and the wholly smooth muscle in the lower third.
• Adventitia – outer fibrous layer
 ABDOMINAL CAVITY AND PERITONEUM
• Abdominal Cavity – portion of the trunk cavities that lies inferior to
the diaphragm.
 Abdominal viscera – stomach, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, spleen, kidneys,
small and large intestine
 Pelvic viscera – rectum, urinary bladder, internal reproductive organs
• Peritoneum – serous membrane of the abdominal cavity
 Visceral peritoneum – covers most of the organs in the cavity
 Parietal peritoneum – lines the abdominal cavity
• Retroperitoneal – abdominal organs that lie posterior to the
peritoneal cavity
• Greater Omentum – extensive folded membrane that extends from
the greater curvature of the stomach to the back wall and down to
the pelvic cavity
• Lesser Omentum – extends from the liver to the lesser curvature of
the stomach
 STOMACH
- it is usually described as J-shaped sac

- the average adult stomach has a capacity

of about 1.5L

- it has a greater curvature toward the left

side of the body and a lesser curvature on
the right

- it lies directly under the dome of the

diaphragm and is protected by the rib cage
 FUNCTION
• Temporary storage for food, which passes from the
esophagus to the stomach where it is held for two hours or
longer
• Mixing and breakdown of food by contraction and relaxation
of the muscle layers in the stomach
• Digests food
• Secretes digestive enzymes and gastric acid to aid in food
digestion
 REGIONS OF THE STOMACH

1. CARDIAC REGION
- It contains the cardiac sphincter,
which is a thin ring of muscle that
helps to prevent stomach contents
from going back up into the
esophagus.
 REGIONS OF THE STOMACH

2. FUNDUS
- It is expanded part of the stomach
lateral to the cardiac region.
 REGIONS OF THE STOMACH

3. BODY
- It is the main, central region of
the stomach.
- This is where food is mixed
and starts to break down.
 REGIONS OF THE STOMACH

ANTRUM (PYLORIC ANTRUM)

- It is the lower part of the stomach. The
antrum holds the broken-down food
until it is ready to be released into the
small intestine.
 REGIONS OF THE STOMACH

4. PYLORUS
- It is the part of the stomach that
connects to the small intestine.
- This region includes the pyloric sphincter,
which is a thick ring of muscle that acts a
valve control the emptying the stomach
contents (chyme) into the duodenum.
 LAYERS OF THE STOMACH WALL

1. MUCOSA (MUCOUS
MEMBRANE)
- It is the inner lining of the stomach.
- When the stomach is empty the
mucosa has a ridged appearance.
This ridges (rugae) flatten out as the
stomach fills with food.
 LAYERS OF THE STOMACH WALL

2. SUBMUCOSA
- It covers the mucosa.
- It is made up of connective tissue
that contains larger blood and lymph
vessels, nerve cells and fibers.
 LAYERS OF THE STOMACH WALL

3. MUSCULARIS PROPRIA
- It covers the mucosa.
- It is the main muscle of the stomach
and is made up of three layers of
muscle.
 LAYERS OF THE STOMACH WALL

4. SEROSA (VISCERAL
PERITONEUM)
- It is the fibrous membrane that
covers the outside of the stomach.
 SMALL INTESTINE

- it is where most of the end absorption

of food takes place
- the average length of the small
intestine in an about human male is
6.9m and adult human female is 7.1m.
- it is the part of the gastrointestinal
tract between the stomach and large
intestine
 THREE DISTINCT REGIONS

1. DUODENUM
- It is the C-shaped initial segment
of the small intestine
- It is about 25cm long and is the
shortest of the three parts of the
small intestine
 THREE DISTINCT REGIONS

2. JEJUNUM
- It is the midsection of the small
intestine, connecting the
duodenum to the ileum
- It is about 2.5m and contains the
plicae circulares and villi that
increase its surface area
- It serves as the primary site of
nutrient absorption
 THREE DISTINCT REGIONS

3. ILEUM
- It is the final section of the small intestine
- It is about 3.5m long and contains villi
- It absorbs mainly vitamin B12 and bile
acids, as well as any other remaining
nutrients
- It completes the absorption of nutrients
that were missed in the jejunum.
• The jejunum and ileum are suspended in the abdominal
cavity by mesentry.

• The mesentry is part of the peritoneum. Arteries, veins,

lymph vessels, and nerves travel with the mesentry.
 FOUR LAYERS OF TISSUE

1. MUCOSA
- It forms the inner layer of the
epithelial tissue and is specialized for
the absorption of nutrients from
chyme.
- It has distinctive features that
enhance the digestion and absorption
processes in the small intestine:
 FOUR LAYERS OF TISSUE

• MICROVILLI
- These are tiny projections of the plasma
membrane of the mucosa cells that give
the cell surface a fuzzy appearance,
sometimes referred to as the brush
border.
 FOUR LAYERS OF TISSUE

• VILLI
- These are fingerlike projections of the
mucosa that give it a velvety
appearance and feel.
• PLICAE CIRCULARES
- These are circular of both mucosa and
submucosa layers
• GLANDS
- It secretes intestinal juices.
 PEYER’S PATCHES

- It is the local collections of lymphatic tissues found in the

submucosa towards to the end of the small intestine.
- It reflects the fact that the remained (undigested) food
residue in the intestine contains huge number of bacteria,
which must be prevented from entering the bloodstream
if at all possible.
 FOUR LAYERS OF TISSUE

2. SUBMUCOSA
- It provides blood vessels, lymphatic
vessels, and nerves to support the
mucosa on the surface.
 FOUR LAYERS OF TISSUE

3. MUSCULARIS
- It contracts and moves the small
intestine.
 FOUR LAYERS OF TISSUE

4. SEROSA
- It forms the outermost layer of
epithelial tissue that is continuous with
the mesentery and surrounds the
intestines.
 LARGE INTESTINE

• It is the portion of the digestive

system most responsible for
absorption of water from the
indigestible residue of food.
• It has approximately 1.8 meters or 6
feet in length.
 IMPORTANT FUNCTION

• Reabsorbing water and maintaining the body’s balance of

fluids
• Absorbing some vitamins
• Processing undigested food material such as fiber
• Storing waste before elimination (converting food remnants
to feces)
 LARGE INTESTINE CONSISTS OF:
CECUM
- Saclike ; first part of the large intestine

COLON
- The ascending, transverse, descending and sigmoid colon.

ANAL CANAL
- Ends at the anus, which opens to the exterior
 DISTINCT REGIONS OF COLON
1. ASCENDING COLON
- It is the right arm of the broken
rectangle.

2. TRANVERSE COLON
- It is the top arm that spans from
left side to the right side like a
bridge.
 DISTINCT REGIONS OF COLON
3. DESCENDING COLON
- It is the left arm of the broken triangle.

4. SIGMOID COLON
- It is the “broken” part of the rectangle
that creates an S-shape that hangs off
of the descending colon.
 ANAL CANAL
• It has an external voluntary sphincter composed of skeletal
muscle and an internal involuntary sphincter formed by smooth
muscle.
• Because most nutrient absorption has occurred before the large
intestine is reached, no villi are seen in the large intestine, but
there are tremendous numbers of goblet cells in its mucosa
that produce mucus.
• MUCUS – acts as a lubricant to ease the passage of feces to the
end of digestive tract.
 TISSUE LAYERS OF THE LARGE INTESTINE

1. MUCOSA
- It is the innermost layer and is
made of simple columnar epithelial
tissue, making it smooth.
 TISSUE LAYERS OF THE LARGE INTESTINE

2. SUBMUCOSA
- It surrounds the mucosa.
- It is a layer of blood vessels, nerves
and connective tissue that supports
the other layers of the large
intestine.
 TISSUE LAYERS OF THE LARGE INTESTINE

3. MUSCULARIS
- It contains many layers of visceral
muscle cells that contract and move
waste product through the large
intestine in a process.
 TISSUE LAYERS OF THE LARGE INTESTINE

4. SEROSA
- It is the outermost layer
- It is the thin layer of simple squamous
epithelial tissue.
- It secretes a watery fluid.
 PANCREAS

• Produce wide spectrum of digestive enzymes that break

down all categories of food

• Enzymes are secreted into the duodenum

• Endocrine products of pancreas

• Produces the hormones insulin and glucagons

 LIVER AND GALLBLADDER

• Largest gland in the body

• 4 lobes: left, right, caudate, quadrate
• The digestive function is to produce bile for export to the
duodenum.
• Bile is stored in the gallbladder
• Bile emulsifies fats: physically breaks fats into tiny particles so
they are more accessible to digestive enzymes.
 SALIVARY GLANDS

Major salivary glands

• Parotid
• Submandibular
(submaxillary)
• Sublinguala

- Secrete 10% of total volume of saliva

- Account for about 70% of mucus secreted
 TEETH

- The role is to masticate (chew) food

- Humans have two sets of teeth

• Deciduous (baby or milk)O teeth
• 20 teeth are fully formed by the age of two
 Teeth
• Permanent teeth
• Replace deciduous teeth
• A full set teeth

Classification of Teeth
Incisors
Canines
Premolar
Molars
CLASSIFICATION OF TEETH
 FUNCTIONS
OF THE DIGESTIVE
SYSTEM
 GASTROINTESTINAL PROCESSES

1. Ingestion
2. Propulsion
3. Food breakdown: mechanical digestion
4. Food breakdown: chemical digestion
5. Absorption
6. Defecation
 ACTIVITIES OCCURING IN THE MOUTH

• Inside the mouth are many accessory organs that aid in the
digestion of food---the teeth, tongue and saliva. Teeth chop
food into small pieces, which are moistened by saliva before the
tongue and other muscles push the food into pharynx.
 ACTIVITIES OCCURING IN THE PHARYNX

• The pharynx is responsible for the passing of masses of chewed

food from the mouth to the esophagus. Food propelled from
the pharynx into esophagus is prevented from entering the
traches, or windpipe by the epiglottis. The epiglottis is a flap of
tissue that acts like trapdoor, closing off the trachea during
swallowing.
ACTIVITIES OCCURING IN THE ESOPHAGUS

• The esophagus is a muscular tube connecting the pharynx to

the stomach. It carries swallowed masses of chewed food along
its length. At the inferior end of the esophagus is a muscular
ring called the lower esophageal sphincter or cardiac sphincter.
Its function is to close the end of esophagus and trap food in
the stomach.
 ACTIVITIES OF THE STOMACH
Food enters the stomach via esophagus. The stomach has three
main functions:
1. It stores ingested nutrients until they can be released into the
small intestine with steady, regulated spurts.
2. It churns ingested nutrients, breaks them up into small particles
and mixes them with gastric juices to form a soupy liquid mixture
called chime.
3. It secretes hydrochloric acid (HCI) and enzymes that initiate the
digestion of proteins and kill most of the bacteria that enter the
stomach in food.
Hydrochloric Acid (HCI) – also acts on pepsinogen, converting it
to the active form of pepsin.

Pepsin – a proteolytic enzyme that catalyzes the breakdown of

proteins into large fragments.

Rennin – the second protein – digesting enzyme that produced

by the stomach, works primarily on milk protein and converts it
into a substance that looks like sour milk.
The stomach lining is protected from destruction by an alkaline
secretion known as mucus, produced by certain cells in the lining.
Reverse peristalsis or vomiting – a reflex action that occurs when
irritants are present in the stomach. Vomiting may also be causes
by:
1. Emotional factors
2. Rotation or acceleration of the head
3. Stimulation of the back of the throat
4. Elevated pressure inside the brain caused by injury
Regulation of gastric emptying – regulation ensures that the
stomach does not become too full and does not empty faster
than the small intestine can process the incoming chyme.
 ACTIVITES OF THE SMALL INTESTINE

Inside the small intestine, macromolecules are broken into

smaller molecules with the aid of enzymes. These molecules are
then transported into the bloodstream and the lymphatic
system.
 ACTIVITIES OF LARGE INTESTINE

By the time chyme reaches the large intestine, digestion is

complete and only some water, salts and vitamins remains to be
absorbed.
Bacterial Activity – intestinal bacteria are harmless as long as they
remain in the large intestine. Bacteria make up to 25 to 50 percent
of the dry weight feces.
Formation of Feces – approximately 150g of feces are normally
eliminated from the body daily.
Movements of the Large Intestine and Defecation – most of the
movements of the large intestine are slow and nonpropulsive.
Defecation – it is a voluntary act, except in very young children and
in people whose spinal cord is severed at the sacral level or above.
 FORMATION OF FECES
• Approximately 150g of feces are normally eliminated from the body
daily.
• Besides containing water and bacteria, feces are composed of fat,
nitrogen, bile pigments, undigested food such as cellulose, and
other waste products from the blood or intestinal wall.
• The normal brown color of feces is caused by the conversion of
products of red blood cells into bile pigments (bilirubin).
• Excessive fat in the diet causes feces to be a pale color, and blood
and other foods containing large amounts of iron will darken feces.
 MOVEMENTS OF THE LARGE INTESTINE AND
DEFECATION

• Most of the movements of the large intestine are slow and

nonpropulsive.
• The primary motility comes from haustral contractions.
 Defecation

Is a voluntary act, except in a very young children and in people

whose spinal chord is severed at the sacral level or above.

• It can be inhibited by keeping the external anal sphincter

contracted.
• Children younger than 1 or 2 years usually cannot inhibit
defecation voluntarily because the appropriate motor neutral
pathways have not yet reached the proper stage of maturity.
 THE EFFECTS OF AGING ON THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

• Digestion may be impaired with age as the stomach produces

less hydrochloric acid and other factors contribute to a general
breakdown of the normal digestive process.
• If the protective mucous barrier breaks down, however, excess
acid may cause stomach ulcers.
• 50 percent of all people over 65 have diverticulosis, the
formation of small pockets (diverticula) in the walls of the
large intestine.
 THE EFFECTS OF AGING ON THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

• When the food becomes lodged in the pockets anad the

pockets become inflamed, the disease is called diverticulitis.

• Hemorrhoids (varicose veins of the lower rectum and anus)

frequently occur in people over 50, especially if constipationhas
been a chronic problem.
DISORDERS OF THE
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
 ANOREXIA NERVOSA

Anorexia nervosa is an example of

eating disorders with a psychological
basis. It is characterized by self-
imposed starvation and subsequent
nutritional deficiency disorders.
 BULIMIA

Bulimia is characterized by an
insatiable appetite and gorging on
food four or five times a week,
followed by self-induced vomiting or
an overuse or laxatives or diuretics
that may lead to dehydration and
metabolic imbalances as in anorexia
nervosa.
 CHOLELITHIASIS (GALLSTONES)

Cholelithiasis (Gallstones) when the

proportions of cholesterol, lechithin,
and bile salts in bile are altered,
gallstones may form in the bladder , a
condition known as cholelithiasis.
Gallstones are composed of
cholesterol and bilirubin and are
usually when there are insufficient bile
salts to dissolve the cholesterol.
 CIRRHOSIS OF THE LIVER
Cirrhosis of the liver. Cirrhosis is a
chronic liver disease characterized by
the destruction of hepatic cells and
their replacement by abnormal
fibrous connective tissues. These
changes disrupt normal blood and
lymph flow and eventually result in
blockage of portal circulation, portal
hypertension, liver failure, and death.
• Colon-Rectal Cancer. The exact
cause of colon-rectal cancer is
unknown, but increasing evidence
points to a low-fiber diet containing
excessive animal fat. Early
symptoms are usually vague and
unnoticed, but an obstruction may
soon develop, producing
constipation or diarrhea, rectal
bleeding, and dull pain.
Constipation
is a condition in which feces move
through the large intestine too slowly.
As a result, too much water is
reabsorbed, the feces became hard,
the defecation is difficult.
Diarrhea
is a condition in which watery feces move
through the large intestine rapidly and
uncontrollably in a reaction sometimes
called a peristaltic rush. Among the causes
are viral, bacteria, or protozoan infections;
extreme nervousness; ulcerative colitis;
and excessive use of cathartics, all of which
increase fluid secretion and intestinal
motility.
 METABOLISM AND NUTRITION

• The general term that includes the chemical and energy

transformations that keep our bodies alive and healthy is
metabolism.
• it includes the conversion of nutrients into the usable energy
contained in ATP, the production and replication of nucleic acids, the
synthesis of protein, the physical construction of cells and cell
structures, the elimination of cellular wastes, and the production of
heat, which helps regulate body temperature.
• A human body has or does depends on the nutrients, or
chemical components of food which supply the energy and
physical materials aa body needs.

• The food we eat contains six kinds of essential nutrients that

our vital to our well-being: carbohydrates, proteins, lipids,
minirals, vitamins, and water.
 CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

• Carbohydrates are classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, and

polysaccharides.
• They have potential energy stored in chemical bonds.
• Within the bonds, it is electrons that actually carry the energy.
• During metabolism of foods, chemical bonds are broken, and high
energy electrons are transferred to nucleotides such as: NAD1
(nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide)
FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide).
• The nucleotide molecules actually carry the high-energy electrons.
• The breakdown (catabolism) of carbohydrate occurs in the
following stages:

1. Carbohydrate macromolecules in food are broken down into their

subunits, especially glucose. This is the process of digestion, which
consumes energy.

2. Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm and results in the breakdown Of

one molecule of glucose into two molecules of pyruvic acid. During
this process, two molecules of NADH and two molecules of usable
ATP are produced from every glucose molecule broken down.
3. The citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle), which takes place within the
mitochondria, generates large amounts of NADH, H+, FADH2,
and some ATP.

4. Within the mitochondria, the electron transport system

converts the energy in NADH + H+ and FADH2 into high-energy
chemical bonds in ATP.
 CONVERSATION OF GLUCOSE INTO GLYCOGEN
(GLYCONEOGENESIS)

• Glucose that is not needed immediately by the body cells is removed

from the blood and stored in the liver and skeletal muscle cells as
glycogen.

• The process of converting glucose into glycogen is called glycogenesis

(glycogen production).

• The process is stimulated by insulin from the pancreas, and all the
reactions are assisted by specific enzymes.
• Excess glucose that cannot be stored in the liver or muscle cells is usually
converted into saturated fat and stored in adipose tissues.

• Glycogenesis lowers blood glucose.

 CONVERSATION OF GLYCOGEN INTO GLUCOSE
(GLYCOGENOLYSIS)

When body cells need extra glucose for energy, the glycogen stored in the
liver is reconverted into glucose and released into the blood.
• The breakdown of glycogen occurs in liver cells under the endocrine
control of glucagon from the pancreas and epinephrine from the adrenal
medulla.
• Glycogenolysis elevates blood glucose.
 PRODUCTION OF GLUCOSE FROM
NONCARBOHYDRATES (GLUCONEOGENESIS)

• Gluconeogenesis is the "production of new glucose" from

noncarbohydrate sources such as lactic acid (lactate), glycerol, and
some amino acids.
• It occurs mainly in the liver but also occurs in bone cells and the
cortex of the kidneys.
• When the level of blood glucose is low and carbohydrates are not
readily available, the glucocorticoid hormone cortisol from the
adrenal cortex diverts some amino acids from body cells to the liver,
where liver cells convert them into glucose.
• Each amino acid is converted by a slightly different chemical
process. Thyroxine may also diverts fats from adipose tissue to the
liver, where the glycerol portion of fat molecules is converted into
glucose.
• Very important starting molecules for gluconeogenesis is the lactic
acid that originates in skeletal muscle cells as a normal waste
product.
• Once lactic acid arrives in the liver via the bloodstream, it can be
converted into glucose.
 PROTEIN METABOLISM

Amino acids
are picked up
Amino acids
by the liver
enter the
bloodstream
from the small
Proteins are intestines
broken down
to amino acids
 USES OF AMINO ACIDS

1. They can pass into the blood to be used by organs in the

synthesis of tissue proteins.
2. They can be used to renew liver cell proteins
3. They can be degraded and then converted into glucose or
glycogen to produce ATP
4. They can be used in the glucose-alanine cycle in the liver
5. They can be used as building blocks
 PROTEIN ANABOLISM

20 Usable Amino Acids

(11) Non essential (9) Essential

Amino Acids Amino Acids

Cannot be synthesized and

Can be synthesized in the
it should be obtained from
body
the diet
PROTEIN ANABOLISM
Complete Proteins
- protein foods that contain all essential amino acids
These includes:
 SEVERAL HORMONES REGULATED BY PROTEIN
SYNTHESIS

1. growth hormone (GH)

2. insulin
3. glucocorticoids
4. thyroxine
 LIPID METABOLISM
Lipids – commonly called fats

Types of Lipids
• triglycerides – also called neutral fats
• fatty acids
• alcohols
• sterols – including cholesterol and ergosterol
 LIPID METABOLISM
• hydrocarbons – such as caratenoids
• steroid hormones – such as cortisol and aldosterone
• fat-soluble vitamins – (A, D, E and K)
 CHOLESTEROL METABOLISM

- A very important lipid in the diet

- Serves as the structural basis of steroid hormones and
vitamin D
- Major building block of plasma membrane
- Cholesterol lost from the body when it is broken down and
secreted in bile salts, which eventually leave the body in
feces
 LIPOPROTEINS
• play an important role in fat and cholesterol transport

• transport cholesterol and other lipids to body

Low-density Lipoproteins cells
(LDLs) • tagged as “bad lipoproteins”

• transport cholesterol from the tissue cells to the

High-density Lipoproteins liver for its disposal in bile
(HDLs) • considered as “good lipoproteins”
 CALORIES AND ENERGY

- The energy of food is measured in terms of calories

- A calorie with small c is also called gram calorie

- A kilocalorie also known as kilogram calorie (kcal) is equal to

1000 calories
 DIETARY CARBOHYDRATES

• Major source of carbohydrates is found in plants

• Certain fruits supply glucose, fructose, sucrose and starch

• Many plants also supply cellulose, sometimes called dietary

fiber. It assists passage of foods through the large intestine and
may reduce risk in colon cancer.
 Dietary Carbohydrates

Glucose – major source of energy for the brain and nerve tissue

Galactosides – essential components of brain and nerve tissue

Lactose – aids in the absorption of calcium and promotes the

growth of desirable bacteria in large intestines
 DIETARY PROTEINS
Animal Sources of Proteins Plant Sources of Proteins

fish dried beans

eggs peas
cheese pasta
milk cereals
whey bread
lean meat nuts
poultry grains
sea foods legumes
yogurt avocado
 PROTEINS
• Most abundant of the body’s organic compound

• Proteins form an important part of the blood

• Important regulators of osmotic pressure and water balance

within the body

• Helps maintain the body’s hydrogen-ion concentration

 DIETARY LIPIDS
• Triglycerides or neutral fats are contained in cooking fats and
oils, fat in meat and dairy products, nuts, chocolates and
avocados

• Fat is visible in foods such as butter, cream, salad dressings, and

meats.

• It is less obvious in foods such as egg yolk, cheese, nuts and

wheat germs
Lipid - Most concentrated source of food energy in our body
- utilized completely only if they are oxidized along with
sugar

Ketosis – excessive accumulation of the breakdown products

(ketone bodies)
 SEVERAL FUNCTIONS OF LIPID
• Supply a concentrated amount of usable energy in the form of
calories
• Insulate the body and help maintain a constant body
temperature
• Cushion some internal organ
• Add flavor to foods
• Maintain healthy skin, normal growth, and reproductive ability
 VITAMINS

- Vitamins are organic compounds required by the body in small

amounts for the regulation of metabolism.

- Many vitamins are converted into coenzymes after they enter

the body.

- Vitamins A, D, E and K are usually classified as fat-soluble, and

vitamin C and the B vitamins are water soluble.
 MINERALS

- Some minerals such as iodine, copper, zinc, cobalt, iron and

manganese are needed in the body in such small amounts that
they are called microminerals on trace elements.

- In contrast , calcium, phosphorus, sodium, chlorine, potassium

& sulfur are known as macrominerals.
 METABOLIC RATE & TEMPERATURE CONTROL
- One way of measuring energy expenditure in the body as a
whole is to determine the metabolic rate, the amount of energy
used by the body during a specific time period.

Among the factors that affect the metabolic rate are type of:
FOOD - eating a protein-rich meal generally raises the metabolic
rate more than eating a meal high in lipids or carbohydrates.
METABOLIC RATE AND TEMPERATURE CONTROL

EXERCISE - the number of calories said to be contained in any

food is actually the number of calories that the body is able to
metabolize & release.

HORMONES - several hormones are involved in a feedback

system that helps maintain.

AGE & OTHER FACTORS - the metabolic rate of a child is

generally higher than that of an adult because the child requires
more energy during its complex growth period.
 BASAL METABOLIC RATE
-The metabolic rate is the total energy used by the body per unit time
to sustain the minimal normal cellular activity.

-The metabolic rate computed under such conditions is called basal

metabolic rate (BMR).

-It is usually expressed as kilocalories of energy consumed per square

meter of body surface are per hours. BMR= kcal/m2/h

-The usual technique is to use an instrument called a respirometer or

metabolator
 REGULATION OF BODY TEMPERATURE
• The temperature of the body is regulated in great part by
negative feedback mechanisms within the nervous system,
especially in the hypothalamus.

Heat promoting mechanisms.

-When the environment. When the environmental temperature
is cold body heat must be conserved.
Short term means of accomplishing this are vasocontriction of
blood vessels of the skin & shivering
Heat lost mechanisms.
-Just as the body must be protected from becoming too cold, it
must also be protected from excessively high temperatures.
-Most heat loss occurs through the skin via radiation or
evaporation.

Fever
-is controlled hyperthermia.
-Most often, it results from infection somewhere in the body, but
it may be caused by other conditions.
 DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM &
METABOLISM

-The digestive system is susceptible to many congenital defects

that infere with feeding.

-The most common is the cleft palate or cleft lip detect. Of the
two, cleft palate is more serious because the child is unable to
suck properly.