ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

ACIDS, BASES & SALTS

ACIDS BASES AND ALKALIS
All acids contain hydrogen. An acid ionizes A base accepts a proton from an acid solution to
(or dissociates) when dissolved in water to form a salt and water.
produce an H+ ion, a proton. Most metal oxides, metal hydroxides and
metal carbonates / hydrogencarbonates are
An acid is a proton (H+) bases, such as calcium oxide, sodium hydroxide,
donor. calcium carbonate, etc.
e.g.
Ionization of an Acid BASE + ACID → SALT + WATER
e.g. hydrochloric acid CaO(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + H2O
calcium oxide hydrochloric calcium chloride
HCl(aq) → H+(aq) + Cl-(aq) acid

Basicity of an acid refers to the number of If sulphuric acid reacts with potassium
H+ ions formed when a molecule (one mole) hydroxide, potassium sulphate and water are
of an acid ionizes. Since the acidity of a formed. Both products are neutral. This is a
solution depends on the number of neutralization reaction.
protons(H+) released by each acid molecule, Neutralization reactions are exothermic- they
acids can be referred to as: give out heat. The reactions show a rise in
.monobasic (or monoprotic)–i.e. one H+ , temperature.
.dibasic (or diprotic) – i.e. two H+ and
.tribasic (or triprotic) – i.e three H+ ions
are formed.
KOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → K2SO4(aq) + H2O
potassium sulphuric acid potassium sulphate water
hydroxide
e.g. Sulphuric acid ionizes into:
H2SO4(aq) → 2H+(aq) + SO42-(aq) Some bases are soluble in water to form alkalis.
Hence its basicity is 2, so it is dibasic. All alkalis are bases, but not all bases are alkalis.

Strength and Concentration of an acid(or A base is a proton (H+) acceptor.

base) An alkali is a soluble base which produces
hydroxide (OH-) ions in water.
Strength of an acid (or base) refers to a e.g.
degree of ionization in water, and it depends BASE + WATER → ALKALI
on the pH of the solution. The acid (or base) Na2O(s) + H2O(l) → NaOH(aq)
is said to be strong or weak. sodium oxide water sodium hydroxide
e.g. 0.1M HNO3 is a strong acid, and 0.1M
CH3COOH is a weak acid Ammonia gas is also a base, it accepts a proton
Concentration refers to the number of from water to form ammonium hydroxide or
moles of dissolved acid (or base) per given ammonia solution, and forms ammonium(NH4+)
1dm3 of water. ion.
e.g. 0.1 mol/dm3 HCl has low NH3(g) + H2O(l) → NH4OH(aq)
ammonia water ammonium hydroxide
concentration, while 0.2 mol/dm3 HCl has
high concentration. Concentration is
Ionization of an Alkali
increased by adding more acid, or decreased
e.g. aqueous sodium hydroxide

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 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

by dilution with distilled water. NaOH(aq) → Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)

A Strong acid is the one which ionizes ALKALI + ACID → SALT + WATER
completely when dissolved in water and NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
gives a lot of H+ ions and other negative the net ionic equation gives:
ions.
In solution the acid contains ions only but OH- (aq) + H+ (aq) → H2O(l)
no molecules. [Remember: Na+ and Cl- are spectator ions.]
e.g. Water is a colourless liquid with boiling point of
most mineral acids such as; 1000C and melting point of 00C.
nitric, hydrochloric, sulphuric, phosphoric test: pour the liquid on white anhydrous
acids: nitric(HNO3), Hydrochloric(HCl), copper(II)sulphate, or on anhydrous blue
cobalt(II)chloride paper
sulphuric(H2SO4), phosphoric(H3PO4), etc. test result: blue crystals of copper sulphate are
formed. The cobalt chloride paper turns from blue
A Weak acid is the one which dissociates to pink.
partially when dissolved in water and it
gives few H+ ions and other anions. A Strong alkali ionizes completely and
In solution, while some molecules break produces large amounts of OH- ions in
into ions, some ions rearrange to form solution.
molecules. e.g.
e.g. carbonic(H2CO3), ethanoic/acetic hydroxides of sodium, potassium, calcium,
(CH3COOH), methanoic/formic(HCOOH), magnesium: NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)2,
lactic, citric acid, etc. Mg(OH)2.
A Weak alkali ionizes partially to give few
OH- ions in solution.
e.g. ammonia or ammonium hydroxide solution,
NH3 (aq) or NH4OH(aq)

Methods For Measuring The Strength Of Acids / Alkalis

1. Using the universal (full-range) indicator and the pH scale.

A strong acid gives a red to orange colour i.e. pH 1 to 3.
A weak acid gives a yellow colour i.e. pH 4 to 6.
A strong alkali gives an indigo to violet colour i.e. pH 12 to 14.
A weak alkali gives a blue-green to blue colour i.e. pH 8 to 11.

2. Reaction of acid with a metal or a carbonate.

A strong acid will react faster with more bubbles than a weak acid of the same concentration.

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 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

Tube 3 contains a strong acid, tube 1 a weak acid.

3. Measuring the current passing through the acid or alkali.
A strong acid will give a higher current than a weak acid of the same concentration.
A strong acid will produce a brighter bulb than a weak acid of the same concentration.

current/A bulb
sulphuric acid
ethanoic acid

4. Acid-alkali titration process.

A strong acid will need less alkali than a weak acid of the same concentrations.

Effect of Acids and Alkalis on Indicators

Indicators are coloured dyes made from plants that change colour in acidic or alkaline solutions.
The common indicators are:
(i) litmus paper(red or blue), litmus solution(green)
litmus is made from lichens.
(ii) methyl orange red cabbage or blackberries or
(iii) phenolphthalein tea are used to make indicators.
(iv) universal (or full-range) indicators.

indicator in acid solution in neutral in alkali solution

solution
litmus paper blue to red no change red to blue
methyl orange pink orange yellow
phenolphthalein colourless colourless pink
universal red(strong acid) green blue(weak alkali)
yellow(weak acid) purple(strong alkali)

pH scale and Universal Indicator

The universal (full-range) indicator is a mixture of indicators. The pH scale when used together
with the universal indicator gives 3 things about the substance:
1. whether the substance is an acid or alkali
2. the strength of the acid or alkali and
3. whether a substance is neutral
because the universal indicator gives a range of colours: ROY G BIV (Red, Orange, Yellow,
Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet).
The pH scale is a measure of the degree of acidity or alkalinity of a solution. The scale runs from
1(strong acid) to 14(strong alkali).

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 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

pH 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

strong weak acid neutral weak alkali strong

acid alkali

RED ORANGE YELLOW GREEN BLUE-GREEN BLUE PURPLE

HNO3 H2CO3 H2O NH4OH NaOH

HCl CH3COOH NaCl Ca(OH)2

R O Y G. B I V

Examples of Acids

type name & ionization strong/ where found or used

basicity weak
mineral hydrochloric HCl → strong -used in cleaning metal surfaces;
acids (monobasic) H+ + Cl- found in stomach

nitric HNO3 → strong -used in making fertilizers and

(monobasic) H+ + NO3- explosives

sulphuric H2SO4 → strong -used in car batteries; fertilizers;

(dibasic) 2H+ + SO42- detergents; paints

carbonic H2CO3 → weak -used in fizzy drinks

(dibasic) 2H+ + CO32-

phosphoric H3PO4 → strong -used in anti-rust paints; fertilizers

(tribasic) 3H+ + PO43-
natural ethanoic/ CH3COOH → weak -found in vinegar
and acetic H+ +
organic CH3COO-
acids methanoic/ weak -found in ant and bee stings; used
formic HCOOH → in kettle discaler
lactic H+ + HCOO- weak -found in sour milk

citric C3H8O7 weak -in lemons, oranges or other citrus

fruits
tannic weak -in tea

tartaric weak -in grapes

ascorbic acid C6H8O6 weak -in fruits and vegetables

(vitamin C)

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 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

Examples of Bases

Name & formula soluble/ strong/ where found or used

appearance insoluble weak
sodium hydroxide, white soluble strong -making soap, paper,detergents,
NaOH pellets bleach, oven cleaners
(caustic soda)

ammonia solution, colourless soluble weak -household cleansers; fertilizers

NH4OH liquid

calcium hydroxide, white soluble strong - garden lime to neutralize soil

Ca(OH)2 pellets acidity; to neutralize acid gases
(limewater) produced by power stations.

sodium white solid soluble to form strong -

oxide,Na2O NaOH

Calcium oxide, white solid soluble to form strong -neutralizing soil acidity and
CaO limewater industrial waste; making cement
(quick lime) and concrete.

magnesium oxide, white solid insoluble strong -in antacid indigestion tablets.
MgO

Copper(II)oxide, black solid insoluble strong ____

CuO

iron(II)oxide, FeO blue-black insoluble ____

solid

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 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

Properties of Acids

-turn blue litmus red

-corrosive
-pH less than 7

Reactions of Acids

-acid + alkali →salt + water

Neutralization reactions using titration procedure.

[Link] reaction of hydrochloric acid sodium hydroxide in the presence of an

indicator, say, methyl orange.

HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O

-acid + metal oxide → salt + water

e.g. Sulphuric acid is neutralized by excess of copper(II) oxide to form copper(II) sulphate
crystals.
The acid is heated before the solid is added, to increase the rate of reaction.

H2SO4(aq) + CuO(s) → CuSO4(aq) + H2O observations:

-the black powder of copper oxide
dissolves.
-the colour of solution changes
from colourless to blue.
discussion: the copper sulphate
dissolves to give the blue solution.
Cu2+ ions are blue in solution.

-acid + metal → salt + hydrogen

Exception: Nitric acid, HNO3(aq), react with metals to form nitrogen oxides
instead of hydrogen.
Note: Ca, Mg, Al, Zn and Fe
[Link]:
magnesium reacts with dilute hydrochloric (MAZIT
acid to form magnesium
metals) chloride
react with diluteand
-effervescence, bubbles of
hydrogen. acids to give off hydrogen.
colourless gas is noted.
Sn and Pb give off hydrogen slowly,
test +for2HCl(aq)
Mg(s) hydrogen:
→use a burning
MgCl 2(aq) + H2(g)
so the acid needs to be warmed up.
splint.
Caution: Never add alkali metals(K,
results: gas produces ‘pop’ sound.
Na and Li) to acid. The reaction will
discussion: hydrogen explodes
explode violently. Oxides of these
when it burns because it is a very
metals are used instead.
reactive gas.

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 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

-acid + carbonate → salt + water + carbon dioxide

e.g. hydrochloric acid is neutralized by marble chips/limestone to form
calcium chloride, water and carbon dioxide.
observations:
2HCl(aq) + CaCO3(s) → -effervescence, bubbles of a
CaCl2(aq) + H2O + CO2(g) colourless gas are produced.
test for carbon dioxide: bubble the
figure 2: gas through limewater.
results: limewater turns milky or
cloudy.
discussion: a white precipitate of
calcium carbonate is formed when
carbon dioxide react with aqueous
calcium hydroxide(limewater).

CO2(g) + Ca(OH)2(aq) →
CaCO3(s) + H2O

-solutions of acids conduct electricity i.e. acids are electrolytes.

Hydrogen bubbles off at the cathode(the negative electrode).

figure 3: Pass electricity in solution of sulphuric acid:

observation: bubbles of gases are produced

at both electrodes.
discussion: OH- ions are discharged by loss
of electrons to form oxygen gas at the
anode. The H+ ions gain electrons and form
atoms of hydrogen gas.
Note: H2SO4 (aq) contains H+, SO4-2 ,
( and OH- from water.)
Anode: 4OH -(aq) → 2H2O(l) + O2 + 4e-
(oxidation)
Cathode: 4H+(aq) + 4e- → 2H2(g)
(reduction)

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 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

Properties of Alkalis
-‘bitter taste’
-turn red litmus blue
-corrosive, especially strong alkalis
-pH greater 7

Reactions of Alkalis

-alkali + acid → salt + water

neutralization reaction

-alkali + ammonium salt → salt + water + ammonia

e.g. sodium hydroxide is warmed gently with ammonium sulphate to give sodium
sulphate, water and ammonia.
observations: a pungent smell
2NaOH(aq) + (NH4)2SO4(aq) → of gas given off.
Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O + 2NH3(g) test for ammonia: moist red
litmus paper in the gas.
results: red litmus turns blue.
discussion: ammonia is an
alkaline gas.

-solutions of alkalis in water conduct electricity.

Oxygen gas bubbles off at the surface of the anode( the positive electrode).
Note: NaOH(aq) contains Na+, OH-,(and H+ from water).
e.g. The electrolysis of aqueous sodium hydroxide:
Anode: 4OH-(aq) → O2(g) + H2O + 4e- (oxidation)
Cathode: 4H+(aq) + 4e- → 2H2(g) (reduction)

Preparing Gases in the Lab

The usual method is to displace the gas form a solid or solution.

The common apparatus for preparing gases. The dropping funnel, in the apparatus on the right,
is used for adding concentrated acids, while dilute acids are added using thistle funnel (piece A
in the diagram on the left).

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 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

To make… Place in flask… Add… Reaction

carbon calcium carbonate dilute hydrochloric CaCO3 (s) + 2HCl(aq) →

dioxide (marble chips) acid CaCl2(aq) + H2O + CO2(g)

chlorine manganese(IV) conc. hydrochloric 2HCl(aq) + [O] → H2O + Cl2(g)

oxide acid
(an oxidising agent)

hydrogen pieces of zinc dilute hydrochloric Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) →

acid ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)

hydrogen sodium chloride conc. sulphuric NaCl(s) + H2SO4(aq) →

chloride acid NaHSO4(aq) + HCl(g)

oxygen manganese(IV) hydrogen peroxide 2H2O2(aq) → 2H2O + O2(g)

oxide
(as a catalyst)

*Note: To make ammonia, just heat any ammonium compound with any strong alkali.

Collecting Gases in the Lab

Method Upward Downward Over water Gas syringe

displacement displacement of (displacement of
of air air water)
(downward (upward
delivery) delivery)
gas is sparingly soluble you want to

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 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

Use gas is more gas is less denser in water measure the

when… denser than air than air volume of gas

Apparatus

Examples carbon ammonia, NH3 carbon dioxide, CO2 any gas

dioxide,CO2 hydrogen, H2 hydrogen, H2
chlorine, Cl2 oxygen, O2
sulphur dioxide,
SO2
hydrogen
chloride, HCl

Tests For Gases

Gas Properties Test Test Results

Ammonia, Colourless alkaline gas with a Carefully smell the Strong recognizable
NH3 pungent smell. gas, and hold damp odour, and indicator
indicator paper in paper turns blue.
it.
Limewater turns
Carbon Colourless, weakly acidic gas. It Bubble the gas milky or cloudy.
dioxide, CO2 reacts with limewater(a solution of through limewater.
aqueous calcium hydroxide) to
give a white precipitate of calcium
carbonate.
CO2(g) + Ca(OH)2(aq) →
CaCO3(s) + H2O

Hold damp Indicator paper turns

Chlorine, A green poisonous gas which indicator paper in white.
Cl2 bleaches dyes. the gas, in a fume
hood.

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 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

Hydrogen, A colourless. It combines violently Collect the gas in The gas burns with a
H2 with oxygen when ignited. Take the tube and hold a squeaky ‘pop’ sound.
care! lighted splint to it.

Hydrogen A colourless, acidic gas with a Hold a rod dipped A white ‘smoke’ of
chloride, choking smell. It reacts with in concentrated ammonium chloride
HCl ammonia to form the salt ammonia solution forms.
ammonium chloride: in the gas, in the
HCl(g) + NH3(g) → NH4Cl(s) fume hood.

The splint
Oxygen, O2 A colourless gas. Fuels burn much Collect the gas in a immediately burst
more readily in it than in air. test tube and hold a into flames.
glowing splint to it.

Sulphur A colourless acidic gas with a Hold a piece of The paper turns from
dioxide, SO2 choking smell. It reacts with filter paper soaked orange to green.
acidified potassium in acidified
dichromate(VI) solution, reducing dichromate
the orange dichromate ion, solution in the gas,
Cr2O72- , to the green in a fume hood.
chromium(III) ion, Cr3+ :
3SO2(g) + 2H+(aq) + Cr2O72-(aq)
→ 3SO42-(aq) + H2O + 2Cr3+(aq)
SO2 is a reducing agent.

Methods of Drying Gases

To get a dry sample of gas it is passed through a drying agent-each is suitable for a
particular gas.

1. Concentrated sulphuric acid is used to dry all gases, except ammonia.

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 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

2. Anhydrous calcium chloride is used to dry all gases, except ammonia which forms a
complex with calcium chloride.

3. Calcium oxide is used to dry ammonia and neutral gases.

figure 5:

anhydrous calcium chloride

APPLICATIONS OF ACID-BASE (NEUTRALIZATION) REACTIONS IN DAILY LIFE

1. Soil Treatment – Farming

-The majority of plants grow best at pH 7. If the soil is acidic or alkaline the plant may grow
badly. Therefore, chemicals can be added to the soil to change its pH.

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 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

-If the soil is too acidic - the most common complaint - it is treated with a base (chemicals
opposite to an acid) in order to neutralize it. Common treatments use quicklime (calcium oxide)
or limestone (calcium carbonate), or slaked lime (calcium hydroxide).

2. Indigestion
-We all have hydrochloric acid in our stomach - it helps breakdown food! However, too much
acid leads to indigestion. Therefore, to cure this ailment we need to neutralise the acid with a
base such as, sodium hydrogencarbonate (baking soda), or an indigestion tablet, or remedy such
as ENO.

3. Insect Stings
-A bee sting contains acid. In order to relieve the painful symptoms of the sting we need to
neutralize the acid. By rubbing on calamine lotion (zinc carbonate) or baking soda (sodium
hydrogen carbonate) the acid can be neutralized.
-Wasp stings are alkaline, hence acid is needed to neutralize and remove the painful sting.
Vinegar (ethanoic acid) is used.

4. Waste from Factories

-Wastes from many factories are often acidic. If this acidic solution is not treated and enters
rivers it can kill fish. Slaked lime (calcium hydroxide) is often used to neutralise the acid.

5. Toothpaste
-Toothpaste contains a base which neutralizes the acid produced by the bacteria in the mouth.

6. Household Cleaning Agents

- Jik, Handy Andy contain alkalis that neutralize the acids produced by bacteria working on food
left on utensils in the kitchen.

7. Descaling Kettles
- Limestone collects inside kettles and water heaters in hardwater areas. Hardwater contains
more dissolved Ca2+ ions than normal water. Calcium carbonate forms when water is boiled. The
calcium carbonate can be removed by treatment with vinegar(ethanoic acid) to descale the
kettles.

8. Baking powder contains sodium hydrogencarbonate and a weak acid. When water is added the
two react together. The carbon dioxide produced gets trapped and helps the cake-mix or dough to
rise.

SALTS
A SALT is a substance formed when all or part of hydrogen ions (H+) in acid are replaced by
metal ion or the ammonium ion (NH4+). A salt is an ionic substance made up of an anion from
acid and a cation of metal or ammonium ion.

Types of Salts:

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 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

1. NORMAL SALT is formed when all the H+ ions are replaced by metal or ammonium ions.
A normal salt is produced from any type of acid. A normal salt is neutral i.e. has pH 7.

2. ACID SALT is formed when part (not all) of the H+ ions are replaced by metal or
ammonium ions. Sulphuric, carbonic and phosphoric acids have more than one replacable
hydrogens, so they can form acid salts.
The pH of an acid salt is lower than that of a normal salt of the same acid at the same
concentration. eg. pH of H2SO4 is 1; pH of NaHSO4 is 3 and pH of Na2SO4 is 7.

ACID NAME EXAMPLES OF TYPE OF SALT

OF SALT NORMAL SALT ACID SALT
Hydrochloric Chlorides Sodium chloride, NaCl ----
Sulphuric Sulphates Sodium sulphate, Na2SO4 Sodium hydrogensulphate, NaHSO4
Nitric Nitrates Ammonium nitrate, NH4NO3 ----
Ethanoic Ethanoates Sodium ethanoate
(acetic) (acetates) (sodium acetate), CH3COONa
----
Sodium hydrogencarbonate, NaHCO3
Carbonic Carbonates Sodium carbonate, Na2CO3

Salts made from strong acids and weak alkalis give solutions with pH < 7. e.g. NaHCO3 pH 8.5.

Salts made from weak acids and strong alkalis give solutions with pH> 7. e.g. CH3COONa ph 9.

Salts made from strong acids and strong alkalis give solutions with pH 7.

SOLUBLE AND INSOLUBLE SALTS

Soluble salts dissolve in water to form aqueous solutions while insoluble salts do not dissolve in
water.
SOLUBLE SALTS INSOLUBLE SALTS
All Sodium, Potassium and
Ammonium salts

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 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

All nitrates

All ethanoates(acetates)

All chlorides EXCEPT Silver chloride & Lead chlorides [SiLe chlorides]

All sulphates EXCEPT Barium,Calcium &Lead sulphate[BaCaLe sulphates]

Sodium, Potassium All other carbonates

& Ammonium
carbonates
[SoPoAm]

METHODS OF PREPARING SALTS

METHODS OF PREPARATION
1. NEUTRALIZATION REACTIONS
(a) ACID + ALKALI → SALT + WATER
The procedure used is TITRATION.
HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) → NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)
hydrochloric acid sodium hydroxide sodium chloride

(b) ACID + METAL OXIDE → SALT + WATER

H2SO4 (aq) + CuO (s) → CuSO4 (aq) + H2O (l)
sulphuric acid copper(II) oxide copper(II) sulphate

The reactions produce neutral substances, hence these are NEUTRALIZATION reactions.

2. DISPLACEMENT REACTIONS.
(a) ACID + METAL → SALT + HYDROGEN
H2SO4 (aq) + Zn (s) → ZnSO4 (aq) + H2 (g)
sulphuric acid zinc zinc(II) sulphate
SOLUBLE
(b) ACID + METAL CARBONATE → SALT + WATER + CARBON
SALTS - DIOXIDE
H2SO4 (aq) + CuCO3 (aq) → CuSO4 (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)
sulphuric acid copper(II) carbonate copper(II) sulphate

(c) AMMONIUM SALT + ALKALI → SALT + WATER + AMMONIA

NH4Cl (aq) + NaOH (aq) → NaCl (aq) + H2O (l) + NH3(g)
ammonium chloride sodium hydroxide sodium chloride water ammonia

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 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

3. DIRECT COMBINATION (SYNTHESIS)

METAL + NON-METAL → SALT
2Na (s) + Cl2 (g) → 2NaCl(s)
sodium chlorine sodium chloride

2Al(s) + 3Cl2 (g) → 2AlCl3 (s)

aluminium chlorine aluminium chloride

NH3 (g) + HCl(g) → NH4Cl(s)

ammonia hydrogen chloride ammonium chloride

1. PRECIPITATION METHOD that involves the process of double

decomposition (or double dissociation) in which the use of two soluble salts
form one insoluble salt-a precipitate, and one soluble salt. The reactants
dissociate into ions and this is followed by the exchange and rearrangement of
ions to form products.
INSOLUBLE
SALTS SOLUBLE + SOLUBLE → INSOLUBLE + SOLUBLE
SALT SALT SALT SALT

PbCl2 (aq) + Na2CO3 (aq) → PbCO3 (s) + NaCl (aq)

lead(II) chloride sodium carbonate lead(II) carbonate sodium
chloride

NaCl (aq) + AgNO3 (aq) → AgCl (s) + NaNO3

(aq)
sodium chloride silver(I) nitrate silver(I) chloride sodium nitrate

2. DISPLACEMENT REACTIONS of acid-metal reactions.

METAL + ACID → SALT + HYDROGEN
Pb (s) + H2SO4(aq) → PbSO4(s) + H2 (g)
lead sulphuric acid lead(II) sulphate

Hydrated Salts: contain water of crystallization. The water of crystallization gives crystals their
shape and colour.

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 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

When hydrated salts are heated to dryness they lose the water of crystallization and crystals lose
shape and colour, and become powders. Anhydrous salts do not contain any water of
crystallization.

CuSO4∙ 5H2O (s) heat CuSO4(s) + 5H2O (g)

copper(II) pentahydrate copper(II) sulphate water
blue crystals white powder
(hydrated) (anhydrous)

hydrated salt formula colour

cobalt(II) chloride hexahydrate CoCl2∙ 6H2O pink
iron(II) sulphate hexahydrate FeSO4∙ 6H2O green
sodium carbonate decahydrate Na2CO3∙10H2O white
magnesium sulphate heptahydrate MgSO4∙7H2O white

Efflorescent salts: give out some or all of their water of crystallization to the air.
e.g. Na2CO3∙10H2O (s) → Na2CO3∙H2O(s) + 9H2O(g)

Deliquescent salts: absorb water from the air and turn into a aqueous solution.
e.g. copper(II) nitrate,Cu(NO3)2 , zinc chloride, ZnCl2 and sodium hydroxide, NaOH are
deliquescent salts should be kept in a dessicator to keep them dry.

STAGES OF PREPARING AND PURIFYING SALTS PREPARED BY THE ABOVE

METHODS

STAGES IN PREPARING AND PURIFYING THE SALT PREPARED

1. Carefully WARM the acid. DISSOLVE excess insoluble base while
stirring to react all the acid.
2. FILTRATION of the mixture to purify the salt. The filtrate ( solution
of the soluble salt goes through the filter paper). Discard off the residue
(the solid left on filter paper).
3. EVAPORATE the filtrate by heating until saturated and crystals start
to form,
4. Allow to cool, and the rest of the crystals form at room temperature,
this is called CRYSTALLISATION.
5. FILTER off crystals. WASH them with little distilled water. DRY
crystals carefully between filter paper.

Preparation of hydrated copper(II) sulphate crystals

SOLUBLE SALT
Requirements: copper oxide, dilute sulphuric acid, Bunsen burner,
stirring rod, wire gauze, tripod stand, evaporating basin, 2 beakers, a
funnel, filter paper.

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 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

1 2

4 3
1. FILTRATION of the mixture is done. The filtrate (solution of the
soluble salt goes through the filter paper)
2. WASHING of the residue (the insoluble solid left on the filter paper)
INSOLUBLE SALT using distilled water.
3. DRYING of the residue between filter papers, or in the oven, or in air
to get your dry salt.

Uses of some salts

Salt colour use
ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3) white crystals fertilizers

limestone, chalk, marble chips (CaCO3) white making lime, cement, iron
extraction, decorative
stones

gypsum, plaster of Paris (CaSO4) white crystals wall plaster

washing soda (Na2CO3) white powder or in cleaning; water

crystals softening, making glass

Epsom salts(MgSO4) white crystals health salts (laxatives)

copper sulphate(CuSO4) blue crystals fungicides

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 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

OXIDES:
These are compounds formed when oxygen reacts with metals or non-metals.
colour possible identity of oxide solubility in water
white solid Na2O, K2O, CaO, ZnO All are insoluble except Na2O,
K2O, and MgO (slightly
soluble) to form alkalis.
black powder CuO, FeO

colourless gas CO2, SO2, SO3, NO2 All are soluble in water to
form acids.

Classification of oxides
There are 4 classes or types of oxides: Basic, Amphoteric, Acidic and Neutral.

CLASS OF EXAMPLES PROPERTIES

OXIDES
Na2O, MgO, -if it dissolves in water, alkalis are
CaO, CuO, formed.
BASIC FeO, Fe2O3, - they turn damp red litmus blue.
etc. - they react with acids to form salt +
water.
METAL Al2O3 - they have both acidic and basic
OXIDES ZnO properties. i.e. they react with both acids
PbO and alkalis to form salt + water.

AMPHOTERIC [AlZiLe] ZnO + H2SO4→ ZnSO4 + H2O

zinc sulphate
ZnO + NaOH → Na2ZnO2 + H2O
sodium zincate
SO2, SO3 , - they react with water to form acids.
CO2, NO2 , SO2 + H2O → H2SO3 sulphurous acid
P2O5 SO3 + H2O → H2SO4 sulphuric acid
CO2 + H2O → H2CO3 carbonic acid
NO2 + H2O → HNO3 nitric acid
ACIDIC P2O5 + H2O → H3PO4 phosphoric acid
NON-METAL
OXIDES - they react with alkalis to form a salt +
water.
2NaOH + CO2 → Na2CO3 + H2O

H2O, CO, - are neither acidic nor basic, i.e. they do

NEUTRAL N2O dinitrogen not react with both acids and alkalis.
oxide

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 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

IDENTIFICATION OF IONS
To carry out a test the unknown substance must be in an aqueous form.

An ion can be identified by the

 the colour of the precipitate (ppt), and
 the solubility of the ppt in excess of the reagent.

(a) Test For Cations:

-Transition metals can be recognized by the colour of their hydroxides. Their hydroxides are
insoluble in excess of the sodium hydroxide alkali.
-Amphoteric metals can be recognized because their hydroxides react with excess of the sodium
hydroxide solution to form colourless solution.

cation test result on adding excess test results on adding excess

NaOH (aq) NH3(aq)
ammonium ammonia gas produced on
NH4+ warming.

copper (II) blue ppt of Cu(OH)2; light blue ppt soluble in

Cu2+ insoluble in excess. excess giving a deep blue
solution.

iron (II) dirty green ppt of Fe(OH)2; dirty green ppt insoluble in
Fe2+ insoluble in excess. excess.
(ppt turns brown on standing). (turns brown on standing)

iron (III) red-brown ppt of Fe(OH)3; red-brown ppt insoluble.

Fe3+ insoluble in excess.

calcium white ppt of Ca(OH)2; no ppt (or very slight ppt).

Ca2+ insoluble.

aluminium white ppt of Al(OH)3; soluble white ppt; insoluble.

Al3+ in excess giving a colourless
solution.

zinc white ppt of Zn(OH)2; soluble white ppt; soluble in excess

Zn2+ in excess giving a colourless giving a colourless solution.
solution.

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 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

(b) Test for Anions:

anion test test result
chloride acidify with nitric acid; then add white ppt of silver chloride:
Cl- aqueous silver nitrate Ag (aq) + Cl(aq) → AgCl(s)

iodide acidify with nitric acid; then add yellow ppt of lead(II) iodide:
I- aqueous lead(II) nitrate Pb2+(aq) + 2I- (aq) → PbI2(s)
OR OR
acidify with nitric acid ; then add pale yellow ppt of silver iodide:
silver nitrate. Ag (aq) + I-(aq) → AgI(s)

sulphate acidify with nitric acid; then add white ppt of barium sulphate:
SO42- barium nitrate Ba2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) → BaSO4(s)
OR OR
acidify with hydrochloric acid; then white ppt of barium sulphate
add barium chloride

nitrate add aqueous sodium hydroxide; then ammonia gas produced (test with
NO3- add aluminium foil and warm moist red litmus paper; red litmus
carefully. turns blue).

carbonate add dilute hydrochloric acid effervescence observed; CO2 gas

CO32- produced (test with limewater;
limewater turns milky).

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