SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION (20A02504a) – ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

UNIT-IV
1. Draw the schematic diagram of the carrier current protection scheme
of lines. Also explain its working principle.

CARRIER CURRENT PROTECTION SCHEME:

This type of protection is used for protection of transmission lines. Carrier

currents of the frequency range 50 to 500 kHz are transmitted and received
through the transmission lines for the purpose of protection.

Fig. The schematic diagram of carrier current protection.

Each end of the line is provided with identical carrier current equipment
consisting of transmitter, receiver, line-tuning unit, master oscillator, power
amplifier, etc.

1. Coupling Capacitor: The carrier equipment is connected to the

transmission line through 'Coupling Capacitor' which is of such a
capacitance that it offers low reactance (1/ωC) to carrier frequency but high
reactance for power frequency. For example, 2000 pF capacitor offers 1.5
mega ohms to 50 Hz and 150 ohms to 500 KHz.

Thus coupling capacitors allows carrier frequency signals to enter the

carrier equipment but does not allow 50 Hz power frequency currents to
enter the carrier equipment. To reduce impedance further a low inductance
is connected in series with coupling capacitors to form a resonance at
carrier frequency.

2. Line Trap Unit: Line trap unit is inserted between bus bar and
connection of coupling capacitor to the line. It is a parallel tuned circuit
comprising L and C. It has a low impedance (less than 0.1 ohm) to 50 Hz
and high impedance to carrier frequencies. This unit prevents high

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 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION (20A02504a) – ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

frequency signals from entering the neighbouring line, and the carrier
currents flow only in the protected line.

3. Protection and Earthing of Coupling Equipment: Overvoltage on power

lines are caused by lightning, switching, faults, etc. produce stress on
coupling equipment and line trap unit. A non-linear resistor in series with a
protective gap is connected across the line trap unit and inductor of the
coupling unit. The gap is adjusted to spark at a set value of overvoltage.

Base of coupling unit is earthed by earth rod in the vicinity to obtain

low earth-resistance. Carrier panel usually installed in relay room is
connected to station earthing system.

4. Electronic equipment:There are generally identical unit at each end

i) Transmitter unit. ii) Receiver unit iii) Relay unit.
i) Transmitter unit: Frequencies between 50 to 500 kHz are employed in
different frequency bands. Each band has certain band width (say 150-300
kHz, 90-115 kHz).

Carrier frequencies are generated in oscillator. The oscillator can be

tuned to a particular frequency selected for the application. Sometimes a
crystal oscillator may also be used which gives particular band width after
selecting particular type of crystal. The output voltage of the oscillator is
held constant by voltage stabilizers.

The output of the oscillator is fed into the amplifier to overcome the
losses in the transmission path between the transmitter and receiver at
remote end of the line. Amplifier and oscillator constantly energized and the
signals are initiated by interconnecting the oscillator to the amplifier. The
control circuit switches the device which interconnects the oscillator and
amplifier.

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(ii) Receiving unit:The high frequency signals arriving from remote end are
received by Receiver. The receivers, the signals sand feeds to carrier
receiving relay unit (Fig). Receiving unit comprise.
- An attenuator, which reduces the signals to a safer value.
- Band pass filter, which restricts the acceptance of unwanted signals
(signal from adjacent sections, spurious signals.)
- Matching transformer or matching element to match the impedance of line
and receiving unit.

The spurious are caused by short-circuits, radio interference. To avoid

the mal-operation due to noise, a setting above 2 milli watts recommended
is given to the receiver. This setting is above the noise level. To avoid
operation due to spurious signals, the carrier signals should have higher
power level (20 W) and receiver should be set at higher level (5 milli watts).
Before feeding the signals to amplifier detector, the signals should be
attenuated to avoid overloading.

(iii) Frequency spacing: Different frequencies are used in adjacent line

sections. The wave traps ensure that the carrier signals do not enter the
next line section. The receiver filters filter-out other [Link] choice
of frequency bands for various sections should be co-ordinated.

(iv) Modulation of high frequencies signal:The modulator modulates 50

Hz signals and the modulates signals is fed so the amplifier and is then
transmitted via coupling unit.
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2. (a) Discuss the operation of differential protection of bus bars with

diagram.

Bus-bars in the generating stations and sub-stations form important link

between the incoming and outgoing circuits.

• Whenever fault occurs on a bus-bar, considerable damage and

disruption of supply will occur unless some form of quick-acting
automatic protection is provided to isolate the faulty bar.
• The bus bar zone includes not only the bus bars themselves but also
the isolating switches, Circuit Breakers and associated connections.

In the event of fault on any section of bus-bar, all the circuit equipment
connected to that section must be tripped out to give complete isolation.

Differential Protection of Bus-bar:

[Link] diagram of current differential scheme for a station bus-bar.

Construction:

The bus-bar is fed by a generator and supplies load to two lines. The
secondaries of current transformers in the generator lead, in line 1 and line
2 are all connected in parallel. The protection relay is connected across
these parallel connections. All CT’s must be of the same ratio in the scheme
regardless of the capacitances of the various circuits.

Operation:Under normal load conditions (or external fault conditions), the sum
of currents entering the bus is equal to those leaving the bus and no current
flows through the relay.

Whenever fault occurs within the protected zone, the currents entering
the bus will no longer be equal to those leaving it. The difference of these
currents will flow through the relay and cause the opening of generator
Circuit Breaker and each of the line Circuit Breakers.

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(b) Elaborate on various methods for protection of feeders.

The common methods of transmission line protection are:

1. Time graded over current protection.

2. Differential Protection.

3. Distance protection.

4. Carrier current protection.

1. TIME GRADED OVERCURRENT PROTECTION:

In this scheme of over current protection, time discrimination is

incorporated i.e.., the time settings of relays is so graded that in the event of
fault the smallest possible part of the system is isolated.

2. DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION:

The differential pilot-wire protection is based on the principle that

“under normal conditions, the current entering one end of a line is equal to
that leaving the other end”. When a fault occurs between the two ends, this
condition no longer holds and the difference of incoming and outgoing
current is arranged to flow through a relay which operates the circuit
breaker to isolate the faulty line.

There are several differential protection schemes in use for the lines.
(i) Merz-Prize Voltage Balance System.
(ii) TranslayScheme.

3. DISTANCE PROTECTION:

Both time-graded and pilot wire system are not suitable for the
protection of very long High Voltage transmission lines.

• The time-graded system gives long time delay in fault clearance at the
generating station end.
• The pilot wire system becomes too expensive due to greater length of
pilot wires required.
Since the fault currents depend upon the generating capacity and system
configuration, the distance relays are preferred to the over current relays.

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The action of distance relay depends upon the distance (or impedance)
between the point where the relay is installed and the faultpoint. This
system provides discrimination protection without employing pilot wires.

4. CARRIER CURRENT PROTECTION SCHEME:

This type of protection is used for protection of transmission lines. Carrier

currents of the frequency range 50 to 500 kHz are transmitted and received
through the transmission lines for the purpose of protection.

[Link] schematic diagram of carrier current protection.

Each end of the line is provided with identical carrier current equipment
consisting of transmitter, receiver, line-tuning unit, master oscillator, power
amplifier, etc.

3. (a) With neat sketch, explain the three-zone protection using

distance relays.

DISTANCE PROTECTION:

The action of distance relay depends upon the distance (or impedance)
between the point where the relay is installed and the faultpoint. This
system provides discrimination protection without employing pilot wires.

If the impedance seen by the relay is less than its setting the relay operates.
The condition to operate distance relay isZ< Z specified

Consider a system consisting of lines in series such that power can

flow only from left to right. The relays at A,B and C are set to operate for
impedance less than Z1, Z2 and Z3 respectively.

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Suppose a fault occurs between sub-stations B and C, the fault impedance

at power station A and sub-station B will be Z1+Z and Z respectively. It is
clear for the portion shown; only relay at B will operate.

Similarly, if a fault occurs within section AB, then only relay at A will
operate. In this manner, instantaneous protection can be obtained for all
conditions of operation.

In practice, it is not possible to obtain instantaneous protection for

complete length of the line due to inaccuracies in the relay elements and
instrument [Link] difficult is overcome by using ‘three-zone’
distance protection shown.

THREE-ZONE DISTANCE PROTECTION:

In this scheme, the protected area is divided into three zones.

For relay at A, three zones are Z1a , Z2a, Z3a.

Fig. 3 Zone bus protection

Z1a corresponds to approximately 80% length of AB and is high speed

[Link] intentional time lag is provided for this zone.

The first zone is extended upto 80% not 100% length of the line as the
relay impedance measurement will not be very accurate towards the end of
the line especially when the current is offset.

Second zone Z2a for relay at A covers remaining 20% length of the line
AB and 80% of the adjoining line. In case of a fault in this section relay at A

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will operate when the time elapsed corresponds to the ordinate Z2a. The
main idea of second zone is to provide protection for the remaining 20%
section of the line. The operating time of the second zone is normally about
0.2 to 0.5 second.

The third zone unit at A provide backup protection for faults in the
line CD, i.e., if there is a fault in the line CD and if for some reason the relay
at C fails to operate then relay at A will provide backup protection. The delay
time for the third zone is usually 0.4 to 1.0 sec.

The impedance relays are non-directional relays and therefore need a

directional relay with them. The characteristic of the impedance relays with
a directional unit for 3-zone protection is shown in fig.

Fig. Impedance characteristics of 3 zone protection

(b) List out the advantages of distance relays in power system

protection.

The various advantages of the distance relays are:

1. Gives faster operation.

2. Simple to coordinate.
3. Less effect of fault levels and fault current magnitudes.
4. Permits high line loading.
5. With the need at readjustments, permanent settings can be done.

Thus distance relays are used for providing primary and back up protection
for [Link] and distribution lines against the following faults,
1. Three phase faults.
2. Phase to Phase faults.
3. Phase to earth faults.

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4. Explain the radial feeder protection using over current relay with neat
block diagram and list out its advantages.

TIME GRADED OVERCURRENT PROTECTION:

In this scheme of over current protection, time discrimination is

incorporated i.e.., the time settings of relays is so graded that in the event of
fault the smallest possible part of the system is isolated.

Case-1: RADIAL FEEDER

In the radial feeder, power can flow in one direction only from generator
(or supply end) to load. Time graded protection of a radial feeder can be
achieved by using

i)Definite time relay

ii) Inverse time relay

i) Using Definite Time Relays:

The time of operations of each relay is fixed and is independent of

operating current. Fig shows over current protection with a radial feeder by
definite time relays.

The relay D has an operating time of 0.5 sec while for other relays
time delay is increased by 0.5 sec.

When the fault occurs in the section DE, it will be cleared in 0.5
sec by the relay and circuit breaker at D because all other relays have
higher operating time. Thus the faulty section DE of the system only will be
isolated. If the relay at D fails to trip, the relay at C operate after a time
delay of 0.5 sec i.e.., after 1 sec from the occurrence of fault.

Disadvantages:

1. Continuity of the supply cannot be maintained at the receiving end in the

event of fault.

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2. If there are number of feeders in series, the tripping time for fault near
the supply end becomes high.

The above disadvantage can be overcome by using inverse time relays to

some extent.

ii) Using Inverse-Time Relay:

The time of operation of each relay is inversely proportional to the operating

current.

Figure shows over current protection of radial feeder using inverse time
relays. With the above arrangement the farther the circuit breaker form the
generating station, shorter is the relay operating time. The three relays at A,
B, C are assumed to have inverse time characteristics. If a fault in section
BC will give relay times which allow breaker at B to trip out before the
breaker at A.

Advantages of the radial distribution network:

1. Simplest as fed at only one end.

2. The initial cost is low.

3. It is useful when the generation is at low voltage.

4. Preferred when the station is located at the center of the load.

5. More economical for some areas which have a low load requirement.

6. Require less number of cables.

7. It has a low maintenance.

5. (b) Explain the protection of ring main feeder using over current
relays.

PROTECTION OF RING MAINS FEEDER

In this system, various power stations or sub-stations are intercon-

nected by alternate routes, thus forming a closed ring. In case of damage to
any section of the ring, that section may be disconnected for repairs, and

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power will be supplied from both ends of the ring, thereby maintaining
continuity of supply.

Fig. shows the single line diagram of a typical ring main system
consisting of one generator G supplying four sub-stations S1, S2, S3 and S4.
In this arrangement, power can flow in both directions under fault
conditions. Therefore, it is necessary to grade in both directions round the
ring and also to use directional relays. In order that only faulty section of
the ring is isolated under fault conditions, the types of relays and their time
settings should be as follows:

• The two lines leaving the generating station should be equipped with non-
directional overcurrent relays (relays at A and J in this case).
• At each sub-station, reverse power or directional relays should be placed in
both incoming and outgoing lines (relays at B, C, D, E, F, G, H and I in this
case).
• There should be proper relative time-setting of the relays. As an example,
going round the loop G S1 S2 S3 S4 G ; the outgoing relays (viz at A, C, E, G
and I) are set with decreasing time limits e.g.
A=2.5sec, C=2sec, E=1.5sec, G=1sec, I=0.5sec.
• Similarly, going round the loop in the opposite direction (i.e. along G
S4 S3 S2 S1 G), the outgoing relays (J, H, F, D and B) are also set with
decreasing time limits e.g.
J=2.5sec, H=2sec, F=1.5sec, D=1sec, B=0.5sec.

Suppose a short circuit (fault) occurs at the point as shown in [Link]

order to ensure selectivity, it is desired that only circuit breakers at E and F
should open to clear the fault whereas other sections of the ring should be
intact to maintain continuity of supply. In fact, the above arrangement
accomplishes this job. The power will be fed to the fault via two routes viz (i)
from G around S1 and S2 and (ii) from G around S4 and S3. It is clear that
relays at A, B, C and D as well as J, I, H and G will not trip. Therefore, only

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relays at E and F will operate before any other relay operates because of
their lower time-setting.

6.(a) Explain the translay protection scheme for feeders.

Translay Relay:

This system is the modified form of voltage-balance system.

• The difference is that balance or opposition is between voltages

induced in the secondary windings wound on the relay magnets is
considered not between the secondary voltages of the line current
transformers.
• Current transformers are used with this scheme have only to supply
to a relay coil, they can be made of normal design without any air gaps. This
permits the scheme to be used for feeders of any voltage.

CONSTRUCTION:

• It consists of two identical double winding induction type relays fitted

at either of the feeder to be protected.
• The primary circuits (11, 11a) of these relays are supplied through a
pair of current transformers.
• The secondary windings (12, 13 and 12a, 13a) of the two relays are
connected in series by pilot wires in such a way that voltages induced in the
former oppose the other.
• The compensating devices (18, 18a) neutralize the effects of pilot-wire
capacitance currents.

[Link] scheme for single phase line.

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OPERATION:

Under normal operating conditions, current at the two ends of the

protected feeder is the same and the primary windings (11,11a) of the relays
carry the same current. The windings 11 and 11a induce equal e.m.f. in the
secondary windings 12,12a and 13,13a. As these windings are so connected
that their induced voltages are in opposition, no current will flow through
the pilots or operating coils and hence no torque will be exerted on the disc
of either relay.

Whenever fault occurs on the protected feeder, current leaving the

feeder will differ from the current entering the feeder. Consequently,
unequal voltages will be induced in the secondary windings of the relays and
current will circulate between the two windings, causing the torque to be
exerted on the disc of each relay.

As the direction of secondary current will be opposite in the two relays,

therefore, the torque in one relay will tend to close the trip circuit while in
the other relay.

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