s

ZIMBABWE INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT

CERTIFICATE IN ENVIRONMENTAL
HEALTH AND SAFETY MANAGEMENT

MODULE: ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS

NATIONAL OFFICE P.O. BOX 3733, HARARE

DZIDZO HOUSE TELEPHONE: 263-04-705291/2
ENTERPRISE RD SOUTH 707434 / 796509/
LONDONDERRY AVENUE 731478/0779775844/0715007331
EASTLEA, EMAIL-ehsm@[Link]
HARARE

Est. 1957

“Bridging the Gap between Theory & Practice

 DIPLOMA IN ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH, SAFETY AND MANAGEMENT

Table of Contents
MODULE OVERVIEW iii

MODULE OBJECTIVES iii

UNIT ONE
ENVIRONMENT – AN INTRODUCTION 1
INTRODUCTION 1
LEARNING OUTCOMES 1
SUMMARY 6
BIBLIOGRAPHY 6

UNIT TWO 7
CONTEMPORARY ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES 7
INTRODUCTION 7
LEARNING OUTCOMES 7
SUMMARY 11
BIBLIOGRAPHY 11

UNIT THREE 12
ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS 12
INTRODUCTION 12
LEARNING OUTCOMES 12
SUMMARY 18
BIBLIOGRAPHY 18

UNIT FOUR 19
GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL MOVEMENT 19
INTRODUCTION 19
LEARNING OUTCOMES 19
SUMMARY 23
BIBLIOGRAPHY 24

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 DIPLOMA IN ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH, SAFETY AND MANAGEMENT

MODULE OVERVIEW

The environment is an asset which is common to all society and must be preserved and supported by individu-
als, as well as by the various organisations at all spatial levels in order to ensure that its benefits to humanity are
enjoyed in perpetual continuity. This calls for embracing the notion of sustainable development which is widely
understood to mean a development that “responds to the needs of the present without compromising the ca-
pacity of future generations to respond to their own needs.” An indispensable tool to attain the objective of
sustainable development is environmental education, which can contribute to greater environmental awareness
on the part of society in general. This module thus introduces students to the environmental knowledge of
fundamental environmental issues premised on the agenda of sustainability. Unit 1 exposes students to basic
environmental aspects and terminologies. This sets a firm foundation for learners to understand contemporary
environmental issues discussed in Unit 2. Understanding of major environmental issues sets a favourable premise
for students to justify the need for raising awareness on these issues (Unit 3). Finally, Unit 4 discusses the ma-
jor developments in environmental lobbying, advocacy and education – the phenomenon of environmentalism.

OVERALL MODULE OBJECTIVES

By the end of this Module, you should be able to:

 Define the term environment and identify some important environmental concerns that we face today.
 Understand the science of the environment as it influences human existence on Earth.
 Make a distinction between physical and social environment and how these influence human survival.
 List the main environmental aspects and the role they provide to humanity.
 Understand that people and nature are intimately connected.

(ii)
 UNIT ONE
ENVIRONMENT – AN INTRODUCTION
1.0 INTRODUCTION

Knowledge of environmental science is necessary for human survival. As Botkin and Keller (2005) notes, en-
vironmental science is a group of sciences that attempt to explain how life on Earth is sustained, what leads to
environmental problems, and how these problems can be solved. Environmental awareness refers to building
knowledge about the components of the environment and their function to enable understanding of how life
can be sustained on the planet, Earth. This Unit builds a foundation for students to get familiarized with envi-
ronmental issues through exploring the science of the environment.

1.1. LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this Unit, you should be able to:
 Define the term environment and identify some important environmental concerns that we face today.
 Understand the science of the environment as it influences human existence on Earth.
 Make a distinction between physical and social environment and how these influence human survival.
 List the main environmental aspects and the role they provide to humanity.
 Understand that people and nature are intimately connected.

1.2 ENVIRONMENT DEFINED

Definitions of the term environment abound, but the most familiar ones are given as:
 The natural surroundings of an organism which directly or indirectly influences its growth and
development.
 The surroundings in which an organism operates including air, water, land and natural resources, flora,
fauna, humans and their interrelations.
 The sum total of all living and non-living factors that constitute the surrounding of man.

1.2.1 WHAT CAN WE LEARN FROM THESE DEFINITIONS?

Environment defines the biotic, abiotic and human (social and economic) surroundings that make up the Earth.
Put simply, this refers to the circumstances and conditions that surround an organism or a group of organisms
(community). In a more human-oriented definition, the environment can be looked at as the social and cultural
conditions that affect an individual or a community. As human beings, we inhabit two worlds: a natural world of
plants, animals, soils, air and water – the biophysical environment, and a world of social institutions and artifacts
that we create for ourselves using science, technology and political organization – the socio-economic environ-
ment. This clearly means that the two worlds are acutely necessary to human survival.
Therefore, it can be deduced that the environment involves examining the composite interaction between the
people and the characteristic physical setting in which they accomplish their daily lives. This is called environ-
mental science.

1.3 WHAT IS ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE?

Cunningham and Cunningham (2006) define environmental science as the systematic study of the environment
and our place in it. Put simply, it is the science that attempts to explain how life on Earth is sustained, what leads
to environmental problems, and how these problems can be solved. Thus, from an environmental awareness
perspective, these aspects need to be emphasized. The field as noted by Botkin and Keller (2005) is highly inter-
disciplinary, integrating disciplines such as:

Biology – the study of life.

Ecology – the study of the relationships among living things and their environment.
Chemistry - the science that deals with the composition and properties of substances and various
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 DIPLOMA IN ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH, SAFETY AND MANAGEMENT
elementary forms of matter.
Geography - concerned with the world and humanity’s place in it and has developed many procedures for ana-
lyzing spatial problems.
Agriculture – the cultivation of animals, plants, or crops driven and defined by greatly different climates, cul-
tures, and technologies.
Geology – the science and study of the physical matter and energy that constitute the Earth.
Hydrology – focuses on the distribution of water on the planet, its circulation through the hydrologic cycle, the
physical and chemical properties of water.
Climatology – the study of long term pattern of weather in a particular area.
Oceanography – the exploration and scientific study of the ocean and its phenomena.
Anthropology – The scientific study of the origin and behavior of man, including the development of societies
and cultures.
Sociology – the study of human social behaviour, especially the study of the origins, organization, institutions,
and development of human society
Economics – the social science concerned with the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and
services.
Demography – the study of populations, especially their patterns in space and time.

The following points summarize the peculiarity of the environmental science discipline:
 It involves many sciences.
 Apart from including these broad sciences, it involves related non-scientific fields that have to do with
how we value the environment, from environmental philosophy to environmental economics.
 It deals with many topics that have great emotional effects on people, and therefore are subject to
political debate and to strong feelings that often ignore scientific information.

ACTIVITY

IN WHAT WAY(S) ARE THESE DEFINITIONS

IMPORTANT IN RAISING ENVIRONMEN-
TAL AWARENESS IN YOUR COMMUNITY?

1.4 CLASSIFICATION OF THE ENVIRONMENT

To understand more about how the environment is structured, there is need to review its classification (Figure
1.1)

The social environment reflects the traditions that a person is grown, lives in and the community with whom the
individual interacts. The economic environment refers to the set of factors that surrounds the organism includ-
ing monetary, natural and human resources that influence the behaviour of the person. The political environ-
ment involves conflicting interactions, between other organisms, often resulting in the formation of alliances or
coalitions and used to resolve the conflict and achieve the goals of the allies or their influential members.
The biological environment refers to various flora (plants), fauna (animals) and microbes (microorganisms) that
are within our surroundings.
The cultural environment refers to learned behavioural traits that are clear and common with members of a
society.
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DIPLOMA IN ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH, SAFETY AND MANAGEMENT

Figure 1.1 Classification of the Environment

ATMOSPHERE

HYDROSPHERE
PHYSICAL
ENVIRONMENT
LITHOSPHERE

FLORAL

ENVIRONMENT BIOLOGICAL FAUNAL

ENVIRONMENT
MICROBIA

SOCIETY
CULTURAL
ENVIRONMENT ECONOMY

POLITICS

1.5 COMPONENTS OF THE ENVIRONMENT

As indicated before, in an ecological sense the environment can be understood as set of interactions between
elements of the biosphere (atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere & ecosphere), shown in Figure 1.2

Figure 1.2 Components of the biosphere

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 DIPLOMA IN ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH, SAFETY AND MANAGEMENT
1.6.1 THE ATMOSPHERE
The atmosphere consists of a complex mixture of gases, water vapour and a variety of fine particulate material.
The atmosphere, which is a gaseous wrap, protects the earth as of cosmic radiations and provides life sup-
porting Oxygen. The atmosphere plays a major role in asserting the heat balance of the earth by gripping the
re-emitted radiation from the earth. Based primarily on the temperature pattern, the earth’s atmosphere can be
divided into four major layers shown in Figure 1.3.

Figure 1.3 Stratification of the atmosphere

[Link] THE TROPOSPHERE

The zone immediately above the earth’s surface, extending up to a height of 20km above the equator and 8
km over the poles. Here temperature drops with height. Students may be familiar with the common saying that
“the higher you go, the cooler it becomes”. However, this is only true particularly in this layer, and not in all
the zones of the atmosphere. The zone contains most of water vapour and clouds in the atmosphere. In other
words, troposphere means “region of mixing.”

[Link] THE STRATOSPHERE

This is the layer next to the troposphere. It is about 30 km in thickness and is a very important zone of the at-
mosphere as it contains the vital ozone layer. The temperature rises from -600C to about 00C in its upper layers.
The rise in temperature is due to the formation of ozone under the influence of ultra-violet radiations.
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 DIPLOMA IN ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH, SAFETY AND MANAGEMENT
[Link] THE MESOSPHERE
It is a zone of about 40 km in thickness which lies next to the stratosphere. The zone is characterised by the
gradual decline in temperatures to about -900C.

[Link] THE THERMOSPHERE

This is the layer immediately after the mesosphere where temperatures increase with height.

1.6.2 THE IMPORTANCE OF THE ATMOSPHERE

It is important from an environmental health perspective to discuss the significance of the atmosphere. It can
be found that it is the typical structure and composition of earth’s atmosphere which is responsible for creating
conditions suitable for the existence of a health biosphere on this planet. Thus atmosphere’s role in maintenance
of the biosphere in a healthy state can be summarised as follows:

a)Temperature regulation
The presence of gases capable of absorbing long wave radiations is responsible for maintaining the tempera-
tures under which life activities are possible.
b) Protection against ultra-violet radiations
Incoming solar radiation is filtered high above the earth’s surface where harmful ultra-violet radiations are ab-
sorbed in the stratosphere by the ozone layer. If it was not so, these rays could severely damage the terrestrial
life.
c)Formation of precipitation
The temperature and pressure patterns determine precipitation which in turn regulates the abundance and com-
position of biotic communities on the earth’s surface.

d)Atmospheric circulation
Constant mixing of the contents of the atmosphere occurs due to air currents and the vertical temperature gra-
dient. This prevents accumulation of harmful gases and vapours at any particular spot. Atmosphere is therefore
a thick and effective media for transfer, transport and dissemination of gaseous wastes.

e)Pollutant removal
Pollutants in the atmosphere are removed by a much more effective mechanism than that operating on land or
in water. The occurrence of precipitation in form of snow, dew or rains will clean the atmosphere of pollutants.

1.6.3 LITHOSPHERE
The lithosphere is the solid, rocky crust covering entire planet. This crust is inorganic and is composed of min-
erals. It covers the entire surface of the earth.

IMPORTANCE OF SOIL TO THE BIOSPHERE

Most of human necessities are fulfilled by the communities of plants and animals which develop on soil. Fertile
soil is a resource of fundamental importance in agriculture.
The following roles are worth noting:
 Soil is a solid stratum underneath which provides mechanical support to plants and animals.
 Its porosity and the moisture-retention capacity enable it to retain water for living organisms.
 Ion-exchange capacity of the soil is responsible for retaining nutrients in the soil which are important
for plant growth.
 Soil contains micro-organisms which are important in cycling nutrients and energy in ecosystems.

1.6.4 BIOSPHERE
The biosphere is a shell encompassing the earth’s surface where all the living things subsist. This segment extends
from 10000m underneath sea level to 6000m above sea level. It is composed of all living organisms. Plants, ani-
mals, and one-celled organisms are all part of the biosphere. Most of the planet’s life is found from three meters
below the ground to thirty meters above it and in the top 200 meters of the oceans and seas.

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DIPLOMA IN ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH, SAFETY AND MANAGEMENT
1.6.5 HYDROSPHERE

This comprises both surface and ground water. This includes the oceans, rivers, lakes, and even the moisture in
the air. Ninety-seven percent of the earth’s water is in the oceans. The remaining three percent is fresh water;
three-quarters of the fresh water is solid and exists in ice sheets.

[Link] IMPORTANCE OF WATER – AN ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS PERSPECTIVE

Water is essential for all life. Without it life on our planet is impossible. The following are the importance of
water in sustaining a healthy biosphere.
 Water plays an important role in supporting plants and animals in the bio-sphere.
 It helps in sustaining various forms of life on earth.
 Plants absorb nutrients and moisture (ground water) from soil without which they cannot survive.
 The excess water from the plants goes to the atmosphere through the pore spaces in leaves
(transpiration), which helps to keep the atmosphere cool.
 Man, plants and animal are predominantly made up of water.
 It plays an important role in the biological and biochemical processes such as photosynthesis.
 It is an agent or medium for holding and transporting nutrients and carry¬ing away waste products of
the body.

ACTIVITY 1.2:

1. WHY DO YOU THINK IT IS IMPORTANT TO

RAISE COMMUNITY AWARENESS ON WATER
USAGE IN AN URBAN AREA?

2. WHAT CHALLENGES ARE YOU LIKELY TO

FACE WHEN EDUCATING FARMERS ABOUT
THE NEED TO CONSERVE WATER IN ZIMBA-
BWE?

1.6 SUMMARY
The preceding discussion has highlighted that human beings inhabit the natural world as well as the built or
technological, social and cultural world, all constituting important components of the environment.

1.7 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Asthana, DK and Asthana, M (2001) Environment: Problems and Solutions. S. Chand and Company Ltd, New
Delhi.

Botkin, DB and Keller, EA (2005) Environmental Science: Earth as a Living Planet. 5th Edition. John Wiley and
Sons, Inc.

Cunningham, WP and Cunningham, MA (2006) Principles of Environmental Science: Inquiry and Applications.
McGraw Hill, Boston.
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 UNIT TWO
CONTEMPORARY ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
2.1 INTRODUCTION

Environment constitutes a very important part of human existence. To understand life we need to understand
the impact of human activities on the environment. This means failure to raise awareness in environmental
issues can be at our peril. Humanity has to be more cautious in exploiting environmental resources and in any
action it makes on the environment. All human activities have an impact on environment. The human influence
on environment has increased manifold due to the rapid population growth and the fast development in science
and technology. In this Unit we discuss these major factors behind loss of environmental quality and prompting
the need to raise environmental awareness.

2.1.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this Unit, you should be able to:

 Understand the major forces behind environmental degradation.
 Understand the environmental and health aspects of environmental degradation.
 Appreciate the significance of raising environmental awareness on these issues.

2.2 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

There is clear evidence of environmental problems across the globe. The more serious issues include:

 Deforestation
 Siltation
 Pollution (air, water, land)
 Biodiversity loss
 Soil erosion
 Illegal mineral extraction or panning
 Urban sprawl
 Waste accumulation (dumping of waste)
 Global warming
 Stratospheric ozone depletion
 Climate change

2.2.1 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES: AN OVERVIEW

Unfortunately, the global community is either unaware of environmental problems or not sufficiently concerned
about this state of affairs to address these issues. Ignorance and apathy exists at every level of society, from a
consumer who fails to recycle, a state President who withdraws from international environmental treaties, and
corporations who pressure public officials to relax standards regarding pollutant emissions. The lack of consid-
eration and apathy about environmental problems arises from a disconnect that has developed between humans
and the land on which they live.
Before the agricultural revolution, food surpluses did not exist and societies were intimately tied to the land as
their only means of survival. With the advent of modern agricultural techniques and the beginning of industrial-
ization, societies lost their historical connection with the environment. People could live in cities and still depend
on a constant supply of food and material goods. This disconnect has allowed environmental problems to go un-
noticed or unattended as the industrialized nations of the world continue to increase economic development and
the consumption of natural resources. The end result of this disconnect is that we now have societies, especially
in the industrialized world, who do not understand the importance of a healthy environment and its relation to
the overall welfare and health of humans.
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DIPLOMA IN ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH, SAFETY AND MANAGEMENT
2.2.2 ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

Previously, in the history of human existence, wastes could be discarded freely into water, ground and air. This
was not seen as a problem because the environment’s carrying and assimilative capacity could receive the wastes
and cope with it. However, because these capacities have limits, the environment is unable to absorb and degrade
all wastes. This is because elasticity of the environment has a limit and once that limit is exceeded then a problem
ensues. If the assimilative capacity of the environment is exceeded, the environment may lose its immunity such
that even low toxicity wastes can have adverse impacts and lead to some radical changes. Pollution of land and
water has affected plants, animals and human beings.

The quality of soil is deteriorating resulting in the loss of agricultural land. Soil erosion, as a result of wind and/or
water, costs the world dearly. The recurring floods have their own peculiar casualties like deforestation, silt in the
river bed, inadequate and improper drainage, loss of men and property. The vast oceans, after being turned in to
dumping grounds for all nuclear wastes, have poisoned and polluted the whole natural environment.

Air pollution resulting mainly from emissions from vehicles, industry, nuclear reactors, jet aircrafts and chlorofluo-
rocarbons (CFCs) can cause acid rain and damages the ozone layer. Acid rain in turn has the following adverse
effects:
 it damages buildings and monuments
 leaches minerals from the soil particularly Calcium and Potassium, leading to a decline in soil fertility and
a reduction in plant productivity
 It affects fish and other aquatic life.

Volumes of chemical gases affect people through respiratory problems or heart conditions. Such gases may also
damage the ozone layer resulting in increased radiations, trapping of heat in the atmosphere – a phenomenon
known as global warming.

This will induce climate change. According to Aggregate Industries (2010)

Global warming relates to the increase in the average temperature of the Earth’s surface that has been observed
in recent years, and it is projected to continue. It is debated as to whether this is a natural occurrence or whether
human activity has impacted or accelerated it. However evidence is overwhelming that human activity since the
industrial revolution is responsible.

2.2.3 CLIMATE CHANGE

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC, 2010) defines climate change as:

A change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere
and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods.

[Link] CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACTS

Climatic changes will have consequences for human settlements, infrastructure, ecosystems, health, energy, hous-
ing, water and food security, migration, agriculture, tourism and biodiversity among others. Christensen et al
(2007) point that because so many households depend heavily on the climate for their day-to-day livelihoods, and
the climate exerts a significant impact on the economic development of many African countries, Africa is among
the most vulnerable continents to climatic changes.
The situation is aggravated by the interaction of multiple developmental stresses at various levels such as complex
governance and institutional dimensions; endemic poverty; limited access to capital, including markets, infrastruc-
ture and technology; ecosystem degradation; and complex disasters and conflicts – eroding the adaptive capac-
ity of institutions and local governments in Africa to respond to the challenges of climate change (Chirisa and
Chanza, 2009).
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DIPLOMA IN ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH, SAFETY AND MANAGEMENT

ACTIVITY 2.1

HAVE YOU SEEN ANY EVIDENCE OF

CLIMATE CHANGE IN YOUR LOCAL AREAS?
DISCUSS.

2.2.4 POPULATION GROWTH

Population growth means more people to eat and exploit environmental resources. This will exert an excessive
pressure on land and forest, and ultimately disturbing the ecological balance. Our growing population is putting
pressure on land, leading to poor quality of productivity, deforestation (the loss of forest land so necessary for
ecological balance and extinction of wild life leading to imbalance in the ecological order, loss of wild life heri-
tage and ultimately dwindling of several species – biodiversity loss. The growing population is not only a prob-
lem for the natural environment; it is a problem for any other aspect of environment (social, economic, political
etc).

2.2.5 URBANISATION
Simply expressed, urbanization means maddening race of people from villages to the cities. The trend towards
urbanisation is actual increasing in all regions (Table 2.1) Urbanization is no less a source of pollution, and
therefore, a threat to the environment. The net result of urbanization is dirt, disease and disasters. In a state
of growing urbanization, environmental problem like sanitation, ill-heath, housing, water-supply and electricity
keep expanding. On the contrary, the environmental degradation is caused in the rural life due to indiscriminate
collection of firewood, overgrazing, depletion of other natural resources, mainly a result of limited economic
opportunities and rapid population growth discussed in Section 2.2.4.

Table 2.1 Comparative Levels of Urbanization

Place Level of Urbanization (%)
2000 2010 2020
Africa 37.2 42.7 47.9
Asia 37.5 43 48.7
LAC 75.4 79 81.8
Zimbabwe 35.3 42.5 49.1
Source: Global Report on Human Settlements 2003, UN-HABITAT

According to the International Federation of the Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRCRCS) (2010)
rapid rise in city populations around the globe brings with it new forms of urban risk in the health sector. While
urban living continues to offer many opportunities, including potential access to better healthcare, today’s urban
environments can concentrate health risks and hazards. For instance, acute respiratory infections, dysentery and
diarrhoea, largely under control in industrialised cities, continue to pose a health challenge in cities of develop-
ing and poor countries. TB is rampant in many cities worldwide regardless of their overall economic status. In
recent years, non-infectious conditions such as diabetes, heart disease and depression, which are linked to urban
lifestyles, threaten both rich and poor in all countries.
The World Health Organisation (WHO) cites a multitude of health challenges in modern cities, relating to water,
environment, violence and injury, non-communicable diseases (cancers, diabetes, etc), unhealthy diets and physi-
cal inactivity, harmful use of alcohol as well as the risks associated with disease outbreaks. For example, H1N1,
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 DIPLOMA IN ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH, SAFETY AND MANAGEMENT

which was first detected in Mexico in April 2009, has been among the fastest-spreading viruses ever recorded.
By the time WHO declared a global pandemic a mere two months later, 74 countries and territories had reported
infections. As of April 2010, cases had been reported in 214 countries, including 17,798 deaths. City living and its
increased pressures of mass marketing, availability of unhealthy food choices and accessibility to automation and
transport all have an effect on lifestyle that directly affect health. Of late Harare has been hit by typhoid owing
to unhealthy food choices by the urban poor in most high density residential areas. Another important aspect of
urbanisation is its impact on life expectancy. Variations in urban wealth and employment seem to be key determi-
nants of good health and life expectancy.

For example, research has found that men live an average of 69.3 yrs in Glasgow compared to 80.8 yrs in the
more affluent environs of London’s Chelsea and Kensington (IFRCRCS, 2010). Nonetheless, city life can bring
significant health benefits. Cities where environmental health hazards are reduced thru provision of a safe water
supply, sanitation, waste mgt and adequate shelter, and in which pollution is monitored and controlled, have lower
mortality and morbidity rates. People in well-organized urban environments can generally expect to live longer as
they will also be well informed about the health benefits of not smoking, hygiene, good diet and exercise.

[Link] URBAN SPRAWL

Illegal and squatter settlements, a phenomenon associated with poor planning and policy measures towards ur-
banisation characteristic in most poor cities pose numerous health problems to the urban population. Structural
differences produce differential access to housing, water supply, sanitation, healthcare delivery, and pollution for
urban dwellers. Shanty towns of urban poor are always subject to inadequate housing and are often located in
marginal areas of cities where pollution and toxicities are high. In many African cities, 40 to 85 % of inhabitants
live in slums and informal settlements usually with limited facilities as water supply, roads, sanitation, and waste
mgt systems.

Municipal councils are the main authority for managing the urban physical environments. Unfortunately, most
African cities experience considerable time lags between the identification of an environmental problem and the
institutional response due to lack of clear policy directions and weak planning mechanisms.
Rapid growth of unserviced squatter areas is both a major urban problem and a response to the shortage of shel-
ter.

Water supply is limited and poor and sanitation standards are greatly compromised by the water supply and con-
ditions of housing. UN-Habitat (2010) cites centralised power structures for planning as interfering with local
government participation in the management or urban environments in such cities as Nairobi, Dar es Salaam and
Harare. Apart from this, local authorities lack both the legislative power and financial resources to direct the pace
and direction of growth in the urban arena (UN-Habitat, 2003). Rapid urban population growth and the influx
of migrants to the cities have not only perpetuated urban poverty, also contributed to infrastructural shortages in
housing, water supply, electricity, communication services and waste disposal systems (UNCHS, 2001).

Concentration of economic activities and services in the capital cities, such as Maputo, Harare and Dar es Salaam,
guarantees that the urban population of primate cities will continue to expand rapidly. This expansion far outstrips
the rate of urban economic growth and the capacity of local governments to respond effectively. The consequence
is a deterioration of the urban environment, and a further expansion of slums and squatter settlements.

2.2.6 INDUSTRIALISATION

Industrialization coupled with the development of the means of transport and communication has not only pol-
luted the environment, but also has led to the shrinking of the natural resources. In both instances, the loss is
really heavy. Increasing level of heat fluxes, carbon dioxide and particulate, radioactive nuclear wastes and the like
create environment hazards. On the other hand, the consumption of conventional source of energy leads to the
loss of natural resource.

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 DIPLOMA
DIPLOMA IN
IN ENVIRONMENTAL
ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH,
HEALTH,SAFETY
SAFETY AND
AND MANAGEMENT
MANAGEMENT

We are building a world without caring for future generations – Anonymous

ACTIVITY 2.2

IN WHAT WAYS DO RAPID URBANISATION POSE

ENVIRONMENTAL AND PUBLIC HEALTH PROB-
LEMS IN ZIMBABWE?

FROM A PERSPECTIVE ON AN ENVIRONMEN-

TAL TECHNICIAN, WHY DO YOU THINK THESE
PROBLEMS NEED TO BE DEALT WITH AT IN-
TERNATIONAL LEVEL?

2.3 SUMMARY

The discussion in this Unit has concentrated on major environmental issues. It has highlighted that these prob-
lems are being felt at every location across the globe. This makes planning and policy interventions challenging
owing to the need to balance conflicting interest between various parties. Therefore, in bid to raise environmental
awareness, environmental technicians need to embrace the notion of holistic integration of stakeholders across
geographic space. Thus, the adage that “act locally, but think globally” need to be carefully considered.

2.4 BILIOGRAPHY

Christensen, J., Hewitson, B., Busuioc, A., Chen, A., Gao, X., Held, I., et al. (2007), Regional climate projections.
In S. Solomon, D. Qin, M. Manning, Z. Chen, M. Marquis, K. Averyt (2007) Climate Change: The Physical Science
Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

IFRCRCS (2010) World Disasters Report: Focus on Urban Risk. International Federation of the Red Cross and
Red Crescent Societies, Geneva.

Robbins, K (2003) Environmental Awareness: Overcoming Ignorance and Apathy by Getting People ‘Outside’.
Macalester Environmental Review, Salt Lake City.

Tevera, D.S. and Chimhowu, A.O. (1998) ‘Urban Growth, Poverty and Backyard Shanties in Harare, Zimbabwe’,
Geographical Journal of Zimbabwe, No. 29, pp. 11-22.

UN-HABITAT (2010) City Experiences in Improving the Urban Environment – A Snapshot of an Evaluation of
Six Initiatives in Africa. UN-HABITAT, Nairobi.

UN-HABITAT (2003) The Challenge of Slums – Global Report on Human Settlement. UN-HABITAT, Nai-
robi.

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 UNIT THREE
ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS
3.1 INTRODUCTION

With the global environmental challenges discussed in Unit 2 (notably global warming, pollution, greenhouse gases
and climate change) continuing to pose danger to people on a daily basis, environmental impact is now firmly on
the agenda for many organizations and countries as both a corporate responsibility and a sustainability issue. This
Unit explains the main issues in today’s environmental debates; how these are impacting upon the environment,
and what can be done to improve on environmental performance.

3.1.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this Unit, you should have developed knowledge on:

 The need to assimilate environmental concepts by all sectors of society and at all levels.
 Awareness of the importance of environment-related aspects in the field of public and environmental
health.

3.2 RATIONALE FOR RAISING ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS

Raising environmental awareness in society is about making sure that:

 The community’s or organisation’s environmental objectives are communicated effectively;
 Information on environmental issues is easily accessible;
 Skills are developed;
 There are opportunities for all people to get involved.

The first step in addressing our current environmental problems is to develop an environmentally-conscious
society. Education is an important key towards achieving the goal of environmental awareness. In colleges and
universities across the world, Environmental Science is a growing field of study, and junior and high schools are
beginning to integrate environmental studies into their curriculums as well. Despite these efforts, the contribu-
tions to environmental awareness are still limited at this time. Classroom education has not overcome the discon-
nect between humans and the environment, and citizens have yet to re-establish their historical appreciation for
the land.

ACTIVITY 3.1

WHY IS IT IMPORTANT TO CONSCIENTISE

THE PUBLIC ABOUT ENVIRONMENTAL
ISSUES IN ZIMBABWE?

WHO ARE THE STAKEHOLDERS THAT YOU

CAN WORK WITH IN EDUCATING THE PUB-
LIC ABOUT ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES?

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 DIPLOMA IN ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH, SAFETY AND MANAGEMENT
3.3 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS
Raising environmental awareness involves translating the technical language of a natural science or related field
into terms and ideas that an ordinary person can readily understand. It also involves doing it in a way that is en-
tertaining and interesting to the public. Public education is a method of transferring ideas and relationships rather
than isolated facts and figures. Facts should be presented only when they help the audience understand and ap-
preciate the content of the message. Carefully selected facts can be supportive, illustrative and illuminating, but
they are never ends in themselves.

Public education should be directed at any audience, but it is recommended that the youth should not be left out
in those initiatives. This is because with these people their decisions and behaviour affect the present and future
environment. Public education can be done through educational events and campaigns.

a) Educational events - are short-term, often one-time affairs. Examples include giving a presentation at a local
school and setting up an exhibit at the town fair.
b) Campaigns are long-term programmes that include a coordinated series of events designed to bring about
awareness of an environmental issue or need.

A public awareness campaign is a step-by-step process in which organisers:

 establish goals;
 identify target audiences;
 determine what information should be provided to the community;
 select techniques for educating members of the community;
 implement actions; and
 evaluate results.

3.3.1 WHY ESTABLISHING GOALS?

Goals express what you hope to accomplish in terms of public education and involving the public in addressing
environmental problems. When developing your goals, keep in mind specific, measurable indicators. These indica-
tors can help you later evaluate whether or not your efforts have been successful.

3.3.2 IDENTIFYING TARGET AUDIENCES

In the process of identifying the target audience, consider who is likely to have a strong interest in the work you
are doing and who is likely to have less interest. The following questions can help you more clearly define who
your target audience is:

a) Which community groups are affected by the environmental problem?

- Depending on the project and the types of environmental problems to be addressed, the target audience may be
as small as a group of landowners around a landfill whose drinking water supply is adversely affected, or as large
as the whole community.

b) What are the interests of these groups?

- Schools, unions, business associations, social clubs, religious organisations and sporting groups are some of the
types of organised groups that might be in your community. Understanding what each group values in terms of
specific environmental concerns allows you to shape the message accordingly.

c) Who may oppose or block the campaign?

- Identify people or groups who want the situation to stay the way it is. You need to have a good understanding of
these groups (What is their source of information? Who do they listen to and for what kind of advice? etc.) and
decide whether to exclude them from the campaign.
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 DIPLOMA IN ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH, SAFETY AND MANAGEMENT
3.3.3 INFORMATION REQUIREMENTS

Study carefully the background information on the issue and focus on the following when informing the com-
munity:
 knowledge/facts about the issue, possible on-the-ground solutions and the reliability of this
information;
 expert opinions and research/literature;
 legislative background and opportunities;
 perception of the issue and actions taken by other (environmental) groups;
 actions/policies of other stakeholders; and
 missing information.

All the information you disseminate needs to capture the attention of the target audience. The public is diverse
and has a wide range of skills, knowledge and interests - different approaches reach different segments of the
community.

3.3.4 SELECT COMMUNICATION TOOLS

An effective public education effort requires taking the message to the people rather than expecting the people to
come to hear you. This entails a broad range of tools to reach out to different segments of the community, such
as:
 mass media;
 publications (brochures, posters);
 meetings and hearings;
 publicity merchandise;
 special events;
 role-playing and community theatre; and
the Internet.

The tool should be chosen in accordance with the target group. Several different tools can be used for one
campaign.

A) MASS MEDIA
- Local television, newspaper and radio coverage of your environmental campaign is critical. The fact that the en-
vironment has been a topic of global concern can help generate media coverage. It is assumed that public aware-
ness, boosted by the media, will create a greater demand for environmental legislation and for environmentally
sound decision-making.

B) PRESS RELEASES
- The first few sentences of a press release should underline the key issue of what the campaign is about in. Pres-
ent some of your argument as quotes for the journalist to use. The press releases should go to the journalists and
individuals in the media who cover topics related to your issues. News releases are short, clearly written accounts
of events, accomplishments or reports. Ideally, the five W’s and one H — Who? What? When? Where? Why?
How? — should be covered.

C) HANDLING INTERVIEWS

- Identify radio and/or television programmes — news programmes with interview segments, public affair shows,
talk shows or call-in rooms — that might cover your issue. Consider the target audience, who you want to hear
your message, and the audiences of the various programmes. Send a letter to the programme’s producer introduc-
ing your organisation, your spokesperson and the issue that he or she can discuss which will interest the given
audience.
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 DIPLOMA IN ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH, SAFETY AND MANAGEMENT
d) Letters to the Editor

- The “Letters to the editor” section of any newspaper is among its most highly read parts. It appears every day
and is intended to reflect the mood of the people or a current debate within the community. A barrage of let-
ters can help set a community agenda, stimulate editorial and news coverage, and help educate the general public,
leaders and politicians on an environmental issue. An organised group letter, listing a number of prominent com-
munity or organisational leaders, can also work to get your message to public audiences.

e) Posters
- In a campaign to raise environmental awareness, posters have just one purpose: to communicate a theme to the
reader or viewer. To do this, a poster must capture a viewer’s attention long enough for the theme to be recognised
and understood. Since the theme is the principal message you want to get across, putting it directly into the title
makes good sense because many viewers will not read beyond the title. Theme awareness is the only mandatory
element of a poster, as the other elements are merely tools to focus the conceptual and artistic design of a poster
on achieving the main objective — communication of a message to the public.

f) Leaflets and brochures

- Like a poster, a good leaflet/brochure should be attractive, brief and clear. It should contain more information
than a poster, and a person can bring it home, read it carefully and keep it. When producing leaflets for an envi-
ronmental awareness campaign, be sure to develop some form of distribution system in order to give the leaflets
to the right audience.

g) Organising Meetings and Hearings

- Public information meetings are designed to educate the community on a particular issue as well as to increase
overall public awareness. Public meetings also provide an opportunity to collect information through people’s
opinions about the environmental problem and to identify possible solutions. The main reason for a public hear-
ing is to formally hear and record the comments of the public on the proposal at hand. There is discussion only
to clarify and understand the comments being given. There is less interactive discussion than in informational
meetings.

KEYS TO RUNNING A PUBLIC MEETING

Define the goal.

Prepare for the meeting.
Use proper procedures and good communication skills.
Follow up.

USE PROPER PROCEDURES AND GOOD COMMUNICATION SKILLS

Lay out the ground rules at the beginning of the meeting. Describe the procedure, introduce the person who will
be acting as moderator, and explain the process of audience participation. This procedure may be as simple as
raising hands and being recognised by the moderator, or in large public meetings, submitting a written request to
speak at the beginning of the meeting.

PREPARING FOR THE MEETING

Identify the audience

Clarify who will be affected by the actions. Consider developing a mailing list of potentially interested people.

Develop informational materials for the public

These materials may include a brief summary of the problem, a specific activity you are undertaking or a summary
of the information collected to date on the environmental issue or problem.
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 DIPLOMA IN ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH, SAFETY AND MANAGEMENT
Find a location that is convenient for the participants
Make sure that the room suits your purposes, including adequate size, lighting and capacity for audio-visual or
presentation equipment. Select a meeting time and date that will allow the greatest number of people to attend.

Notify the public

If the meeting is open to the general public, place an advertisement in a newspaper generally circulated in the area
and use public service announcements for radio. Advertisements should be published several weeks in advance of
the meeting. Also, you may conduct a mailing to those individuals whom you have specifically identified as inter-
ested or affected. A meeting agenda should also be published.

Disseminate the informational materials to the public

Materials can be placed in libraries, community centres, governmental offices or other convenient places. Look for
distribution hot spots in the town.

Prepare the agenda and materials for the meeting and include at least the following in your agenda:
Welcome and introduction;
goals of the meeting;
items to be discussed;
conclusions or decisions; and
wrapping-up and thanking.

h) Managing Publicity Merchandise

You can sell T-shirts, stickers, coffee mugs and other items with the campaign logo. This outreach strategy not
only builds awareness of the campaign but also raises funds for it. Often environmental campaigns include pro-
ducing and giving away common everyday items (e.g., pencils, pens, calendars, pins, key rings, etc.), each carrying
important themes. Day after day, each time one of the items is seen, one of the campaign’s messages is also seen.
You can probably persuade a local business to donate some or all of the items of this kind to the campaign. In
exchange, most businesses will either want to have their names on the items or to receive some other kind of
recognition or acknowledgement during the campaign.

i) Using drama, role-play and special events

It is good to remember that people like to enjoy themselves. Promoting environmental awareness and protection
can go hand-in-hand with such special events as fairs, dances, concerts, exhibitions, outdoor activities and com-
petitions. Almost every place has some kind of annual celebration. Where possible, it is recommended arrange
to present a series of talks or audiovisual programmes. In addition to the obvious educational value, simply being
visible at community celebrations is important. Many communities have celebrations that are timed with natural
events or cycles.

Experience shows that although it may be hard to generate a lot of enthusiasm in the first instances, participation
usually increases with time if the event is effectively publicised. Although dramatic role-playing is not appropri-
ate everywhere, it is a powerful form of raising environmental awareness when the situation is right. Theatre can
challenge conventional thinking and introduce new ideas. Many areas have theatre groups which travel across the
world acting out dramas dealing with a variety of environmental issues. An alternative is for group participants to
take on the roles of community members to portray their concerns.

GUIDELINES FOR ORGANISING EVENTS

a) Timing
Decide when the best time for your meeting would be. For example, if it is held during work hours many people
will not be able to attend, while others may not be able to come after hours. What time you have the meeting
therefore depends upon what best suits the group’s members and the people you want to attract. Avoid clashes
with other meetings that may be important to your members.
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 DIPLOMA IN ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH, SAFETY AND MANAGEMENT
b) Venue
The choice of a meeting site will also affect who comes to a meeting. Ask yourself these kinds of questions:
Are people familiar with where the meeting is to be held?
Is it in the area or out of the way?
Can people get there by public transport?
Does the building chosen have adequate facilities for your event?

c) Advertising
Always get advertising out in plenty of time to allow people to get the information before the date of the gather-
ing. Double-check all advertising for the correct date, time, place and any special information (such as the name
of guest speakers). Advertising may include posters; leaflets, articles in the papers about the event/meeting; radio
community announcements; feature articles in papers, newsletters and journals that any interested people may read;
advertisements in the paper; notices in the free community notices section of the paper; and word of mouth.

d) Use of the Internet

The number of people who are using online services for accessing or disseminating environmental knowledge
continues to grow, with a large number of environmental organisations utilising the opportunity to reach out
electronically to their own online audience and help them become powerful and effective environmental activists.
Internet and e-mail lists are the best tools for this type of outreach, and NGO e-mail organising efforts should
be supported by a Web site that can serve as reference centre. The tools of electronic networking — computers,
modems and Internet accounts — are becoming more and more common in the environmental NGO commu-
nity. However, many activists, although they intuitively sense the potential of this technology, are casting about for
effective strategies for applying the power of electronic networking to their work.

3.3.5 IMPLEMENT ACTIONS

Prior to actually implementing a specific public educational activity, consider developing a work plan for the activ-
ity. A work plan can help identify what specific steps need to be taken, who is responsible, when those steps will
be implemented and how much each step will cost to implement. Using your work plan you can closely monitor
how well each task is being completed and whether the tasks are completed on time.

3.3.6 EVALUATE RESULTS

After a particular campaign has been completed, evaluate how well the activity was implemented and hold a cel-
ebratory gathering. Evaluations can help ensure that the results are consistent with expectations. Evaluations can
be used to refine and, when necessary, revise a programme to better reflect reality, and thus develop a more effec-
tive campaign.

ACTIVITY 3.2

WHICH METHOD(S) WOULD YOU

RECOMMEND FOR USE IN
ZIMBABWE?

JUSTIFY YOUR CHOICE(S).

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 DIPLOMA IN ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH, SAFETY AND MANAGEMENT
3.4 ROLE OF NGOS

Non-governmental organisations (NGOs) can play a key role in raising environmental awareness. In some places
these activities are especially important and have a high chance for success for two main reasons. Firstly, for most
people, especially those in transitional or poor communities, their environmental priorities lie in protecting the
place where they live and the sustainable management of their resources. Secondly, the development of national
and international environmental policies and regulations in recent years are a direct result of the public’s call for
a safer and cleaner environment.

3.5 SUMMARY

Current environmental problems will never be adequately addressed until all citizens across the global divide
fully comprehend the necessity of a healthy planet. These citizens will never overcome their ignorance until they
develop a connection with the land and a desire to gain environmental education. Acquiring environmental educa-
tion would provide a unique learning experience and allow citizens to develop these connections. With a concerted
effort from educators and public officials, an environmentally-conscious society could become a reality. Once
established, greater protection will be provided for the environment through both legislation and personal actions
at all levels.

ACTIVITY 3.3

1. DESCRIBE THE PROCEDURE YOU WOULD FOL-

LOW IN RAISING PUBLIC AWARENESS IN ENVI-
RONMENTAL ISSUES IN ZIMBABWE.

2. WHAT PROBLEMS ARE YOU LIKELY TO FACE

IN THESE INITIATIVES?

3. HOW CAN YOU ADDRESS THESE PROBLEMS?

3.6 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Minkova, Y (2002) Developing Skills Of NGOs Public Education to Raise Environmental Awareness the Re-
gional Environmental Centre For Central And Eastern Europe, Szentendre.

Robbins, K (2003) Environmental Awareness: Overcoming Ignorance and Apathy by Getting People ‘Outside’.
Macalester Environmental Review, Salt Lake City.

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 UNIT FOUR
GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL MOVEMENT
GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL MOVEMENT

4.1 INTRODUCTION
Concern about the environment has a long history, gathering impetus during the late 1960s (McCormick, 1995).
The increasingly obvious effects of accelerating industrialization and exploitation of natural resources provided
growing audiences for the alarums of conservationists and preservationists. Environmental movements are net-
works of informal interactions that may include, as well as individuals and groups who have no organizational
affiliation, organizations of varying degrees of formality (including even political parties) that are engaged in col-
lective action motivated by shared identity or concern about environmental issues. Such networks are an important
platform in raising environmental awareness and advocating for global order in managing the environment. This
Unit discusses the environmentalism theory, raising challenges that are currently experienced in the implementa-
tion of national and international environmental laws.

4.1.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this Unit, you should be able to:
 Trace the major developments in global environmental mosements since the late 1960s.
 Define national and international environmental laws.
 Examine the significance of national and international environmental laws as tools for
environmentalism.
 Understand the challenges associated with environmentalism theory.

4.2 WHAT IS ENVIRONMENTALISM?

Literature is littered with various definitions of environmentalism. This is either a clear indication of the signifi-
cance of environmental movement or the myths shrouding this discourse, or both.

The American Heritage Dictionary refers to environmentalism as:

Advocacy for or work toward protecting the natural environment from destruction or pollution.

Another definition provided by the Oxford Dictionary seems to augur well with the former:
A belief in and concern for the importance and influence of environment within a society. A concern for the environment, and especially
with the bond between man and the environment, not solely in terms of technology but also in ethical terms.

These definitions clearly point out that Environmentalism is a broad philosophy, ideology, social movement re-
garding concerns for environmental conservation improvement of the health of the environment particularly as
the measure for this health seeks to incorporate the concerns of non-human elements. It advocates the preser-
vation, restoration and/or improvement of the natural environment, and may be referred to as a movement to
control pollution.

The movement covers broad areas of institutional oppression: consumption of ecosystems and natural resources
into waste, dumping waste into disadvantaged communities, air pollution, and water pollution, and weak infra-
structure, exposure of organic life to toxins, mono culture, and various other focuses. Because of these divisions,
the environmental movement can be categorized into these primary focuses:

Environmental Science
Environmental Activism
Environmental Advocacy
Environmental Justice
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 DIPLOMA IN ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH, SAFETY AND MANAGEMENT
4.2.1 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

Cunningham and Cunningham (2006) define environmental science as the systematic, scientific study of our
environment as well as our role in it. This multidisciplinary field integrates information from biology, chemistry,
geography, agriculture and many other subjects. Environmental scientists also incorporate knowledge of social
organisation, politics and the humanities. This means the subject is inclusive and holistic. Environmental science is
also mission-oriented: it implies that we all have a responsibility to get involved and try to do something about the
problems humanity has created. As clearly pointed out by the economist Barbara Ward: for an increasing number
of environmental issues, the difficulty is not to identify remedies. Remedies are now well understood; the problem
is to make them socially, economically, and politically acceptable.

4.2.2 ENVIRONMENTAL ACTIVISM

Environmental activism consists of intentional efforts to promote, impede or direct social, political, economic, or
environmental change. It is the combined political force of people who take action to protect the environment.
Instead of being content with passive empathy for environmental problems, the activism is inspired by proactive
opportunities to bring about its vision of a better world. The institutional profile of environmental activism rang-
es from small single-issue campaign groups to global brand names. Spurred by ecological scares linked to nuclear
technologies, toxic chemicals and overexploitation of natural resources, environmental activism first emerged as a
widespread movement in the 1960s.

4.2.3 ENVIRONMENTAL ADVOCACY

Advocacy is a set of actions whose main objective is to sensitize with a view to influencing decisions about a cause
or policy in a stated direction. It is done through pleading or arguing in favour of something. It operates on the
assumption of a collective set of values and common good on behalf of another. In social advocacy the people
are the objects of the stated good to arise from such actions. For example, with reference to water management,
it tackles the water crisis by defining this problem as a crisis of governance, where there is the understanding that
the present threat to water security lies in the failure of societies to respond to the challenges of reconciling the
various needs for and uses of water.

4.2.4 ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE

While calls for environmental justice have grown recently, very little attention has been paid to exactly what the
“justice” of environmental justice refers to, particularly in the realm of social movement demands. Most under-
standings of environmental justice refer to the issue of equity, or the distribution of environmental ills and ben-
efits. But defining environmental justice as equity is incomplete, as activists, communities, and non-governmental
organisations (NGOs) call for much more than just distribution.

The justice demanded by global environmental justice is really threefold:

1. equity in the distribution of environmental risk,
2. recognition of the diversity of the participants and experiences in affected communities, and
3. participation in the political processes which create and manage environmental policy.

The existence of three different notions of justice in the movement, simultaneously, demonstrates the plausibility
of a plural yet unified theory and practice of justice.

For example, at the Rio Conference on the Environment and Development in June 1992, former Malaysian Prime
Minister Mohamad Mahathir has this to say:

When the rich chopped down their own forests, built their poison-belching factories and scoured the world for
cheap resources, the poor said nothing. Indeed they paid for the development of the rich. Now the rich claim a
right to regulate the development of the poor countries . . . As colonies we were exploited. Now as independent
nations we are to be equally exploited.
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 DIPLOMA IN ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH, SAFETY AND MANAGEMENT
4.3 DEVELOPMENTS IN ENVIRONMENTALISM

The environmental movement has been described as the largest and most influential social phenomenon in mod-
ern history. From relative obscurity just a few decades ago it has spawned thousands of organisations and claims
millions of committed activists. Reading The Herald newspaper today it is obvious to find that global warming,
resource depletion, environmental catastrophes, etc are mentioned. They now rank among the top priorities on
the social, political and economic global agenda.

Environmental awareness is considered to be the mark of any good honest decent citizen. Multi-national com-
panies compete fiercely to promote their environmental credentials and ‘out-green’ each other. The threat of im-
pending ecological disasters is uniting the world through a plethora of international treaties and conventions. As
these developments unfold however, some key questions ought to be asked. For example:

 Where did this phenomenon come from?

 How did it rise to such prominence?
 Where is it going?

According to the Club of Rome, “We are facing an imminent catastrophic ecological collapse’ and ‘our only hope
is to transform humanity into a global interdependent sustainable society, based on respect and reverence for the
Earth” Therefore, Roots (2005) cites 6 global goals that are essential for the transition towards a sustainable and
equitable world:

1. Societal values, which are essential for a sustainable and equitable society, are fully reflected in all
economic decisions.

2. The economies of the world reflect the value of natural and social capital, markets operate in a fair and
transparent manner and deliver the goods and services required for a sustainable society.

3. A more equitable distribution of income both within and between countries.

4. Access to meaningful work, which provides enough income to lead a decent life, is guaranteed and
recognized as an essential human right. Job generation has become a top priority for all investments,
costs for unemployment are considered in decision-making.

5. Ecology is seen as a binding constraint for all forms of human activity and is therefore managed in a
manner which reflects its biophysical and economic value. Never should the world be in overshoot.

6. Appropriate governance systems at a local, national and global level, which can manage the transition
into an equitable and sustainable global world, are established.

Of late the environmental movement has been motivated and united by these beliefs:

 We must protect the environment for ourselves and for future generations.
 The world’s plants and animals have as much right to exist as humans do.
 People in the world’s richest countries must reduce their consumption and waste.
 People in developing nations must find more environmentally sustainable ways to industrialize and raise
their standard of living, so that they do not repeat the mistakes of the industrialized countries.

4.4 ENVIRONMENTAL RIGHTS AND JUSTICE – THE ZIMBABWEAN CONTEXT

Environmental right can be viewed as a basic right of survival as articulated through the recognition of the fun-
damental values of the sanctity of life, the inviolability and integrity of persons and protection of life.
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 DIPLOMA IN ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH, SAFETY AND MANAGEMENT
Recognition of environmental rights and creation of fairness are critical if Zimbabwe is to move towards sustain-
able development. The recognition of environmental right could lessen the burden on an already over-stretched
state and give individuals greater responsibility for the interest in protecting the environment. It has been evident
that the state, for financial and capacity reasons, is unable to adequately protect the environmental interests of
individuals and communities. In this regard, it is imperative that greater opportunities be given to individuals and
communities for the enforcement of their rights and interests. The following points are worthy noting with refer-
ence to environmental rights and justice in Zimbabwe:

 Traditionally societies practiced and enforced wildlife conservation through timely hunting of animals
and birds, avoiding indiscriminate killing and fostering selectivity.
 Societies believed wanton killing was punishable by the spirits and as a result control mechanisms are
found in traditional taboos, totems and customs.
 In some tribes, the customs or totems forbids people to eat certain animals – scavengers such as
vultures and hyenas.
 Taboos forbade the killing of young animals and females in gestation. Hunting in scared places was also
prohibited.
 The killing of rare species such as the python and pangolin could only be done with permission from
the chief.
 Trees were protected through traditional taboos and customs. Certain trees were not cut because of
their cultural importance, e.g., the Parinari sp (Mutowo) under which ceremonies were held.
 Chiefs played an important role in safeguarding their people’s access and rights to resources.
 All land was held in communal tenure, and the headman or sub-chief was responsible for allocating
each family grazing and arable land.
 Even though resources were held in communities, there was commitment to the protection of common
resources, because community had real rights to manage the resource and benefited from it.

With the intrinsic value of resources lost people overexploit resources for survival and individual gain. As colo-
nialism entrenched itself, the people also lost their most fundamental right – freedom. With that gone, the people
lost all other rights and access to resources. The pillage of large animals, clearing of more land for agriculture,
uncontrolled prospecting for minerals raised concerns about environmental degradation, leading to the introduc-
tion of various measures to curb over-utilization of resources.

As recognition of the interconnections in our global environment has advanced, the willingness of nations to
enter into protective international treaties and conventions has also grown. Some major developments in interna-
tional environmental laws are shown in Table 4.1.

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 DIPLOMA IN ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH, SAFETY AND MANAGEMENT

TABLE 4.1 MAJOR INTERNATIONAL TREATIES AND CONVENTIONS

DATE TITLE CONTENT

1971 Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar) Protects wetlands, especially as
waterfowl habitat
1972 Convention to Protect World Cultural and National Heritage Protects cultural sites and natural
resources
1973 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) Restricts trade in endangered
plants and animals
1979 Convention on Migratory Species (CMS) Protects migratory species,
especially birds
1982 World Charter for Nature Protects nature
1982 United Nations Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) Declares the oceans international
commons
1985 Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer Initiates phaseout of
chlorofluorocarbons
1989 Convention on the Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Waste (Basel)
Bans shipment of hazardous waste
1992 Convention on Biodiversity (CBD) Protects biodiversity as natural
resources
1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Rolls back CO2 production in
industrialized countries
1994 Convention to Combat Desertification (CCD) Provides assistance to fight
desertification, especially in Africa
Source: Cunningham and Cunningham (2006)

4.5 SUMMARY

Apparently, the environmental movement is deeply concerned about the growing problem of cli¬mate change.
Over the past 200 years, humans have begun to disrupt one of the most basic parts of that system: the way that
the air is heated and cooled by the ggreenhouse effect. By burning more and more coal, oil, and natural gas for
fuel, we have begun to change the climate system. There are three main ways to reduce carbon emissions:
1. increasing energy efficiency,
2. switching to non-carbon fuels, and
3. taking carbon out of the atmosphere.
Governments and the business community need to take action on all three. In this Unit we have learnt that the
greater narrative for environmentalism should be informed by the values which currently still underpin most
cultures, but in danger of erosion. Values such as the sanctity of human life; of the need for truth; of personal
integrity and honesty; of justice for the oppressed and of both the need for rights but also duties. Thus, we need
the bigger focus to help us discover, articulate and embody new values relating to the rest of nature and our place
within it since we have become a threat.

ACTIVITY 4.1

DESCRIBE THE PHENOMENON OF

ENVIRONMENTALISM IN THE ZIMBABWEAN
CONTEXT.

IDENTIFY THE MAJOR NATIONAL ENVIRON-

MENTAL LAWS THAT GOVERN RESOURCES EX-
PLOITATION IN ZIMBABWE.

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 DIPLOMA IN ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH, SAFETY AND MANAGEMENT
4.6 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Cunningham, WP and Cunningham, MA (2006) Principles of Environmental Science: Inquiry and Applications,
McGraw Hill, Boston.

McCormick, J (1995), The global environmental movement, Wiley, Chichester.

Rootes, C (2005) Environmental Movements, Available on: [Link]

[Link]

Schlosberg, D (2004) Re-conceiving Environmental Justice: Global Movements and Political Theories: Environmental Politics,
Vol.13 (3), 517 – 540.

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