Multiplexing
• Multiplexing technique is widely used in telecommunications
in which several telephone calls are carried through a single
wire.
• Multiplexing originated in telegraphy in the early 1870s and is
now widely used in communication.
• George Owen Squier developed the telephone carrier
multiplexing in 1910
• Multiplexing is a technique used to combine and send the
multiple data streams over a single medium.
• The process of combining the data streams is known as
multiplexing and hardware used for multiplexing is known as a
multiplexer.
• Multiplexing is achieved by using a device called Multiplexer
(MUX) that combines n input lines to generate a single output
line. Multiplexing follows many-to-one, i.e., n input lines and
one output line.
•Demultiplexing is achieved by using a device called
Demultiplexer (DEMUX) available at the receiving end.
DEMUX separates a signal into its component signals
(one input and n outputs).
•Therefore, we can say that demultiplexing follows the
one-to-many approach.
•The transmission medium is used to send the signal
from sender to receiver. The medium can only have one
signal at a time.
•If there are multiple signals to share one medium, then
the medium must be divided in such a way that each
signal is given some portion of the available bandwidth.
For example: If there are 10 signals and bandwidth of
medium is100 units, then the 10 unit is shared by each
signal.
•When multiple signals share the common medium, there
is a possibility of collision. Multiplexing concept is used to
avoid such collision.
•Transmission services are very expensive.
Working
The 'n' input lines are transmitted through a multiplexer and multiplexer combines
the signals to form a composite signal.
The composite signal is passed through a Demultiplexer and demultiplexer separates
a signal to component signals and transfers them to their respective destinations.
Multiplexing Techniques
Frequency-division Multiplexing (FDM)
• Frequency Division Multiplexing is a technique in which the available
bandwidth of a single transmission medium is subdivided into several
channels.
• It is an analog technique.
• The input signals are translated into frequency bands by using modulation
techniques, and they are combined by a multiplexer to form a composite
signal.
• The main aim of the FDM is to subdivide the available bandwidth into
different frequency channels and allocate them to different devices.
• Using the modulation technique, the input signals are transmitted into
frequency bands and then combined to form a composite signal.
• The carriers which are used for modulating the signals are known as sub-
carriers. They are represented as f1,f2..fn.
• FDM is mainly used in radio broadcasts and TV networks.
The main aim of the FDM is to subdivide the available bandwidth into different frequency
channels and allocate them to different devices.
Using the modulation technique, the input signals are transmitted into frequency bands
and then combined to form a composite signal.
The carriers which are used for modulating the signals are known as sub-carriers. They are
represented as f1,f2..fn.
FDM is mainly used in radio broadcasts and TV networks.
Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)
• Wavelength Division Multiplexing is same as FDM except that the optical signals
are transmitted through the fibre optic cable.
• WDM is used on fibre optics to increase the capacity of a single fibre.
• It is used to utilize the high data rate capability of fibre optic cable.
• It is an analog multiplexing technique.
• Optical signals from different source are combined to form a wider band of light
with the help of multiplexer.
• At the receiving end, demultiplexer separates the signals to transmit them to
their respective destinations.
• Multiplexing and Demultiplexing can be
achieved by using a prism.
• Prism can perform a role of multiplexer by
combining the various optical signals to form a
composite signal, and the composite signal is
transmitted through a fibre optical cable.
• Prism also performs a reverse operation, i.e.,
demultiplexing the signal
Time Division Multiplexing
• In Time Division Multiplexing technique, the total time available in
the channel is distributed among different users. Therefore, each
user is allocated with different time interval known as a Time slot at
which data is to be transmitted by the sender.
• In Frequency Division Multiplexing Technique, all signals operate at
the same time with different frequency, but in case of Time Division
Multiplexing technique, all signals operate at the same frequency
with different time.
• A user takes control of the channel for a fixed amount of time.
• In Time Division Multiplexing technique, data is not transmitted
simultaneously rather the data is transmitted one-by-one.
• In TDM, the signal is transmitted in the form of frames. Frames
contain a cycle of time slots in which each frame contains one or
more slots dedicated to each user.
• It can be used to multiplex both digital and analog signals but
mainly used to multiplex digital signals.
• It is a digital technique.
Types of TDM
• Synchronous TDM
• A Synchronous TDM is a technique in which time slot is pre-
assigned to every device.
• In Synchronous TDM, each device is given some time slot
irrespective of the fact that the device contains the data or not.
• If the device does not have any data, then the slot will remain
empty.
• In Synchronous TDM, signals are sent in the form of frames. Time
slots are organized in the form of frames. If a device does not have
data for a particular time slot, then the empty slot will be
transmitted.
• The most popular Synchronous TDM are T-1 multiplexing, ISDN
multiplexing, and SONET multiplexing.
• If there are n devices, then there are n slots.
Asynchronous TDM
• An asynchronous TDM is also known as Statistical TDM.
• An asynchronous TDM is a technique in which time slots are not
fixed as in the case of Synchronous TDM. Time slots are allocated to
only those devices which have the data to send. Therefore, we can
say that Asynchronous Time Division multiplexor transmits only the
data from active workstations.
• An asynchronous TDM technique dynamically allocates the time
slots to the devices.
• In Asynchronous TDM, total speed of the input lines can be greater
than the capacity of the channel.
• Asynchronous Time Division multiplexor accepts the incoming data
streams and creates a frame that contains only data with no empty
slots.
• In Asynchronous TDM, each slot contains an address part that
identifies the source of the data.
•The difference between Asynchronous TDM and Synchronous TDM is that many
slots in Synchronous TDM are unutilized, but in Asynchronous TDM, slots are fully
utilized. This leads to the smaller transmission time and efficient utilization of the
capacity of the channel.
•In Synchronous TDM, if there are n sending devices, then there are n time slots. In
Asynchronous TDM, if there are n sending devices, then there are m time slots where
m is less than n (m<n).
•The number of slots in a frame depends on the statistical analysis of the number of
input lines.
Switching
• When a user accesses the internet or another computer network outside
their immediate location, messages are sent through the network of
transmission media. This technique of transferring the information from
one computer network to another network is known as switching.
• Switching in a computer network is achieved by using switches. A switch is
a small hardware device which is used to join multiple computers together
with one local area network (LAN).
• Network switches operate at layer 2 (Data link layer) in the OSI model.
• Switching is transparent to the user and does not require any
configuration in the home network.
• Switches are used to forward the packets based on MAC addresses.
• A Switch is used to transfer the data only to the device that has been
addressed. It verifies the destination address to route the packet
appropriately.
• It is operated in full duplex mode.
• Packet collision is minimum as it directly communicates between source
and destination.
• It does not broadcast the message as it works with limited bandwidth.
Types of Network Switching
• A multifaceted approach to network switching
has developed into numerous types, each
catering to specific requirements and conditions.
• The primary kinds are discussed below:
• Circuit Switching: In traditional smartphone
networks, circuit switching establishes a
dedicated communication route amongst devices
during their verbal exchange. While effective, it
has boundaries in terms of scalability and overall
performance.
• Packet Switching: Packet switching, in contrast to circuit switching,
breaks down records into packets, which might be transmitted
independently across the network. This method, employed via the
internet, allows for greater, inexperienced use of bandwidth and
superior scalability.
• Message Switching: Message switching includes the whole
message being sent from delivery to destination. In current
computer networks, it changed into an early form of data
transmission.
• Virtual Circuit Switching: Combining factors of both circuit and
packet switching, digital circuit switching establishes a dedicated
path in the path of a conversation consultation, just like circuit
switching; however, it makes use of packet-like transmission to
maintain overall performance.
• Ethernet Switching: Ethernet switching has come to be the
fundamental form of community switching in local location
networks (LANs). It operates at Layer 2 of the OSI version. The
usage of MAC addresses beforehand the facts simplest to the
supposed recipient.
Switching Modes
• The layer 2 switches are used for transmitting the data
on the data link layer, and it also performs error
checking on transmitted and received frames.
• The layer 2 switches forward the packets with the help
of MAC address.
• Different modes are used for forwarding the packets
known as Switching modes.
• In switching mode, Different parts of a frame are
recognized. The frame consists of several parts such as
preamble, destination MAC address, source MAC
address, user's data, FCS.
There are three types of switching modes:
Store-and-forward
Cut-through
Fragment-free
Data Link Layer
Error Detection
• When data is transmitted from one device to
another device, the system does not guarantee
whether the data received by the device is
identical to the data transmitted by another
device. An Error is a situation when the message
received at the receiver end is not identical to the
message transmitted.
• Errors can be classified into two categories:
• Single-Bit Error
• Burst Error
Single-Bit Error
• The only one bit of a given data unit is changed from 1 to 0
or from 0 to 1.
• Single-Bit Error does not appear more likely in Serial Data
Transmission. For example, Sender sends the data at 10
Mbps, this means that the bit lasts only for 1 ?s and for a
single-bit error to occurred, a noise must be more than 1
?s.
• Single-Bit Error mainly occurs in Parallel Data Transmission.
For example, if eight wires are used to send the eight bits of
a byte, if one of the wire is noisy, then single-bit is
corrupted per byte.
Burst Error
• The two or more bits are changed from 0 to 1 or
from 1 to 0 is known as Burst Error.
• The Burst Error is determined from the first
corrupted bit to the last corrupted bit.
• he duration of noise in Burst Error is more than
the duration of noise in Single-Bit.
• Burst Errors are most likely to occur in Serial Data
Transmission.
• The number of affected bits depends on the
duration of the noise and data rate.
Error Detecting Techniques
• The most popular Error Detecting Techniques are:
• Single parity check
• Two-dimensional parity check
• Checksum
• Cyclic redundancy check