CHAPTER ONE

UNITS AND MEASUREMENT

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Measurement of any physical quantity involves comparison
with a certain basic, arbitrarily chosen, internationally
accepted reference standard called unit. The result of a
1.1 Introduction measurement of a physical quantity is expressed by a
1.2 The international system of number (or numerical measure) accompanied by a unit.
units Although the number of physical quantities appears to be
1.3 Significant figures very large, we need only a limited number of units for
expressing all the physical quantities, since they are inter-
1.4 Dimensions of physical related with one another. The units for the fundamental or
quantities base quantities are called fundamental or base units. The
1.5 Dimensional formulae and units of all other physical quantities can be expressed as
dimensional equations combinations of the base units. Such units obtained for the
1.6 Dimensional analysis and its derived quantities are called derived units. A complete set
applications of these units, both the base units and derived units, is
known as the system of units.
Summary
Exercises 1.2 THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS
In earlier time scientists of different countries were using
different systems of units for measurement. Three such
systems, the CGS, the FPS (or British) system and the MKS
system were in use extensively till recently.
The base units for length, mass and time in these systems
were as follows :
• In CGS system they were centimetre, gram and second
respectively.
• In FPS system they were foot, pound and second
respectively.
• In MKS system they were metre, kilogram and second
respectively.
The system of units which is at present internationally
accepted for measurement is the Système Internationale
d’ Unites (French for International System of Units),
abbreviated as SI. The SI, with standard scheme of symbols,
units and abbreviations, developed by the Bureau
International des Poids et measures (The International
Bureau of Weights and Measures, BIPM) in 1971 were
recently revised by the General Conference on Weights and
Measures in November 2018. The scheme is now for

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2 PHYSICS

international usage in scientific, technical, industrial

and commercial work. Because SI units used decimal
system, conversions within the system are quite simple
and convenient. We shall follow the SI units in
this book.
In SI, there are seven base units as given in (a)
Table 1.1. Besides the seven base units, there are two
more units that are defined for (a) plane angle dθ as the
ratio of length of arc ds to the radius r and (b) solid
angle dΩ as the ratio of the intercepted area dA of the
spherical surface, described about the apex O as the
centre, to the square of its radius r, as shown in
Fig. 1.1(a) and (b) respectively. The unit for plane angle
(b)
is radian with the symbol rad and the unit for the solid
angle is steradian with the symbol sr. Both these are Fig. 1.1 Description of (a) plane angle dθ and
dimensionless quantities. (b) solid angle dΩ .
Table 1.1 SI Base Quantities and Units*
Base SI Units
quantity Name Symbol Definition
Length metre m The metre, symbol m, is the SI unit of length. It is defined by taking the
fixed numerical value of the speed of light in vacuum c to be 299792458
when expressed in the unit m s–1 , where the second is defined in terms of
the caesium frequency ∆ν cs.
Mass kilogram kg The kilogram, symbol kg, is the SI unit of mass. It is defined by taking the
fixed numerical value of the Planck constant h to be 6.62607015×10–34 when
expressed in the unit J s, which is equal to kg m2 s–1, where the metre and
the second are defined in terms of c and ∆ν cs.
Time second s The second, symbol s, is the SI unit of time. It is defined by taking the fixed
numerical value of the caesium frequency ∆ν cs, the unperturbed ground-
state hyperfine transition frequency of the caesium-133 atom, to be
9192631770 when expressed in the unit Hz, which is equal to s–1.
Electric ampere A The ampere, symbol A, is the SI unit of electric current. It is defined by
taking the fixed numerical value of the elementary charge e to be
1.602176634×10–19 when expressed in the unit C, which is equal to A s,
where the second is defined in terms of ∆ν cs.
Thermo kelvin K The kelvin, symbol K, is the SI unit of thermodynamic temperature.
dynamic It is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the Boltzmann constant
Temperature k to be 1.380649×10–23 when expressed in the unit J K–1, which is equal to
kg m2 s–2 k–1, where the kilogram, metre and second are defined in terms of
h, c and ∆ν cs.
Amount of mole mol The mole, symbol mol, is the SI unit of amount of substance. One mole
substance contains exactly 6.02214076×1023 elementary entities. This number is the
fixed numerical value of the Avogadro constant, NA, when expressed in the
unit mol–1 and is called the Avogadro number. The amount of substance,
symbol n, of a system is a measure of the number of specified elementary
entities. An elementary entity may be an atom, a molecule, an ion, an electron,
any other particle or specified group of particles.
Luminous candela cd The candela, symbol cd, is the SI unit of luminous intensity in given direction.
intensity It is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the luminous efficacy of
monochromatic radiation of frequency 540×1012 Hz, Kcd, to be 683 when expressed
in the unit lm W–1, which is equal to cd sr W–1, or cd sr kg–1m–2s3, where the
kilogram, metre and second are defined in terms of h, c and ∆ν cs.

* The values mentioned here need not be remembered or asked in a test. They are given here only to indicate the
extent of accuracy to which they are measured. With progress in technology, the measuring techniques get
improved leading to measurements with greater precision. The definitions of base units are revised to keep up
with this progress.

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UNITS AND MEASUREMENT 3

Table 1.2 Some units retained for general use (Though outside SI)

Note that when mole is used, the elementary the first uncertain digit are known as
entities must be specified. These entities significant digits or significant figures. If we
may be atoms, molecules, ions, electrons, say the period of oscillation of a simple
other particles or specified groups of such pendulum is 1.62 s, the digits 1 and 6 are
particles. reliable and certain, while the digit 2 is
We employ units for some physical quantities uncertain. Thus, the measured value has three
that can be derived from the seven base units significant figures. The length of an object
(Appendix A 6). Some derived units in terms of reported after measurement to be 287.5 cm has
the SI base units are given in (Appendix A 6.1). four significant figures, the digits 2, 8, 7 are
Some SI derived units are given special names certain while the digit 5 is uncertain. Clearly,
(Appendix A 6.2 ) and some derived SI units make reporting the result of measurement that
use of these units with special names and the includes more digits than the significant digits
seven base units (Appendix A 6.3). These are is superfluous and also misleading since it
given in Appendix A 6.2 and A 6.3 for your ready would give a wrong idea about the precision of
reference. Other units retained for general use measurement.
are given in Table 1.2.
The rules for determining the number of
Common SI prefixes and symbols for multiples
significant figures can be understood from the
and sub-multiples are given in Appendix A2.
following examples. Significant figures
General guidelines for using symbols for physical
indicate, as already mentioned, the precision
quantities, chemical elements and nuclides are
given in Appendix A7 and those for SI units and of measurement which depends on the least
some other units are given in Appendix A8 for count of the measuring instrument. A choice
your guidance and ready reference. of change of different units does not
change the number of significant digits or
1.3 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES figures in a measurement. This important
As discussed above, every measurement remark makes most of the following
involves errors. Thus, the result of observations clear:
measurement should be reported in a way that (1) For example, the length 2.308 cm has four
indicates the precision of measurement. significant figures. But in different units, the
Normally, the reported result of measurement same value can be written as 0.02308 m or 23.08
is a number that includes all digits in the mm or 23080 µm.
number that are known reliably plus the first All these numbers have the same number of
digit that is uncertain. The reliable digits plus significant figures (digits 2, 3, 0, 8), namely four.

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4 PHYSICS

This shows that the location of decimal point is negative exponent (or power) of 10. In order to
of no consequence in determining the number get an approximate idea of the number, we may
of significant figures. round off the number a to 1 (for a ≤ 5) and to 10
The example gives the following rules : (for 5<a ≤ 10). Then the number can be
• All the non-zero digits are significant. expressed approximately as 10b in which the
exponent (or power) b of 10 is called order of
• All the zeros between two non-zero digits
magnitude of the physical quantity. When only
are significant, no matter where the an estimate is required, the quantity is of the
decimal point is, if at all. order of 10b. For example, the diameter of the
• If the number is less than 1, the zero(s) earth (1.28×107m) is of the order of 107m with
on the right of decimal point but to the the order of magnitude 7. The diameter of
left of the first non-zero digit are not hydrogen atom (1.06 ×10–10m) is of the order of
significant. [In 0.00 2308, the underlined 10 –10 m, with the order of magnitude
zeroes are not significant]. –10. Thus, the diameter of the earth is 17 orders
of magnitude larger than the hydrogen atom.
• The terminal or trailing zero(s) in a
It is often customary to write the decimal after
number without a decimal point are not
the first digit. Now the confusion mentioned in
significant.
(a) above disappears :
[Thus 123 m = 12300 cm = 123000 mm has 4.700 m = 4.700 × 102 cm
three significant figures, the trailing zero(s) = 4.700 × 103 mm = 4.700 × 10–3 km
being not significant.] However, you can also
The power of 10 is irrelevant to the
see the next observation.
determination of significant figures. However, all
• The trailing zero(s) in a number with a zeroes appearing in the base number in the
decimal point are significant. scientific notation are significant. Each number
[The numbers 3.500 or 0.06900 have four in this case has four significant figures.
significant figures each.] Thus, in the scientific notation, no confusion
(2) There can be some confusion regarding the arises about the trailing zero(s) in the base
trailing zero(s). Suppose a length is reported to number a. They are always significant.
be 4.700 m. It is evident that the zeroes here (4) The scientific notation is ideal for reporting
are meant to convey the precision of measurement. But if this is not adopted, we use
measurement and are, therefore, significant. [If the rules adopted in the preceding example :
these were not, it would be superfluous to write
them explicitly, the reported measurement • For a number greater than 1, without any
would have been simply 4.7 m]. Now suppose decimal, the trailing zero(s) are not
we change units, then significant.
4.700 m = 470.0 cm = 4700 mm = 0.004700 km • For a number with a decimal, the trailing
zero(s) are significant.
Since the last number has trailing zero(s) in a
number with no decimal, we would conclude (5) The digit 0 conventionally put on the left of a
erroneously from observation (1) above that the decimal for a number less than 1 (like 0.1250)
number has two significant figures, while in is never significant. However, the zeroes at the
fact, it has four significant figures and a mere end of such number are significant in a
change of units cannot change the number of measurement.
significant figures.
(6) The multiplying or dividing factors which are
(3) To remove such ambiguities in neither rounded numbers nor numbers
determining the number of significant representing measured values are exact and
figures, the best way is to report every have infinite number of significant digits. For
measurement in scientific notation (in the
d
power of 10). In this notation, every number is example in r = or s = 2πr, the factor 2 is an
expressed as a × 10b, where a is a number 2
between 1 and 10, and b is any positive or exact number and it can be written as 2.0, 2.00

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UNITS AND MEASUREMENT 5

t decimal place. The final result should, therefore,

or 2.0000 as required. Similarly, in T = , n is be rounded off to 663.8 g.
n
Similarly, the difference in length can be
an exact number.
expressed as :
1.3.1 Rules for Arithmetic Operations with 0.307 m – 0.304 m = 0.003 m = 3 ×10–3 m.
Significant Figures
Note that we should not use the rule (1) applicable
The result of a calculation involving approximate for multiplication and division and write 664 g as
measured values of quantities (i.e. values with the result in the example of addition and
limited number of significant figures) must 3.00 × 10–3 m in the example of subtraction. They
reflect the uncertainties in the original do not convey the precision of measurement
measured values. It cannot be more accurate properly. For addition and subtraction, the rule
than the original measured values themselves
is in terms of decimal places.
on which the result is based. In general, the
final result should not have more significant 1.3.2 Rounding off the Uncertain Digits
figures than the original data from which it was The result of computation with approximate
obtained. Thus, if mass of an object is measured numbers, which contain more than one
to be, say, 4.237 g (four significant figures) and uncertain digit, should be rounded off. The rules
its volume is measured to be 2.51 cm3, then its for rounding off numbers to the appropriate
density, by mere arithmetic division, is significant figures are obvious in most cases. A
1.68804780876 g/cm3 upto 11 decimal places. number 2.746 rounded off to three significant
It would be clearly absurd and irrelevant to figures is 1.75, while the number 1.743 would
record the calculated value of density to such a be 1.74. The rule by convention is that the
precision when the measurements on which the preceding digit is raised by 1 if the
value is based, have much less precision. The
insignificant digit to be dropped (the
following rules for arithmetic operations with
underlined digit in this case) is more than
significant figures ensure that the final result
5, and is left unchanged if the latter is less
of a calculation is shown with the precision that
than 5. But what if the number is 2.745 in
is consistent with the precision of the input
measured values : which the insignificant digit is 5. Here, the
(1) In multiplication or division, the final convention is that if the preceding digit is
result should retain as many significant even, the insignificant digit is simply
figures as are there in the original number dropped and, if it is odd, the preceding digit
with the least significant figures. is raised by 1. Then, the number 2.745 rounded
Thus, in the example above, density should off to three significant figures becomes 1.74. On
be reported to three significant figures. the other hand, the number 2.735 rounded off
4.237g
to three significant figures becomes 1.74 since
-3
Density = 3
= 1.69 g cm the preceding digit is odd.
2.51 cm In any involved or complex multi-step
Similarly, if the speed of light is given as calculation, you should retain, in intermediate
3.00 × 108 m s-1 (three significant figure) and steps, one digit more than the significant digits
one year (1y = 365.25 d) has 3.1557 × 107 s (five and round off to proper significant figures at the
significant figures), the light year is 9.47 × 1015 m end of the calculation. Similarly, a number
(three significant figures). known to be within many significant figures,
such as in 1.99792458 × 108 m/s for the speed
(2) In addition or subtraction, the final result
should retain as many decimal places as are of light in vacuum, is rounded off to an
there in the number with the least approximate value 3 × 108 m/s , which is often
decimal places. employed in computations. Finally, remember
For example, the sum of the numbers that exact numbers that appear in formulae like
436.32 g, 227.2 g and 0.301 g by mere arithmetic L
addition, is 663.821 g. But the least precise 2 π in T = 2π , have a large (infinite) number
measurement (227.2 g) is correct to only one g

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6 PHYSICS

of significant figures. The value of π =

= 16.2 cm ± 0.6 %.
3.1415926.... is known to a large number of
significant figures. You may take the value as Similarly, the breadth b may be written as
3.142 or 3.14 for π, with limited number of b = 10.1 ± 0.1 cm
significant figures as required in specific = 10.1 cm ± 1 %
cases.
Then, the error of the product of two (or more)
Example 1.1 Each side of a cube is experimental values, using the combination of
⊳
measured to be 7.203 m. What are the errors rule, will be
total surface area and the volume of the
cube to appropriate significant figures? l b = 163.62 cm2 + 1.6%

= 163.62 + 2.6 cm2

Answer The number of significant figures in
the measured length is 4. The calculated area This leads us to quote the final result as
and the volume should therefore be rounded off l b = 164 + 3 cm2
to 4 significant figures.
Here 3 cm2 is the uncertainty or error in the
Surface area of the cube = 6(7.203)2 m2 estimation of area of rectangular sheet.
= 311.299254 m2 (2) If a set of experimental data is specified
= 311.3 m2 to n significant figures, a result obtained by
combining the data will also be valid to n
Volume of the cube = (7.203)3 m3
significant figures.
= 373.714754 m3
However, if data are subtracted, the number of
= 373.7 m3 ⊳ significant figures can be reduced.
⊳
Example 1.2 5.74 g of a substance For example, 12.9 g – 7.06 g, both specified to
occupies 1.2 cm3. Express its density by three significant figures, cannot properly be
keeping the significant figures in view. evaluated as 5.84 g but only as 5.8 g, as
Answer There are 3 significant figures in the uncertainties in subtraction or addition combine
measured mass whereas there are only 2 in a different fashion (smallest number of
decimal places rather than the number of
significant figures in the measured volume.
significant figures in any of the number added
Hence the density should be expressed to only
or subtracted).
2 significant figures.
5.74 (3) The relative error of a value of number
Density = g cm−3 specified to significant figures depends not
1.2 only on n but also on the number itself.
= 4.8 g cm--3 . ⊳ For example, the accuracy in measurement of
mass 1.02 g is ± 0.01 g whereas another
1.3.3 Rules for Determining the Uncertainty measurement 9.89 g is also accurate to ± 0.01 g.
in the Results of Arithmetic The relative error in 1.02 g is
Calculations = (± 0.01/1.02) × 100 %
The rules for determining the uncertainty or = ± 1%
error in the number/measured quantity in Similarly, the relative error in 9.89 g is
arithmetic operations can be understood from = (± 0.01/9.89) × 100 %
the following examples. = ± 0.1 %
(1) If the length and breadth of a thin Finally, remember that intermediate results in
rectangular sheet are measured, using a metre a multi-step computation should be
scale as 16.2 cm and, 10.1 cm respectively, there calculated to one more significant figure in
are three significant figures in each every measurement than the number of
measurement. It means that the length l may digits in the least precise measurement.
be written as These should be justified by the data and then
l = 16.2 ± 0.1 cm the arithmetic operations may be carried out;

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UNITS AND MEASUREMENT 7

otherwise rounding errors can build up. For mass, one dimension in length, and –2
example, the reciprocal of 9.58, calculated (after dimensions in time. The dimensions in all other
rounding off) to the same number of significant base quantities are zero.
figures (three) is 0.104, but the reciprocal of Note that in this type of representation, the
0.104 calculated to three significant figures is magnitudes are not considered. It is the quality
of the type of the physical quantity that enters.
9.62. However, if we had written 1/9.58 = 0.1044
Thus, a change in velocity, initial velocity,
and then taken the reciprocal to three significant average velocity, final velocity, and speed are
figures, we would have retrieved the original all equivalent in this context. Since all these
value of 9.58. quantities can be expressed as length/time,
This example justifies the idea to retain one their dimensions are [L]/[T] or [L T–1].
more extra digit (than the number of digits in
the least precise measurement) in intermediate 1.5 DIMENSIONAL FORMULAE AND
steps of the complex multi-step calculations in DIMENSIONAL EQUATIONS
order to avoid additional errors in the process The expression which shows how and which of
of rounding off the numbers. the base quantities represent the dimensions
of a physical quantity is called the dimensional
1.4 DIMENSIONS OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES formula of the given physical quantity. For
example, the dimensional formula of the volume
The nature of a physical quantity is described is [M° L3 T°], and that of speed or velocity is
by its dimensions. All the physical quantities [M° L T-1]. Similarly, [M° L T–2] is the dimensional
represented by derived units can be expressed formula of acceleration and [M L–3 T°] that of
in terms of some combination of seven mass density.
fundamental or base quantities. We shall call An equation obtained by equating a physical
these base quantities as the seven dimensions quantity with its dimensional formula is called
of the physical world, which are denoted with the dimensional equation of the physical
square brackets [ ]. Thus, length has the quantity. Thus, the dimensional equations are
dimension [L], mass [M], time [T], electric current the equations, which represent the dimensions
[A], thermodynamic temperature [K], luminous of a physical quantity in terms of the base
intensity [cd], and amount of substance [mol]. quantities. For example, the dimensional
The dimensions of a physical quantity are the equations of volume [V ], speed [v], force [F ] and
powers (or exponents) to which the base mass density [ρ] may be expressed as
quantities are raised to represent that
[V] = [M0 L3 T0]
quantity. Note that using the square brackets
[v] = [M0 L T–1]
[ ] round a quantity means that we are dealing
[F] = [M L T–2]
with ‘the dimensions of’ the quantity.
[ρ] = [M L–3 T0]
In mechanics, all the physical quantities can
be written in terms of the dimensions [L], [M] The dimensional equation can be obtained
and [T]. For example, the volume occupied by from the equation representing the relations
an object is expressed as the product of length, between the physical quantities. The
breadth and height, or three lengths. Hence the dimensional formulae of a large number and
dimensions of volume are [L] × [L] × [L] = [L]3 = [L3]. wide variety of physical quantities, derived from
the equations representing the relationships
As the volume is independent of mass and time,
among other physical quantities and expressed
it is said to possess zero dimension in mass [M°],
in terms of base quantities are given in
zero dimension in time [T°] and three Appendix 9 for your guidance and ready
dimensions in length. reference.
Similarly, force, as the product of mass and
acceleration, can be expressed as 1.6 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND ITS
Force = mass × acceleration APPLICATIONS
= mass × (length)/(time)2
The recognition of concepts of dimensions, which
The dimensions of force are [M] [L]/[T]2 = guide the description of physical behaviour is
[M L T–2]. Thus, the force has one dimension in of basic importance as only those physical

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8 PHYSICS

quantities can be added or subtracted which such as angle as the ratio (length/length),
have the same dimensions. A thorough refractive index as the ratio (speed of light in
understanding of dimensional analysis helps us vacuum/speed of light in medium) etc., has no
in deducing certain relations among different dimensions.
physical quantities and checking the derivation, Now we can test the dimensional consistency
accuracy and dimensional consistency or or homogeneity of the equation
homogeneity of various mathematical
expressions. When magnitudes of two or more x = x 0 + v0 t + (1/2) a t 2
physical quantities are multiplied, their units for the distance x travelled by a particle or body
should be treated in the same manner as in time t which starts from the position x0 with
ordinary algebraic symbols. We can cancel an initial velocity v0 at time t = 0 and has uniform
identical units in the numerator and
acceleration a along the direction of motion.
denominator. The same is true for dimensions
The dimensions of each term may be written as
of a physical quantity. Similarly, physical
[x] = [L]
quantities represented by symbols on both sides
of a mathematical equation must have the same [x0 ] = [L]
dimensions. [v0 t] = [L T–1] [T]
= [L]
1.6.1 Checking the Dimensional [(1/2) a t2] = [L T–2] [T2]
Consistency of Equations = [L]
As each term on the right hand side of this
The magnitudes of physical quantities may be equation has the same dimension, namely that
added together or subtracted from one another of length, which is same as the dimension of
only if they have the same dimensions. In other left hand side of the equation, hence this
words, we can add or subtract similar physical equation is a dimensionally correct equation.
quantities. Thus, velocity cannot be added to It may be noted that a test of consistency of
force, or an electric current cannot be subtracted dimensions tells us no more and no less than a
from the thermodynamic temperature. This test of consistency of units, but has the
simple principle called the principle of advantage that we need not commit ourselves
homogeneity of dimensions in an equation is to a particular choice of units, and we need not
extremely useful in checking the correctness of worry about conversions among multiples and
an equation. If the dimensions of all the terms sub-multiples of the units. It may be borne in
are not same, the equation is wrong. Hence, if mind that if an equation fails this consistency
we derive an expression for the length (or test, it is proved wrong, but if it passes, it is
distance) of an object, regardless of the symbols not proved right. Thus, a dimensionally correct
appearing in the original mathematical relation, equation need not be actually an exact
when all the individual dimensions are (correct) equation, but a dimensionally wrong
simplified, the remaining dimension must be (incorrect) or inconsistent equation must be
that of length. Similarly, if we derive an equation wrong.
of speed, the dimensions on both the sides of
equation, when simplified, must be of length/ ⊳
Example 1.3 Let us consider an equation
time, or [L T–1].
Dimensions are customarily used as a 1
m v2 = m g h
preliminary test of the consistency of an 2
equation, when there is some doubt about the where m is the mass of the body, v its
correctness of the equation. However, the velocity, g is the acceleration due to
dimensional consistency does not guarantee gravity and h is the height. Check
correct equations. It is uncertain to the extent whether this equation is dimensionally
of dimensionless quantities or functions. The correct.
arguments of special functions, such as the
trigonometric, logarithmic and exponential Answer The dimensions of LHS are
functions must be dimensionless. A pure [M] [L T–1 ]2 = [M] [ L2 T–2]
number, ratio of similar physical quantities, = [M L2 T–2]

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UNITS AND MEASUREMENT 9

The dimensions of RHS are string, that oscillates under the action of
[M][L T–2] [L] = [M][L2 T–2] the force of gravity. Suppose that the period
= [M L2 T–2] of oscillation of the simple pendulum
The dimensions of LHS and RHS are the same and depends on its length (l), mass of the bob
hence the equation is dimensionally correct. ⊳ (m) and acceleration due to gravity (g).
Derive the expression for its time period
using method of dimensions.
Example 1.4 The SI unit of energy is
⊳
J = kg m2 s–2; that of speed v is m s–1 and
of acceleration a is m s–2. Which of the Answer The dependence of time period T on
formulae for kinetic energy (K) given below the quantities l, g and m as a product may be
can you rule out on the basis of written as :
dimensional arguments (m stands for the T = k lx gy mz
mass of the body) : where k is dimensionless constant and x, y
(a) K = m2 v3 and z are the exponents.
(b) K = (1/2)mv2 By considering dimensions on both sides, we
(c) K = ma have
(d) K = (3/16)mv2 [Lo M o T 1 ]=[L1 ]x [L1 T –2 ]y [M1 ]z
(e) K = (1/2)mv2 + ma = Lx+y T–2y Mz
Answer Every correct formula or equation must On equating the dimensions on both sides,
have the same dimensions on both sides of the we have
equation. Also, only quantities with the same x + y = 0; –2y = 1; and z = 0
physical dimensions can be added or
1 1
subtracted. The dimensions of the quantity on So that x = ,y = – , z = 0
the right side are [M2 L3 T–3] for (a); [M L2 T–2] for 2 2
–½
(b) and (d); [M L T–2] for (c). The quantity on the
½
Then, T = k l g
right side of (e) has no proper dimensions since
two quantities of different dimensions have been l
added. Since the kinetic energy K has the or, T = k
g
dimensions of [M L2 T–2], formulas (a), (c) and (e)
are ruled out. Note that dimensional arguments Note that value of constant k can not be obtained
cannot tell which of the two, (b) or (d), is the by the method of dimensions. Here it does not
correct formula. For this, one must turn to the matter if some number multiplies the right side
actual definition of kinetic energy (see of this formula, because that does not affect its
Chapter 5). The correct formula for kinetic dimensions.
energy is given by (b). ⊳
l
Actually, k = 2π so that T = 2π ⊳
1.6.2 Deducing Relation among the g
Physical Quantities
The method of dimensions can sometimes be Dimensional analysis is very useful in deducing
used to deduce relation among the physical relations among the interdependent physical
quantities. For this we should know the quantities. However, dimensionless constants
dependence of the physical quantity on other cannot be obtained by this method. The method
quantities (upto three physical quantities or of dimensions can only test the dimensional
linearly independent variables) and consider it validity, but not the exact relationship between
as a product type of the dependence. Let us take physical quantities in any equation. It does not
an example. distinguish between the physical quantities
having same dimensions.
A number of exercises at the end of this
⊳
Example 1.5 Consider a simple
pendulum, having a bob attached to a chapter will help you develop skill in
dimensional analysis.

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10 PHYSICS

SUMMARY

1. Physics is a quantitative science, based on measurement of physical quantities. Certain

physical quantities have been chosen as fundamental or base quantities (such as
length, mass, time, electric current, thermodynamic temperature, amount of substance,
and luminous intensity).
2. Each base quantity is defined in terms of a certain basic, arbitrarily chosen but properly
standardised reference standard called unit (such as metre, kilogram, second, ampere,
kelvin, mole and candela). The units for the fundamental or base quantities are called
fundamental or base units.
3. Other physical quantities, derived from the base quantities, can be expressed as a
combination of the base units and are called derived units. A complete set of units,
both fundamental and derived, is called a system of units.
4. The International System of Units (SI) based on seven base units is at present
internationally accepted unit system and is widely used throughout the world.
5. The SI units are used in all physical measurements, for both the base quantities and
the derived quantities obtained from them. Certain derived units are expressed by
means of SI units with special names (such as joule, newton, watt, etc).
6. The SI units have well defined and internationally accepted unit symbols (such as m
for metre, kg for kilogram, s for second, A for ampere, N for newton etc.).
7. Physical measurements are usually expressed for small and large quantities in scientific
notation, with powers of 10. Scientific notation and the prefixes are used to simplify
measurement notation and numerical computation, giving indication to the precision
of the numbers.
8. Certain general rules and guidelines must be followed for using notations for physical
quantities and standard symbols for SI units, some other units and SI prefixes for
expressing properly the physical quantities and measurements.
9. In computing any physical quantity, the units for derived quantities involved in the
relationship(s) are treated as though they were algebraic quantities till the desired
units are obtained.
10. In measured and computed quantities proper significant figures only should be retained.
Rules for determining the number of significant figures, carrying out arithmetic
operations with them, and ‘rounding off ‘ the uncertain digits must be followed.
11. The dimensions of base quantities and combination of these dimensions describe
the nature of physical quantities. Dimensional analysis can be used to check the
dimensional consistency of equations, deducing relations among the physical
quantities, etc. A dimensionally consistent equation need not be actually an
exact (correct) equation, but a dimensionally wrong or inconsistent equation
must be wrong.

EXERCISES

Note : In stating numerical answers, take care of significant figures.

1.1 Fill in the blanks
(a) The volume of a cube of side 1 cm is equal to .....m3
(b) The surface area of a solid cylinder of radius 2.0 cm and height 10.0 cm is equal to
...(mm)2
(c) A vehicle moving with a speed of 18 km h–1 covers....m in 1 s
(d) The relative density of lead is 11.3. Its density is ....g cm–3 or ....kg m–3.
1.2 Fill in the blanks by suitable conversion of units
(a) 1 kg m2 s–2 = ....g cm2 s–2
(b) 1 m = ..... ly
(c) 3.0 m s–2 = .... km h–2
(d) G = 6.67 × 10–11 N m2 (kg)–2 = .... (cm)3 s–2 g–1.

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UNITS AND MEASUREMENT 11

1.3 A calorie is a unit of heat (energy in transit) and it equals about 4.2 J where 1J =
1 kg m2 s–2. Suppose we employ a system of units in which the unit of mass equals α
kg, the unit of length equals β m, the unit of time is γ s. Show that a calorie has a
magnitude 4.2 α –1 β –2 γ 2 in terms of the new units.
1.4 Explain this statement clearly :
“To call a dimensional quantity ‘large’ or ‘small’ is meaningless without specifying a
standard for comparison”. In view of this, reframe the following statements wherever
necessary :
(a) atoms are very small objects
(b) a jet plane moves with great speed
(c) the mass of Jupiter is very large
(d) the air inside this room contains a large number of molecules
(e) a proton is much more massive than an electron
(f) the speed of sound is much smaller than the speed of light.
1.5 A new unit of length is chosen such that the speed of light in vacuum is unity. What
is the distance between the Sun and the Earth in terms of the new unit if light takes
8 min and 20 s to cover this distance ?
1.6 Which of the following is the most precise device for measuring length :
(a) a vernier callipers with 20 divisions on the sliding scale
(b) a screw gauge of pitch 1 mm and 100 divisions on the circular scale
(c) an optical instrument that can measure length to within a wavelength of light ?
1.7 A student measures the thickness of a human hair by looking at it through a
microscope of magnification 100. He makes 20 observations and finds that the average
width of the hair in the field of view of the microscope is 3.5 mm. What is the
estimate on the thickness of hair ?
1.8 Answer the following :
(a)You are given a thread and a metre scale. How will you estimate the diameter of
the thread ?
(b)A screw gauge has a pitch of 1.0 mm and 200 divisions on the circular scale. Do
you think it is possible to increase the accuracy of the screw gauge arbitrarily by
increasing the number of divisions on the circular scale ?
(c) The mean diameter of a thin brass rod is to be measured by vernier callipers. Why
is a set of 100 measurements of the diameter expected to yield a more reliable
estimate than a set of 5 measurements only ?
1.9 The photograph of a house occupies an area of 1.75 cm2 on a 35 mm slide. The slide
is projected on to a screen, and the area of the house on the screen is 1.55 m2. What
is the linear magnification of the projector-screen arrangement.
1.10 State the number of significant figures in the following :
(a) 0.007 m2
(b) 2.64 × 1024 kg
(c) 0.2370 g cm–3
(d) 6.320 J
(e) 6.032 N m–2
(f) 0.0006032 m2
1.11 The length, breadth and thickness of a rectangular sheet of metal are 4.234 m, 1.005 m, and
2.01 cm respectively. Give the area and volume of the sheet to correct significant figures.
1.12 The mass of a box measured by a grocer’s balance is 2.30 kg. Two gold pieces of
masses 20.15 g and 20.17 g are added to the box. What is (a) the total mass of the
box, (b) the difference in the masses of the pieces to correct significant figures ?
1.13 A famous relation in physics relates ‘moving mass’ m to the ‘rest mass’ mo of a
particle in terms of its speed v and the speed of light, c. (This relation first arose as
a consequence of special relativity due to Albert Einstein). A boy recalls the relation
almost correctly but forgets where to put the constant c. He writes :
m0
m=
(1 − v )
2 1/2 .

Guess where to put the missing c.

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12 PHYSICS

1.14 The unit of length convenient on the atomic scale is known as an angstrom and is
denoted by Å: 1 Å = 10–10 m. The size of a hydrogen atom is about 0.5 Å. What is the
total atomic volume in m3 of a mole of hydrogen atoms ?
1.15 One mole of an ideal gas at standard temperature and pressure occupies 22.4 L
(molar volume). What is the ratio of molar volume to the atomic volume of a mole of
hydrogen ? (Take the size of hydrogen molecule to be about 1 Å). Why is this ratio
so large ?
1.16 Explain this common observation clearly : If you look out of the window of a fast
moving train, the nearby trees, houses etc. seem to move rapidly in a direction opposite
to the train’s motion, but the distant objects (hill tops, the Moon, the stars etc.)
seem to be stationary. (In fact, since you are aware that you are moving, these
distant objects seem to move with you).
1.17 The Sun is a hot plasma (ionized matter) with its inner core at a temperature exceeding
10 7 K, and its outer surface at a temperature of about 6000 K. At these high
temperatures, no substance remains in a solid or liquid phase. In what range do you
expect the mass density of the Sun to be, in the range of densities of solids and
liquids or gases ? Check if your guess is correct from the following data : mass of the
Sun = 2.0 ×1030 kg, radius of the Sun = 7.0 × 108 m.

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 CHAPTER TWO

MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Motion is common to everything in the universe. We walk,
run and ride a bicycle. Even when we are sleeping, air moves
2.1 Introduction into and out of our lungs and blood flows in arteries and
2.2 Instantaneous velocity and veins. We see leaves falling from trees and water flowing
speed down a dam. Automobiles and planes carry people from one
2.3 Acceleration place to the other. The earth rotates once every twenty-four
2.4 Kinematic equations for hours and revolves round the sun once in a year. The sun
uniformly accelerated motion itself is in motion in the Milky Way, which is again moving
2.5 Relative velocity within its local group of galaxies.
Summary
Motion is change in position of an object with time. How
Points to ponder does the position change with time ? In this chapter, we shall
Exercises learn how to describe motion. For this, we develop the
concepts of velocity and acceleration. We shall confine
ourselves to the study of motion of objects along a straight
line, also known as rectilinear motion. For the case of
rectilinear motion with uniform acceleration, a set of simple
equations can be obtained. Finally, to understand the relative
nature of motion, we introduce the concept of relative velocity.
In our discussions, we shall treat the objects in motion as
point objects. This approximation is valid so far as the size
of the object is much smaller than the distance it moves in a
reasonable duration of time. In a good number of situations
in real-life, the size of objects can be neglected and they can
be considered as point-like objects without much error.
In Kinematics, we study ways to describe motion without
going into the causes of motion. What causes motion
described in this chapter and the next chapter forms the
subject matter of Chapter 4.

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14 PHYSICS

2.2 INSTANTANEOUS VELOCITY AND SPEED

The average velocity tells us how fast an object
has been moving over a given time interval but
does not tell us how fast it moves at different
instants of time during that interval. For this,
we define instantaneous velocity or simply
velocity v at an instant t.
The velocity at an instant is defined as the
limit of the average velocity as the time interval
∆t becomes infinitesimally small. In other words,
∆x
v = lim (2.1a)
∆t → 0 ∆t
Fig. 2.1 Determining velocity from position-time
dx (2.1b) graph. Velocity at t = 4 s is the slope of the
=
dt tangent to the graph at that instant.

lim
where the symbol ∆t →0 stands for the operation Now, we decrease the value of ∆t from 2 s to 1
of taking limit as ∆tg0 of the quantity on its s. Then line P1P2 becomes Q1Q2 and its slope
right. In the language of calculus, the quantity gives the value of the average velocity over
on the right hand side of Eq. (2.1a) is the the interval 3.5 s to 4.5 s. In the limit ∆t → 0,
differential coefficient of x with respect to t and the line P1P2 becomes tangent to the position-
dx time curve at the point P and the velocity at t
is denoted by (see Appendix 2.1). It is the
dt = 4 s is given by the slope of the tangent at
rate of change of position with respect to time, that point. It is difficult to show this
at that instant. process graphically. But if we use
numerical method to obtain the value of
We can use Eq. (2.1a) for obtaining the
the velocity, the meaning of the limiting
value of velocity at an instant either
process becomes clear. For the graph shown
graphically or numerically. Suppose that we
in Fig. 2.1, x = 0.08 t3. Table 2.1 gives the
want to obtain graphically the value of
value of ∆x/∆t calculated for ∆t equal to 2.0 s,
velocity at time t = 4 s (point P) for the motion
1.0 s, 0.5 s, 0.1 s and 0.01 s centred at t =
of the car represented in Fig.2.1 calculation.
4.0 s. The second and third columns give the
Let us take ∆t = 2 s centred at t = 4 s. Then,
by the definition of the average velocity, the  ∆t   ∆t 
value of t1=  t −  and t 2 =  t +  and the
slope of line P1P2 ( Fig. 2.1) gives the value of  2   2 
average velocity over the interval 3 s to 5 s. fourth and the fifth columns give the

∆x
Table 2.1 Limiting value of at t = 4 s
∆t

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MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 15

a + 16b – a – 4b
= = 6.0 × b
3
corresponding values of x, i.e. x (t1) = 0.08 t1
2.0
and x (t2) = 0.08 t 23 . The sixth column lists the = 6.0 × 2.5 = 15 m s-1 ⊳
difference ∆x = x (t 2) – x (t1 ) and the last
column gives the ratio of ∆x and ∆t, i.e. the Note that for uniform motion, velocity is
average velocity corresponding to the value the same as the average velocity at all
of ∆t listed in the first column. instants.
We see from Table 2.1 that as we decrease Instantaneous speed or simply speed is the
the value of ∆t from 2.0 s to 0.010 s, the value of magnitude of velocity. For example, a velocity of
the average velocity approaches the limiting + 24.0 m s–1 and a velocity of – 24.0 m s–1 —
value 3.84 m s–1 which is the value of velocity at both have an associated speed of 24.0 m s-1. It
dx should be noted that though average speed over
t = 4.0 s, i.e. the value of at t = 4.0 s. In this a finite interval of time is greater or equal to the
dt magnitude of the average velocity,
manner, we can calculate velocity at each instantaneous speed at an instant is equal to
instant for motion of the car. the magnitude of the instantaneous velocity at
The graphical method for the determination that instant. Why so ?
of the instantaneous velocity is always not a
convenient method. For this, we must carefully 2.3 ACCELERATION
plot the position–time graph and calculate the The velocity of an object, in general, changes
value of average velocity as ∆t becomes smaller during its course of motion. How to describe
and smaller. It is easier to calculate the value this change? Should it be described as the rate
of velocity at different instants if we have data of change in velocity with distance or with
of positions at different instants or exact time ? This was a problem even in Galileo’s
expression for the position as a function of time. time. It was first thought that this change could
Then, we calculate ∆x/∆t from the data for be described by the rate of change of velocity
decreasing the value of ∆t and find the limiting with distance. But, through his studies of
value as we have done in Table 2.1 or use motion of freely falling objects and motion of
differential calculus for the given expression and objects on an inclined plane, Galileo concluded
that the rate of change of velocity with time is
dx
calculate at different instants as done in a constant of motion for all objects in free fall.
dt On the other hand, the change in velocity with
the following example. distance is not constant – it decreases with the
⊳ increasing distance of fall. This led to the
Example 2.1 The position of an object concept of acceleration as the rate of change
moving along x-axis is given by x = a + bt2 of velocity with time.
where a = 8.5 m, b = 2.5 m s–2 and t is The average acceleration a over a time interval
measured in seconds. What is its velocity at is defined as the change of velocity divided by
t = 0 s and t = 2.0 s. What is the average the time interval :
velocity between t = 2.0 s and t = 4.0 s ?

Answer In notation of differential calculus, the a = v 2 – v1 = ∆v (2.2)

velocity is t 2 – t1 ∆t

where v2 and v1 are the instantaneous velocities

v=
dx
=
dt dt
d
( )
a + bt 2 = 2b t = 5.0 t m s -1 or simply velocities at time t2 and t1 . It is the
average change of velocity per unit time. The SI
At t = 0 s, v = 0 m s–1 and at t = 2.0 s,
-1
unit of acceleration is m s–2 .
v = 10 m s .
On a plot of velocity versus time, the average
acceleration is the slope of the straight line
x ( 4.0 ) − x (2.0 )
Average velocity = connecting the points corresponding to (v2, t2)
4.0 − 2.0 and (v1, t1).

2024-25
16 PHYSICS

Instantaneous acceleration is defined in the (c) An object is moving in negative direction

same way as the instantaneous velocity : with a negative acceleration.
∆v dv (d) An object is moving in positive direction
a = lim = (2.3) till time t1, and then turns back with the
∆t →0∆t dt
same negative acceleration.
The acceleration at an instant is the slope
of the tangent to the v–t curve at that An interesting feature of a velocity-time
instant. graph for any moving object is that the area
Since velocity is a quantity having both under the curve represents the
magnitude and direction, a change in displacement over a given time interval. A
velocity may involve either or both of these general proof of this statement requires use of
factors. Acceleration, therefore, may result calculus. We can, however, see that it is true
from a change in speed (magnitude), a for the simple case of an object moving with
change in direction or changes in both. Like constant velocity u. Its velocity-time graph is
velocity, acceleration can also be positive, as shown in Fig. 2.4.
negative or zero. Position-time graphs for
motion with positive, negative and zero
acceleration are shown in Figs. 2.4 (a), (b)
and (c), respectively. Note that the graph
curves upward for positive acceleration;
downward for negative acceleration and it is
a straight line for zero acceleration.
Although acceleration can vary with time,
our study in this chapter will be restricted
to motion with constant acceleration. In this
case, the average acceleration equals the
constant value of acceleration during the
interval. If the velocity of an object is v o at t
= 0 and v at time t, we have
v − v0
a= or, v = v0 + a t (2.4)
t −0

Fig. 2.3 Velocity–time graph for motions with

Fig. 2.2 Position-time graph for motion with constant acceleration. (a) Motion in positive
(a) positive acceleration; (b) negative
direction with positive acceleration,
acceleration, and (c) zero acceleration.
(b) Motion in positive direction with
Let us see how velocity-time graph looks like negative acceleration, (c) Motion in
for some simple cases. Fig. 2.3 shows velocity- negative direction with negative
time graph for motion with constant acceleration acceleration, (d) Motion of an object with
negative acceleration that changes
for the following cases :
direction at time t1. Between times 0 to
(a) An object is moving in a positive direction t1, it moves in positive x - direction
with a positive acceleration. and between t1 and t2 it moves in the
(b) An object is moving in positive direction opposite direction.
with a negative acceleration.

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MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 17

Fig. 2.4 Area under v–t curve equals displacement

of the object over a given time interval.

The v-t curve is a straight line parallel to the

time axis and the area under it between t = 0
and t = T is the area of the rectangle of height u
and base T. Therefore, area = u × T = uT which Fig. 2.5 Area under v-t curve for an object with
is the displacement in this time interval. How uniform acceleration.
come in this case an area is equal to a distance?
Think! Note the dimensions of quantities on
the two coordinate axes, and you will arrive at As explained in the previous section, the area
the answer. under v-t curve represents the displacement.
Therefore, the displacement x of the object is :
Note that the x-t, v-t, and a-t graphs shown
in several figures in this chapter have sharp 1
kinks at some points implying that the x =
2
(v –v 0 ) t + v 0 t (2.5)
functions are not differentiable at these
But v − v0 = a t
points. In any realistic situation, the
functions will be differentiable at all points 1
and the graphs will be smooth. Therefore, x = a t 2 + v 0t
2
What this means physically is that 1
or, x = v0t + at 2 (2.6)
acceleration and velocity cannot change 2
values abruptly at an instant. Changes are Equation (2.5) can also be written as
always continuous.
v + v0
2.4 KINEMATIC EQU ATIONS FOR x= t = vt (2.7a)
2
UNIFORMLY ACCELERATED MOTION
where,
For uniformly accelerated motion, we can derive
some simple equations that relate displacement v + v0
(x), time taken (t), initial velocity (v 0), final v= (constant acceleration only)
2
velocity (v) and acceleration (a). Equation (2.4) (2.7b)
already obtained gives a relation between final
and initial velocities v and v0 of an object moving Equations (2.7a) and (2.7b) mean that the object
with uniform acceleration a : has undergone displacement x with an average
velocity equal to the arithmetic average of the
v = v0 + at (2.4) initial and final velocities.
From Eq. (2.4), t = (v – v0)/a. Substituting this in
This relation is graphically represented in Fig. 2.5. Eq. (2.7a), we get
The area under this curve is :
 v + v0   v − v 0  v − v 0
2 2
Area between instants 0 and t = Area of triangle
x =vt = =
ABC + Area of rectangle OACD  2   a  2a
1
=
2
(v –v0 ) t + v0t v 2 = v02 + 2ax (2.8)

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18 PHYSICS

This equation can also be obtained by

∫ 0 (v0 + at ) dt
t
substituting the value of t from Eq. (2.4) into Eq. =
(2.6). Thus, we have obtained three important
equations : 1
x – x 0 = v0 t + a t2
v = v0 + at 2
1
1 x = x 0 + v0 t + a t2
x = v 0t + at 2 2
2 We can write
v 2 = v02 + 2ax (2.9a)
a=
dv dv dx
= =v
dv
dt dx dt dx
connecting five quantities v0, v, a, t and x. These
are kinematic equations of rectilinear motion for or, v dv = a dx
constant acceleration. Integrating both sides,
The set of Eq. (2.9a) were obtained by v x

assuming that at t = 0, the position of the particle, ∫v 0

v dv = ∫x 0
a dx
x is 0. We can obtain a more general equation if
v 2 – v 02
we take the position coordinate at t = 0 as non- = a (x – x 0 )
zero, say x0. Then Eqs. (2.9a) are modified 2
(replacing x by x – x0 ) to :
v 2 = v02 + 2a ( x – x 0 )
v = v0 + at The advantage of this method is that it can be used
1 for motion with non-uniform acceleration
x = x 0 + v 0t + at 2 (2.9b) also.
2
Now, we shall use these equations to some
v 2 = v 02 + 2a ( x − x 0 ) (2.9c) important cases. ⊳
⊳
⊳ Example 2.3 A ball is thrown vertically
Example 2.2 Obtain equations of motion upwards with a velocity of 20 m s–1 from
for constant acceleration using method of the top of a multistorey building. The
calculus. height of the point from where the ball is
thrown is 25.0 m from the ground. (a) How
Answer By definition high will the ball rise ? and (b) how long
will it be before the ball hits the ground?
dv Take g = 10 m s–2.
a =
dt
dv = a dt
Answer (a) Let us take the y-axis in the
Integrating both sides
v t
vertically upward direction with zero at the
∫v 0
dv = ∫ 0a dt ground, as shown in Fig. 2.6.
Now vo = + 20 m s–1,
t
= a ∫ dt (a is a = – g = –10 m s–2,
0
v = 0 m s–1
constant) If the ball rises to height y from the point of
v – v 0 = at launch, then using the equation
v = v 0 + at (
v 2 = v02 + 2 a y – y 0 )
we get
dx
Further, v= 0 = (20)2 + 2(–10)(y – y0)
dt
Solving, we get, (y – y0) = 20 m.
dx = v dt
Integrating both sides (b) We can solve this part of the problem in two
x t ways. Note carefully the methods used.
∫x 0
dx = ∫ 0 v dt

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MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 19

0 = 25 +20 t + (½) (-10) t2

Or, 5t2 – 20t – 25 = 0
Solving this quadratic equation for t, we get
t = 5s
Note that the second method is better since we
do not have to worry about the path of the motion
as the motion is under constant acceleration.
⊳
⊳
Example 2.4 Free-fall : Discuss the
motion of an object under free fall. Neglect
air resistance.

Answer An object released near the surface of

the Earth is accelerated downward under the
influence of the force of gravity. The magnitude
of acceleration due to gravity is represented by
g. If air resistance is neglected, the object is
Fig. 2.6 said to be in free fall. If the height through
which the object falls is small compared to the
FIRST METHOD : In the first method, we split earth’s radius, g can be taken to be constant,
the path in two parts : the upward motion (A to equal to 9.8 m s–2. Free fall is thus a case of
B) and the downward motion (B to C) and motion with uniform acceleration.
calculate the corresponding time taken t1 and We assume that the motion is in y-direction,
t2. Since the velocity at B is zero, we have : more correctly in –y-direction because we
v = vo + at choose upward direction as positive. Since the
0 = 20 – 10t1 acceleration due to gravity is always downward,
Or, t1 = 2 s it is in the negative direction and we have
This is the time in going from A to B. From B, or a = – g = – 9.8 m s–2
the point of the maximum height, the ball falls The object is released from rest at y = 0. Therefore,
freely under the acceleration due to gravity. The v0 = 0 and the equations of motion become:
ball is moving in negative y direction. We use
equation v= 0–gt = –9.8 t m s–1
2 2
y = 0 – ½ g t = –4.9 t m
1 2
y = y0 + v 0t + at v2 = 0 – 2 g y = –19.6 y m2 s–2
2 These equations give the velocity and the
We have, y0 = 45 m, y = 0, v0 = 0, a = – g = –10 m s–2 distance travelled as a function of time and also
0 = 45 + (½) (–10) t22 the variation of velocity with distance. The
Solving, we get t2 = 3 s variation of acceleration, velocity, and distance,
Therefore, the total time taken by the ball before with time have been plotted in Fig. 2.7(a), (b)
it hits the ground = t1 + t2 = 2 s + 3 s = 5 s. and (c).

SECOND METHOD : The total time taken can

also be calculated by noting the coordinates of
initial and final positions of the ball with respect
to the origin chosen and using equation
1 2
y = y0 + v 0t + at
2
Now y0 = 25 m y=0m
vo = 20 m s-1, a = –10m s–2, t = ? (a)

2024-25
20 PHYSICS

traversed during successive intervals of

time. Since initial velocity is zero, we have
1 2
y=− gt
2
Using this equation, we can calculate the
position of the object after different time
intervals, 0, τ, 2τ, 3τ… which are given in
second column of Table 2.2. If we take
(–1/ 2) gτ2 as y0 — the position coordinate after
first time interval τ, then third column gives
(b) the positions in the unit of yo. The fourth
column gives the distances traversed in
successive τs. We find that the distances are
in the simple ratio 1: 3: 5: 7: 9: 11… as shown
in the last column. This law was established
by Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) who was the first
to make quantitative studies of free fall. ⊳

Example 2.6 Stopping distance of

⊳
vehicles : When brakes are applied to a
moving vehicle, the distance it travels before
stopping is called stopping distance. It is
(c) an important factor for road safety and
depends on the initial velocity (v0) and the
Fig. 2.7 Motion of an object under free fall.
(a) Variation of acceleration with time.
braking capacity, or deceleration, –a that
(b) Variation of velocity with time. is caused by the braking. Derive an
(c) Variation of distance with time ⊳ expression for stopping distance of a vehicle
in terms of vo and a.
⊳ Example 2.5 Galileo’s law of odd Answer Let the distance travelled by the vehicle
numbers : “The distances traversed, during before it stops be ds. Then, using equation of
equal intervals of time, by a body falling motion v2 = vo2 + 2 ax, and noting that v = 0, we
from rest, stand to one another in the same have the stopping distance
ratio as the odd numbers beginning with
unity [namely, 1: 3: 5: 7…...].” Prove it. – v02
ds =
Answer Let us divide the time interval of 2a
motion of an object under free fall into many Thus, the stopping distance is proportional to
equal intervals τ and find out the distances the square of the initial velocity. Doubling the

Table 2.2

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MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 21

initial velocity increases the stopping distance

by a factor of 4 (for the same deceleration).
For the car of a particular make, the braking
distance was found to be 10 m, 20 m, 34 m and
50 m corresponding to velocities of 11, 15, 20
and 25 m/s which are nearly consistent with
the above formula.

Stopping distance is an important factor

considered in setting speed limits, for example,
in school zones. ⊳
⊳
Example 2.7 Reaction time : When a
situation demands our immediate
action, it takes some time before we
really respond. Reaction time is the
time a person takes to observe, think
and act. For example, if a person is Fig. 2.8 Measuring the reaction time.
driving and suddenly a boy appears on
the road, then the time elapsed before Answer The ruler drops under free fall.
he slams the brakes of the car is the Therefore, vo = 0, and a = – g = –9.8 m s–2. The
reaction time. Reaction time depends distance travelled d and the reaction time tr are
on complexity of the situation and on related by
an individual.
You can measure your reaction
time by a simple experiment. Take a
ruler and ask your friend to drop it
vertically through the gap between Or,
your thumb and forefinger (Fig. 2.8).
Given d = 21.0 cm and g = 9.8 m s–2 the reaction
After you catch it, find the distance d
time is
travelled by the ruler. In a particular
case, d was found to be 21.0 cm.
⊳
Estimate reaction time.

SUMMARY

1. An object is said to be in motion if its position changes with time. The position of the
object can be specified with reference to a conveniently chosen origin. For motion in
a straight line, position to the right of the origin is taken as positive and to the left as
negative.
The average speed of an object is greater or equal to the magnitude of the average
velocity over a given time interval.
2. Instantaneous velocity or simply velocity is defined as the limit of the average velocity
as the time interval ∆t becomes infinitesimally small :

∆ x dx
v = lim v = lim =
∆t → 0 ∆t → 0 ∆t dt

The velocity at a particular instant is equal to the slope of the tangent drawn on
position-time graph at that instant.

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22 PHYSICS

3. Average acceleration is the change in velocity divided by the time interval during which
the change occurs :

∆v
a=
∆t
4. Instantaneous acceleration is defined as the limit of the average acceleration as the
time interval ∆t goes to zero :

∆v dv
a = lim a = lim =
∆t → 0 ∆t →0 ∆t dt
The acceleration of an object at a particular time is the slope of the velocity-time
graph at that instant of time. For uniform motion, acceleration is zero and the x-t
graph is a straight line inclined to the time axis and the v-t graph is a straight line
parallel to the time axis. For motion with uniform acceleration, x-t graph is a parabola
while the v-t graph is a straight line inclined to the time axis.
5. The area under the velocity-time curve between times t1 and t2 is equal to the displacement
of the object during that interval of time.
6. For objects in uniformly accelerated rectilinear motion, the five quantities, displacement
x, time taken t, initial velocity v0, final velocity v and acceleration a are related by a set
of simple equations called kinematic equations of motion :
v = v0 + at

1 2
x = v0 t + at
2
2 2
v = v0 + 2ax
if the position of the object at time t = 0 is 0. If the particle starts at x = x0 , x in above
equations is replaced by (x – x0).

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MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 23

POINTS TO PONDER
1. The origin and the positive direction of an axis are a matter of choice. You should first specify
this choice before you assign signs to quantities like displacement, velocity and acceleration.
2. If a particle is speeding up, acceleration is in the direction of velocity; if its speed is
decreasing, acceleration is in the direction opposite to that of the velocity. This
statement is independent of the choice of the origin and the axis.
3. The sign of acceleration does not tell us whether the particle’s speed is increasing or
decreasing. The sign of acceleration (as mentioned in point 3) depends on the choice
of the positive direction of the axis. For example, if the vertically upward direction is
chosen to be the positive direction of the axis, the acceleration due to gravity is
negative. If a particle is falling under gravity, this acceleration, though negative,
results in increase in speed. For a particle thrown upward, the same negative
acceleration (of gravity) results in decrease in speed.
4. The zero velocity of a particle at any instant does not necessarily imply zero acceleration
at that instant. A particle may be momentarily at rest and yet have non-zero acceleration.
For example, a particle thrown up has zero velocity at its uppermost point but the
acceleration at that instant continues to be the acceleration due to gravity.
5. In the kinematic equations of motion [Eq. (2.9)], the various quantities are algebraic,
i.e. they may be positive or negative. The equations are applicable in all situations
(for one dimensional motion with constant acceleration) provided the values of different
quantities are substituted in the equations with proper signs.
6. The definitions of instantaneous velocity and acceleration (Eqs. (2.1) and (2.3)) are
exact and are always correct while the kinematic equations (Eq. (2.9)) are true only for
motion in which the magnitude and the direction of acceleration are constant during
the course of motion.

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24 PHYSICS

EXERCISES

2.1 In which of the following examples of motion, can the body be considered
approximately a point object:
(a) a railway carriage moving without jerks between two stations.
(b) a monkey sitting on top of a man cycling smoothly on a circular track.
(c) a spinning cricket ball that turns sharply on hitting the ground.
(d) a tumbling beaker that has slipped off the edge of a table.
2.2 The position-time (x-t) graphs for two children A and B returning from their school
O to their homes P and Q respectively are shown in Fig. 2.9. Choose the correct
entries in the brackets below ;
(a) (A/B) lives closer to the school than (B/A)
(b) (A/B) starts from the school earlier than (B/A)
(c) (A/B) walks faster than (B/A)
(d) A and B reach home at the (same/different) time
(e) (A/B) overtakes (B/A) on the road (once/twice).

Fig. 2.9
2.3 A woman starts from her home at 9.00 am, walks with a speed of 5 km h–1 on a
straight road up to her office 2.5 km away, stays at the office up to 5.00 pm, and
returns home by an auto with a speed of 25 km h–1. Choose suitable scales and
plot the x-t graph of her motion.
2.4 A drunkard walking in a narrow lane takes 5 steps forward and 3 steps backward,
followed again by 5 steps forward and 3 steps backward, and so on. Each step is 1 m
long and requires 1 s. Plot the x-t graph of his motion. Determine graphically and
otherwise how long the drunkard takes to fall in a pit 13 m away from the start.
2.5 A car moving along a straight highway with speed of 126 km h–1 is brought to a
stop within a distance of 200 m. What is the retardation of the car (assumed
uniform), and how long does it take for the car to stop ?
2.6 A player throws a ball upwards with an initial speed of 29.4 m s–1.
(a) What is the direction of acceleration during the upward motion of the ball ?
(b) What are the velocity and acceleration of the ball at the highest point of its motion ?
(c) Choose the x = 0 m and t = 0 s to be the location and time of the ball at its
highest point, vertically downward direction to be the positive direction of
x-axis, and give the signs of position, velocity and acceleration of the ball
during its upward, and downward motion.
(d) To what height does the ball rise and after how long does the ball return to the
player’s hands ? (Take g = 9.8 m s–2 and neglect air resistance).
2.7 Read each statement below carefully and state with reasons and examples, if it is
true or false ;
A particle in one-dimensional motion
(a) with zero speed at an instant may have non-zero acceleration at that instant
(b) with zero speed may have non-zero velocity,
(c) with constant speed must have zero acceleration,
(d) with positive value of acceleration must be speeding up.

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MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 25

2.8 A ball is dropped from a height of 90 m on a floor. At each collision with the floor,
the ball loses one tenth of its speed. Plot the speed-time graph of its motion
between t = 0 to 12 s.
2.9 Explain clearly, with examples, the distinction between :
(a) magnitude of displacement (sometimes called distance) over an interval of time,
and the total length of path covered by a particle over the same interval;
(b) magnitude of average velocity over an interval of time, and the average speed
over the same interval. [Average speed of a particle over an interval of time is
defined as the total path length divided by the time interval]. Show in both (a)
and (b) that the second quantity
is either greater than or equal to
the first. When is the equality sign
true ? [For simplicity, consider
one-dimensional motion only].
2.10 A man walks on a straight road from
his home to a market 2.5 km away with
a speed of 5 km h–1 . Finding the
market closed, he instantly turns and
walks back home with a speed of 7.5
km h–1. What is the
(a) magnitude of average velocity, and
(b) average speed of the man over the
interval of time (i) 0 to 30 min, (ii)
0 to 50 min, (iii) 0 to 40 min ?
[Note: You will appreciate from this
exercise why it is better to define
average speed as total path length
divided by time, and not as
magnitude of average velocity. You
would not like to tell the tired man
on his return home that his
average speed was zero !] Fig. 2.10
2.11 In Exercises 2.9 and 2.10, we have
carefully distinguished between
average speed and magnitude of average
velocity. No such distinction is necessary when
we consider instantaneous speed and
magnitude of velocity. The instantaneous speed
is always equal to the magnitude of
instantaneous velocity. Why?
2.12 Look at the graphs (a) to (d) (Fig. 2.10) carefully
and state, with reasons, which of these cannot
possibly represent one-dimensional motion of
a particle.
2.13 Figure 2.11shows the x-t plot of one-
dimensional motion of a particle. Is it correct
to say from the graph that the particle moves Fig. 2.11
in a straight line for t < 0 and on a parabolic
path for t >0 ? If not, suggest a suitable physical
context for this graph.
2.14 A police van moving on a highway with a speed of
30 km h–1 fires a bullet at a thief’s car speeding away in
the same direction with a speed of 192 km h–1. If the muzzle
speed of the bullet is 150 m s–1, with what speed does the
bullet hit the thief’s car ? (Note: Obtain that speed which
is relevant for damaging the thief’s car).

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26 PHYSICS

2.15 Suggest a suitable physical situation for each of the following graphs (Fig 2.12):

Fig. 2.12

2.16 Figure 2.13 gives the x-t plot of a particle executing one-dimensional simple
harmonic motion. (You will learn about this motion in more detail in Chapter13).
Give the signs of position, velocity and acceleration variables of the particle at
t = 0.3 s, 1.2 s, – 1.2 s.

Fig. 2.13

2.17 Figure 2.14 gives the x-t plot of a

particle in one-dimensional motion.
Three different equal intervals of time
are shown. In which interval is the
average speed greatest, and in which
is it the least ? Give the sign of average
velocity for each interval.

Fig. 2.14
2.18 Figure 2.15 gives a speed-time graph of
a particle in motion along a constant
direction. Three equal intervals of time
are shown. In which interval is the
average acceleration greatest in
magnitude? In which interval is the
average speed greatest ? Choosing the
positive direction as the constant
direction of motion, give the signs of v
and a in the three intervals. What are
the accelerations at the points A, B, C
and D ? Fig. 2.15

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 CHAPTER THREE

MOTION IN A PLANE

3.1 INTRODUCTION
In the last chapter we developed the concepts of position,
displacement, velocity and acceleration that are needed to
3.1 Introduction describe the motion of an object along a straight line. We
3.2 Scalars and vectors found that the directional aspect of these quantities can be
3.3 Multiplication of vectors by taken care of by + and – signs, as in one dimension only two
real numbers directions are possible. But in order to describe motion of an
3.4 Addition and subtraction of object in two dimensions (a plane) or three dimensions
vectors — graphical method (space), we need to use vectors to describe the above-
3.5 Resolution of vectors mentioned physical quantities. Therefore, it is first necessary
3.6 Vector addition — analytical to learn the language of vectors. What is a vector ? How to
method add, subtract and multiply vectors ? What is the result of
3.7 Motion in a plane multiplying a vector by a real number ? We shall learn this
3.8 Motion in a plane with to enable us to use vectors for defining velocity and
constant acceleration acceleration in a plane. We then discuss motion of an object
3.9 Projectile motion in a plane. As a simple case of motion in a plane, we shall
3.10 Uniform circular motion discuss motion with constant acceleration and treat in detail
the projectile motion. Circular motion is a familiar class of
Summary motion that has a special significance in daily-life situations.
Points to ponder We shall discuss uniform circular motion in some detail.
Exercises
The equations developed in this chapter for motion in a
plane can be easily extended to the case of three dimensions.

3.2 SCALARS AND VECTORS

In physics, we can classify quantities as scalars or
vectors. Basically, the difference is that a direction is
associated with a vector but not with a scalar. A scalar
quantity is a quantity with magnitude only. It is specified
completely by a single number, along with the proper
unit. Examples are : the distance between two points,
mass of an object, the temperature of a body and the
time at which a certain event happened. The rules for
combining scalars are the rules of ordinary algebra.
Scalars can be added, subtracted, multiplied and divided

2024-25
28 PHYSICS

just as the ordinary numbers*. For example, represented by another position vector, OP′
if the length and breadth of a rectangle are denoted by r′. The length of the vector r
1.0 m and 0.5 m respectively, then its represents the magnitude of the vector and its
perimeter is the sum of the lengths of the direction is the direction in which P lies as seen
four sides, 1.0 m + 0.5 m +1.0 m + 0.5 m = from O. If the object moves from P to P′, the
3.0 m. The length of each side is a scalar vector PP′ (with tail at P and tip at P′) is called
and the perimeter is also a scalar. Take the displacement vector corresponding to
another example: the maximum and motion from point P (at time t) to point P′ (at time t′).
minimum temperatures on a particular day
are 35.6 °C and 24.2 °C respectively. Then,
the difference between the two temperatures
is 11.4 °C. Similarly, if a uniform solid cube
of aluminium of side 10 cm has a mass of
2.7 kg, then its volume is 10–3 m3 (a scalar)
and its density is 2.7×103 kg m –3 (a scalar).
A vector quantity is a quantity that has both
a magnitude and a direction and obeys the
triangle law of addition or equivalently the Fig. 3.1 (a) Position and displacement vectors.
parallelogram law of addition. So, a vector is (b) Displacement vector PQ and different
specified by giving its magnitude by a number courses of motion.
and its direction. Some physical quantities that It is important to note that displacement
are represented by vectors are displacement, vector is the straight line joining the initial and
velocity, acceleration and force. final positions and does not depend on the actual
To represent a vector, we use a bold face type path undertaken by the object between the two
in this book. Thus, a velocity vector can be
positions. For example, in Fig. 3.1(b), given the
represented by a symbol v. Since bold face is
initial and final positions as P and Q, the
difficult to produce, when written by hand, a
displacement vector is the same PQ for different
vector is often represented by an arrow placed
r r paths of journey, say PABCQ, PDQ, and PBEFQ.
over a letter, say v . Thus, both v and v
Therefore, the magnitude of displacement is
represent the velocity vector. The magnitude of
either less or equal to the path length of an
a vector is often called its absolute value,
object between two points. This fact was
indicated by |v| = v. Thus, a vector is
emphasised in the previous chapter also while
represented by a bold face, e.g. by A, a, p, q, r, ...
x, y, with respective magnitudes denoted by light discussing motion along a straight line.
face A, a, p, q, r, ... x, y. 3.2.2 Equality of Vectors
3.2.1 Position and Displacement Vectors Two vectors A and B are said to be equal if, and
To describe the position of an object moving in only if, they have the same magnitude and the
a plane, we need to choose a convenient point, same direction.**
say O as origin. Let P and P′ be the positions of Figure 3.2(a) shows two equal vectors A and
the object at time t and t′, respectively [Fig. 3.1(a)]. B. We can easily check their equality. Shift B
We join O and P by a straight line. Then, OP is parallel to itself until its tail Q coincides with that
the position vector of the object at time t. An of A, i.e. Q coincides with O. Then, since their
arrow is marked at the head of this line. It is tips S and P also coincide, the two vectors are
represented by a symbol r, i.e. OP = r. Point P′ is said to be equal. In general, equality is indicated

* Addition and subtraction of scalars make sense only for quantities with same units. However, you can multiply
and divide scalars of different units.
** In our study, vectors do not have fixed locations. So displacing a vector parallel to itself leaves the vector
unchanged. Such vectors are called free vectors. However, in some physical applications, location or line of
application of a vector is important. Such vectors are called localised vectors.

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MOTION IN A PLANE 29

The factor λ by which a vector A is multiplied

could be a scalar having its own physical
dimension. Then, the dimension of λ A is the
product of the dimensions of λ and A. For
example, if we multiply a constant velocity vector
by duration (of time), we get a displacement
vector.
3.4 ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF
VECTORS — GRAPHICAL METHOD
Fig. 3.2 (a) Two equal vectors A and B. (b) Two As mentioned in section 4.2, vectors, by
vectors A′ and B′ are unequal though they definition, obey the triangle law or equivalently,
are of the same length. the parallelogram law of addition. We shall now
describe this law of addition using the graphical
as A = B. Note that in Fig. 3.2(b), vectors A′ and method. Let us consider two vectors A and B that
B′ have the same magnitude but they are not lie in a plane as shown in Fig. 3.4(a). The lengths
equal because they have different directions. of the line segments representing these vectors
Even if we shift B′ parallel to itself so that its tail are proportional to the magnitude of the vectors.
Q′ coincides with the tail O′ of A′, the tip S′ of B′ To find the sum A + B, we place vector B so that
does not coincide with the tip P′ of A′. its tail is at the head of the vector A, as in
3.3 MULTIPLICATION OF VECTORS BY REAL Fig. 3.4(b). Then, we join the tail of A to the head
NUMBERS of B. This line OQ represents a vector R, that is,
Multiplying a vector A with a positive number λ the sum of the vectors A and B. Since, in this
gives a vector whose magnitude is changed by procedure of vector addition, vectors are
the factor λ but the direction is the same as that
of A :
λ A = λ A if λ > 0.
For example, if A is multiplied by 2, the resultant
vector 2A is in the same direction as A and has
a magnitude twice of |A| as shown in Fig. 3.3(a).
Multiplying a vector A by a negative number
−λ gives another vector whose direction is
opposite to the direction of A and whose
magnitude is λ times |A|.
Multiplying a given vector A by negative
numbers, say –1 and –1.5, gives vectors as
shown in Fig 3.3(b).

(c) (d)
Fig. 3.3 (a) Vector A and the resultant vector after
multiplying A by a positive number 2. Fig. 3.4 (a) Vectors A and B. (b) Vectors A and B
(b) Vector A and resultant vectors after added graphically. (c) Vectors B and A
multiplying it by a negative number –1 added graphically. (d) Illustrating the
and –1.5. associative law of vector addition.

2024-25
30 PHYSICS

arranged head to tail, this graphical method is What is the physical meaning of a zero vector?
called the head-to-tail method. The two vectors Consider the position and displacement vectors
and their resultant form three sides of a triangle, in a plane as shown in Fig. 3.1(a). Now suppose
so this method is also known as triangle method that an object which is at P at time t, moves to
of vector addition. If we find the resultant of P′ and then comes back to P. Then, what is its
B + A as in Fig. 3.4(c), the same vector R is displacement? Since the initial and final
obtained. Thus, vector addition is commutative: positions coincide, the displacement is a “null
A+B=B+A (3.1) vector”.

The addition of vectors also obeys the associative Subtraction of vectors can be defined in terms
law as illustrated in Fig. 3.4(d). The result of of addition of vectors. We define the difference
adding vectors A and B first and then adding of two vectors A and B as the sum of two vectors
vector C is the same as the result of adding B A and –B :
and C first and then adding vector A : A – B = A + (–B) (3.5)
(A + B) + C = A + (B + C) (3.2) It is shown in Fig 3.5. The vector –B is added to
What is the result of adding two equal and vector A to get R2 = (A – B). The vector R1 = A + B
opposite vectors ? Consider two vectors A and is also shown in the same figure for comparison.
–A shown in Fig. 3.3(b). Their sum is A + (–A). We can also use the parallelogram method to
Since the magnitudes of the two vectors are the find the sum of two vectors. Suppose we have
same, but the directions are opposite, the two vectors A and B. To add these vectors, we
resultant vector has zero magnitude and is bring their tails to a common origin O as
represented by 0 called a null vector or a zero shown in Fig. 3.6(a). Then we draw a line from
vector : the head of A parallel to B and another line from
the head of B parallel to A to complete a
A–A=0 |0|= 0 (3.3)
parallelogram OQSP. Now we join the point of
Since the magnitude of a null vector is zero, its the intersection of these two lines to the origin
direction cannot be specified. O. The resultant vector R is directed from the
The null vector also results when we multiply common origin O along the diagonal (OS) of the
a vector A by the number zero. The main parallelogram [Fig. 3.6(b)]. In Fig.3.6(c), the
properties of 0 are : triangle law is used to obtain the resultant of A
A+0=A and B and we see that the two methods yield the
λ0=0 same result. Thus, the two methods are
0A=0 (3.4) equivalent.

Fig. 3.5 (a) Two vectors A and B, – B is also shown. (b) Subtracting vector B from vector A – the result is R2. For
comparison, addition of vectors A and B, i.e. R1 is also shown.

2024-25
MOTION IN A PLANE 31

Fig. 3.6 (a) Two vectors A and B with their tails brought to a common origin. (b) The sum A + B obtained using
the parallelogram method. (c) The parallelogram method of vector addition is equivalent to the triangle
method.

⊳
Example 3.1 Rain is falling vertically with 3.5 RESOLUTION OF VECTORS
a speed of 35 m s–1. Winds starts blowing Let a and b be any two non-zero vectors in a
after sometime with a speed of 12 m s–1 in plane with different directions and let A be
east to west direction. In which direction another vector in the same plane (Fig. 3.8). A
should a boy waiting at a bus stop hold can be expressed as a sum of two vectors — one
his umbrella ? obtained by multiplying a by a real number and
the other obtained by multiplying b by another
real number. To see this, let O and P be the tail
and head of the vector A. Then, through O, draw
a straight line parallel to a, and through P, a
straight line parallel to b. Let them intersect at
Q. Then, we have
A = OP = OQ + QP (3.6)
But since OQ is parallel to a, and QP is parallel
to b, we can write :

Fig. 3.7 OQ = λ a, and QP = µ b (3.7)

where λ and µ are real numbers.
Answer The velocity of the rain and the wind
are represented by the vectors vr and vw in Fig. Therefore, A = λ a + µ b (3.8)
3.7 and are in the direction specified by the
problem. Using the rule of vector addition, we
see that the resultant of vr and vw is R as shown
in the figure. The magnitude of R is
2 2 2 2 −1 −1
R = vr + vw = 35 + 12 ms = 37 m s

The direction θ that R makes with the vertical

is given by
vw 12
tan θ = = = 0.343 Fig. 3.8 (a) Two non-colinear vectors a and b.
vr 35 (b) Resolving a vector A in terms of vectors
a and b.
θ = tan ( 0.343) = 19°
Or, -1

Therefore, the boy should hold his umbrella We say that A has been resolved into two
in the vertical plane at an angle of about 19o component vectors λ a and µ b along a and b
with the vertical towards the east. ⊳

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32 PHYSICS

respectively. Using this method one can resolve

and A2 is parallel to ɵj , we have :
a given vector into two component vectors along
a set of two vectors – all the three lie in the same A1= Ax ɵi , A2 = Ay ɵj (3.11)
plane. It is convenient to resolve a general vector
where Ax and Ay are real numbers.
along the axes of a rectangular coordinate
system using vectors of unit magnitude. These Thus, A = Ax ɵi + Ay ɵj (3.12)
are called unit vectors that we discuss now. A
unit vector is a vector of unit magnitude and This is represented in Fig. 3.9(c). The quantities
points in a particular direction. It has no Ax and Ay are called x-, and y- components of the
dimension and unit. It is used to specify a vector A. Note that Ax is itself not a vector, but
direction only. Unit vectors along the x-, y- and
A ɵi is a vector, and so is A ɵj . Using simple
z-axes of a rectangular coordinate system are x y
trigonometry, we can express Ax and Ay in terms
denoted by ɵi , ɵj and k̂ , respectively, as shown of the magnitude of A and the angle θ it makes
in Fig. 3.9(a). with the x-axis :
Since these are unit vectors, we have Ax = A cos θ
Ay = A sin θ (3.13)
 î  =  ĵ  =  k̂ =1 (3.9)
As is clear from Eq. (3.13), a component of a
These unit vectors are perpendicular to each vector can be positive, negative or zero
other. In this text, they are printed in bold face depending on the value of θ.
with a cap (^) to distinguish them from other Now, we have two ways to specify a vector A
vectors. Since we are dealing with motion in two in a plane. It can be specified by :
dimensions in this chapter, we require use of (i) its magnitude A and the direction θ it makes
only two unit vectors. If we multiply a unit vector, with the x-axis; or
say n̂ by a scalar, the result is a vector (ii) its components Ax and Ay
λ = λ n̂. In general, a vector A can be written as If A and θ are given, Ax and Ay can be obtained
using Eq. (3.13). If Ax and Ay are given, A and θ
A = |A| n̂ (3.10) can be obtained as follows :
where n̂ is a unit vector along A. 2 2 2 2 2 2
A x + Ay = A cos θ + A sin θ
We can now resolve a vector A in terms
= A2
of component vectors that lie along unit vectors
î and ɵj . Consider a vector A that lies in x-y Or, A= A 2x + Ay2 (3.14)
plane as shown in Fig. 3.9(b). We draw lines from
the head of A perpendicular to the coordinate Ay Ay
And tan θ = , θ = tan− 1 (3.15)
axes as in Fig. 3.9(b), and get vectors A1 and A2 Ax Ax
such that A + A = A. Since A is parallel to ɵi
1 2 1

Fig. 3.9 (a) Unit vectors ɵi , ɵj and kɵ lie along the x-, y-, and z-axes. (b) A vector A is resolved into its
components Ax and Ay along x-, and y- axes. (c) A1 and A2 expressed in terms of ɵi and ɵj .

2024-25
MOTION IN A PLANE 33

So far we have considered a vector lying in

B = B x iɵ + By ɵj
an x-y plane. The same procedure can be used
to resolve a general vector A into three Let R be their sum. We have
components along x-, y-, and z-axes in three R=A+B
dimensions. If α , β, and γ are the angles *
between A and the x-, y-, and z-axes, respectively
( ) (
= A x ɵi + Ay ɵj + B x iɵ + By ɵj ) (3.19a)
[Fig. 3.9(d)], we have Since vectors obey the commutative and
associative laws, we can arrange and regroup
the vectors in Eq. (3.19a) as convenient to us :

(
R = ( A x + B x ) ɵi + Ay + By ɵj ) (3.19b)

Since R = R x iɵ + Ry ɵj (3.20)

we have, R x = A x + B x , R y = Ay + B y (3.21)
Thus, each component of the resultant
vector R is the sum of the corresponding
components of A and B.
In three dimensions, we have
A = A iɵ + A ɵj + A kɵ
x y z

B = B x iɵ + By ɵj + Bz kɵ
(d)
R = A + B = R x iɵ + Ry ɵj + Rz kɵ
Fig. 3.9 (d) A vector A resolved into components along
x-, y-, and z-axes
with Rx = Ax + Bx
A x = A cos α , A y = A cos β , A z = A cos γ (3.16a) Ry = Ay + By
In general, we have Rz = Az + Bz (3.22)
A = Ax ˆi + Ay ˆj + Az k
ˆ (3.16b) This method can be extended to addition and
The magnitude of vector A is subtraction of any number of vectors. For
A = A x2 + Ay2 + Az2 (3.16c) example, if vectors a, b and c are given as
A position vector r can be expressed as a = a iɵ + a ɵj + a kɵ
x y z
r = x ɵi + y ɵj + z k
ɵ (3.17)
b = b x iɵ + by ɵj + bz kɵ
where x, y, and z are the components of r along
x-, y-, z-axes, respectively. c = c x iɵ + c y ɵj + c z kɵ (3.23a)
3.6 VECTOR ADDITION – ANALYTICAL then, a vector T = a + b – c has components :
METHOD Tx = a x + b x − c x
Although the graphical method of adding vectors Ty = a y + by − c y (3.23b)
helps us in visualising the vectors and the
Tz = a z + b z − c z .
resultant vector, it is sometimes tedious and has
limited accuracy. It is much easier to add vectors ⊳
by combining their respective components. Example 3.2 Find the magnitude and
direction of the resultant of two vectors A
Consider two vectors A and B in x-y plane with
and B in terms of their magnitudes and
components Ax, Ay and Bx, By :
angle θ between them.
A = A x iɵ + Ay ɵj (3.18)

* Note that angles α, β, and γ are angles in space. They are between pairs of lines, which are not coplanar.

2024-25
34 PHYSICS

⊳
Example 3.3 A motorboat is racing
towards north at 25 km/h and the water
current in that region is 10 km/h in the
direction of 60° east of south. Find the
resultant velocity of the boat.

Answer The vector vb representing the velocity

of the motorboat and the vector vc representing
Fig. 3.10
the water current are shown in Fig. 3.11 in
Answer Let OP and OQ represent the two vectors directions specified by the problem. Using the
A and B making an angle θ (Fig. 3.10). Then, parallelogram method of addition, the resultant
using the parallelogram method of vector R is obtained in the direction shown in the
addition, OS represents the resultant vector R : figure.
R=A+B
SN is normal to OP and PM is normal to OS.
From the geometry of the figure,
OS2 = ON2 + SN2
but ON = OP + PN = A + B cos θ
SN = B sin θ
OS2 = (A + B cos θ)2 + (B sin θ)2
or, R2 = A2 + B2 + 2AB cos θ

R= A 2 + B 2 + 2AB cos θ (3.24a)

In ∆ OSN, SN = OS sinα = R sinα, and
in ∆ PSN, SN = PS sin θ = B sin θ
Therefore, R sin α = B sin θ
R B
or, = (3.24b)
sin θ sin α
Fig. 3.11
Similarly,
PM = A sin α = B sin β
We can obtain the magnitude of R using the Law
A B of cosine :
or, = (3.24c)
sin β sin α
Combining Eqs. (3.24b) and (3.24c), we get R = v 2b + v c2 + 2v bv c cos120o
R A B
= = (3.24d) = 252 + 102 + 2 × 25 × 10 ( -1/2 ) ≅ 22 km/h
sin θ sin β sin α
To obtain the direction, we apply the Law of sines
Using Eq. (3.24d), we get:
R vc vc
B = or, sin φ = sin θ
sin α = sin θ (3.24e) sin θ sin φ R
R
where R is given by Eq. (3.24a). 10 × sin120 10 3
= = ≅ 0.397
SN B sin θ 21.8 2 × 21.8
or, tan α = = (3.24f)
OP + PN A + B cos θ
φ ≅ 23.4 ⊳
Equation (3.24a) gives the magnitude of the
resultant and Eqs. (3.24e) and (3.24f) its direction. 3.7 MOTION IN A PLANE
Equation (3.24a) is known as the Law of cosines In this section we shall see how to describe
and Eq. (3.24d) as the Law of sines. ⊳ motion in two dimensions using vectors.

2024-25
MOTION IN A PLANE 35

3.7.1 Position Vector and Displacement Suppose a particle moves along the curve shown
The position vector r of a particle P located in a by the thick line and is at P at time t and P′ at
plane with reference to the origin of an x-y time t′ [Fig. 3.12(b)]. Then, the displacement is :
reference frame (Fig. 3.12) is given by ∆r = r′ – r (3.25)
and is directed from P to P′.
r = x iɵ + y ɵj
We can write Eq. (3.25) in a component form:
where x and y are components of r along x-, and
y- axes or simply they are the coordinates of
the object.
∆r ( ) (
= x' ɵi + y' ɵj − x iɵ + y ɵj )
= ɵi∆x + ɵj∆y
where ∆x = x ′ – x, ∆y = y′ – y (3.26)
Velocity
The average velocity ( v ) of an object is the ratio
of the displacement and the corresponding time
interval :
∆r ∆x iɵ + ∆y ɵj ∆x ɵ ∆y
v= = = iɵ +j (3.27)
∆t ∆t ∆t ∆t

Or, v = v x ˆi + v y j
(a)
∆r
Since v = , the direction of the average velocity
∆t
is the same as that of ∆r (Fig. 3.12). The velocity
(instantaneous velocity) is given by the limiting
value of the average velocity as the time interval
approaches zero :
∆ r dr
v = lim = (3.28)
∆t → 0 ∆ t dt
The meaning of the limiting process can be easily
understood with the help of Fig 3.13(a) to (d). In
these figures, the thick line represents the path
of an object, which is at P at time t. P1, P2 and
(b) P3 represent the positions of the object after
Fig. 3.12 (a) Position vector r. (b) Displacement ∆r and times ∆t1,∆t2, and ∆t3. ∆r1, ∆r2, and ∆r3 are the
average velocity v of a particle. displacements of the object in times ∆t1, ∆t2, and

Fig. 3.13 As the time interval ∆t approaches zero, the average velocity approaches the velocity v. The direction
of v is parallel to the line tangent to the path.

2024-25
36 PHYSICS

∆t3, respectively. The direction of the average

velocity v is shown in figures (a), (b) and (c) for
three decreasing values of ∆t, i.e. ∆t1,∆t2, and ∆t3,
( ∆ t 1 > ∆ t 2 > ∆ t 3 ). As ∆ t → 0, ∆ r → 0
and is along the tangent to the path [Fig. 3.13(d)].
Therefore, the direction of velocity at any point
on the path of an object is tangential to the
path at that point and is in the direction of
motion.
We can express v in a component form : Fig. 3.14 The components vx and vy of velocity v and
the angle θ it makes with x-axis. Note that
dr vx = v cos θ, vy = v sin θ.
v=
dt
The acceleration (instantaneous acceleration)
 ∆x ∆y ɵ  is the limiting value of the average acceleration
= lim  iɵ + j (3.29)
∆t → 0 ∆t ∆t  as the time interval approaches zero :
∆v
∆x ɵ ∆y a = lim
= iɵ lim + j lim (3. 32a)
∆t → 0 ∆t ∆t → 0 ∆t ∆t → 0 ∆t
dx ɵ dy Since ∆v = ∆v x iɵ + ∆v y ɵj, we have
Or, v = iɵ +j = v x iɵ + vy ɵj.
dt dt ∆v y
∆v x
dx dy a = iɵ lim + ɵj lim
where v x = , vy = (3.30a) ∆t → 0 ∆t ∆t → 0 ∆t
dt dt
So, if the expressions for the coordinates x and Or, a = a x iɵ + a y ɵj (3.32b)
y are known as functions of time, we can use
these equations to find vx and vy. dv x dv y
where, a x = , ay = (3.32c)*
The magnitude of v is then dt dt
2 2 As in the case of velocity, we can understand
v= v x + vy (3.30b)
graphically the limiting process used in defining
and the direction of v is given by the angle θ : acceleration on a graph showing the path of the
object’s motion. This is shown in Figs. 3.15(a) to
vy v 
−1  y
 (d). P represents the position of the object at
tanθ = , θ = tan (3.30c)
  time t and P1, P2, P3 positions after time ∆t1, ∆t2,
vx  vx 
∆t3, respectively (∆t 1> ∆t2>∆t3). The velocity vectors
vx, vy and angle θ are shown in Fig. 3.14 for a at points P, P1, P2, P3 are also shown in Figs. 3.15
velocity vector v at point p. (a), (b) and (c). In each case of ∆t, ∆v is obtained
using the triangle law of vector addition. By
Acceleration
definition, the direction of average acceleration
The average acceleration a of an object for a is the same as that of ∆v. We see that as ∆t
time interval ∆t moving in x-y plane is the change decreases, the direction of ∆v changes and
in velocity divided by the time interval : consequently, the direction of the acceleration

a=
∆v
=
(
∆ v x iɵ + v y ɵj ) = ∆v x
iɵ +
∆v y
ɵj (3.31a)
changes. Finally, in the limit ∆t g0 [Fig. 3.15(d)],
the average acceleration becomes the
∆t ∆t ∆t ∆t instantaneous acceleration and has the direction
as shown.
Or, a = a x iɵ + a y ɵj . (3.31b)

* In terms of x and y, ax and ay can be expressed as

2024-25
MOTION IN A PLANE 37

x (m)

Fig. 3.15 The average acceleration for three time intervals (a) ∆t1, (b) ∆t2, and (c) ∆t3, (∆t1> ∆t2> ∆t3). (d) In the
limit ∆t g0, the average acceleration becomes the acceleration.

Note that in one dimension, the velocity and

the acceleration of an object are always along  vy  −1  4  °
θ = tan-1   = tan   ≅ 53 with x-axis.
the same straight line (either in the same  x
v  3 
direction or in the opposite direction).
However, for motion in two or three ⊳
dimensions, velocity and acceleration vectors
may have any angle between 0° and 180° 3.8 MOTION IN A PLANE WITH CONSTANT
between them. ACCELERATION
⊳
Example 3.4 The position of a particle is Suppose that an object is moving in x-y plane
given by and its acceleration a is constant. Over an
interval of time, the average acceleration will
r = 3.0t ˆi + 2.0t 2ˆj + 5.0 kˆ equal this constant value. Now, let the velocity
where t is in seconds and the of the object be v0 at time t = 0 and v at time t.
coefficients have the proper units for r to Then, by definition
be in metres. (a) Find v(t) and a(t) of the v − v0 v − v0
particle. (b) Find the magnitude and a= =
t−0 t
direction of v(t) at t = 1.0 s.
Or, v = v 0 + at (3.33a)
Answer In terms of components :
v x = v ox + a x t
v( t ) =
dr
dt
=
d
dt
(3.0 t iɵ + 2.0t 2 ɵj + 5.0 kɵ
) v y = v oy + a y t (3.33b)

= 3.0iɵ + 4.0t ɵj
Let us now find how the position r changes with
dv time. We follow the method used in the one-
a (t ) = = +4.0 ɵj
dt dimensional case. Let ro and r be the position
a = 4.0 m s–2 along y- direction vectors of the particle at time 0 and t and let the
velocities at these instants be vo and v. Then,
At t = 1.0 s, v = 3.0ˆi + 4.0ˆj over this time interval t, the average velocity is
-1 (vo + v)/2. The displacement is the average
It’s magnitude is v = 3 + 4 = 5.0 m s
2 2
velocity multiplied by the time interval :
and direction is

2024-25
38 PHYSICS

 v + v0   ( v + at ) + v 0  ( )
= 5.0 t + 1.5 t 2 ˆi + 1.0 t 2 ˆj
r − r0 =   t= 0 t
 2   2 
Therefore, x (t ) = 5.0 t + 1.5 t 2

= v0t +
1 2
at y (t ) = +1.0 t 2
2 Given x (t) = 84 m, t = ?

1 5.0 t + 1.5 t 2 = 84 ⇒ t = 6 s
Or, r = r0 + v 0t + at 2 (3.34a) At t = 6 s, y = 1.0 (6)2 = 36.0 m
2
dr
It can be easily verified that the derivative of Now, the velocity v = = (5.0 + 3.0 t ) ˆi + 2.0 t ˆj
dt
dr
Eq. (3.34a), i.e. gives Eq.(3.33a) and it also At t = 6 s, v = 23.0iɵ + 12.0 ɵj
dt
satisfies the condition that at t=0, r = r o . speed = v = 232 + 122 ≅ 26 m s−1 .
Equation (3.34a) can be written in component ⊳
form as 3.9 PROJECTILE MOTION
1
x = x 0 + v ox t + a x t 2 As an application of the ideas developed in the
2 previous sections, we consider the motion of a
1 projectile. An object that is in flight after being
y = y0 + v oy t + ayt 2 (3.34b) thrown or projected is called a projectile. Such
2
a projectile might be a football, a cricket ball, a
One immediate interpretation of Eq.(3.34b) is that baseball or any other object. The motion of a
the motions in x- and y-directions can be treated projectile may be thought of as the result of two
independently of each other. That is, motion in separate, simultaneously occurring components
a plane (two-dimensions) can be treated as two
of motions. One component is along a horizontal
separate simultaneous one-dimensional
direction without any acceleration and the other
motions with constant acceleration along two
along the vertical direction with constant
perpendicular directions. This is an important
acceleration due to the force of gravity. It was
result and is useful in analysing motion of objects
Galileo who first stated this independency of the
in two dimensions. A similar result holds for three
dimensions. The choice of perpendicular horizontal and the vertical components of
directions is convenient in many physical projectile motion in his Dialogue on the great
situations, as we shall see in section 3.9 for world systems (1632).
projectile motion. In our discussion, we shall assume that the
air resistance has negligible effect on the motion
⊳ Example 3.5 A particle starts from origin of the projectile. Suppose that the projectile is
at t = 0 with a velocity 5.0 î m/s and moves launched with velocity vo that makes an angle
in x-y plane under action of a force which θo with the x-axis as shown in Fig. 3.16.
produces a constant acceleration of
After the object has been projected, the
(3.0iɵ +2.0jɵ ) m/s 2 . (a) What is the
acceleration acting on it is that due to gravity
y-coordinate of the particle at the instant which is directed vertically downward:
its x-coordinate is 84 m ? (b) What is the
speed of the particle at this time ? a = −g ɵj
Or, ax = 0, ay = – g (3.35)

Answer From Eq. (3.34a) for r0 = 0, the position The components of initial velocity vo are :
of the particle is given by
1 2
r (t ) = v 0 t + at vox = vo cos θo
2 voy= vo sin θo (3.36)
( )
= 5.0ˆi t + (1/2) 3.0ˆi + 2.0ˆj t 2

2024-25
MOTION IN A PLANE 39

Now, since g, θo and vo are constants, Eq. (3.39)

is of the form y = a x + b x2, in which a and b are
constants. This is the equation of a parabola,
i.e. the path of the projectile is a parabola
(Fig. 3.17).

Fig 3.16 Motion of an object projected with velocity

vo at angle θ0.
If we take the initial position to be the origin of
the reference frame as shown in Fig. 3.16, we
have :
xo = 0, yo = 0
Then, Eq.(3.34b) becomes :
x = vox t = (vo cos θo ) t
and y = (vo sin θo ) t – ( ½ )g t2 (3.37) Fig. 3.17 The path of a projectile is a parabola.

The components of velocity at time t can be Time of maximum height

obtained using Eq.(3.33b) : How much time does the projectile take to reach the
vx = vox = vo cos θo maximum height ? Let this time be denoted by tm.
Since at this point, vy= 0, we have from Eq. (3.38):
vy = vo sin θo – g t (3.38) vy = vo sinθo – g tm = 0
Equation (3.37) gives the x-, and y-coordinates Or, tm = vo sinθo /g (3.40a)
of the position of a projectile at time t in terms of
The total time Tf during which the projectile is
two parameters — initial speed vo and projection
in flight can be obtained by putting y = 0 in
angle θo. Notice that the choice of mutually
Eq. (3.37). We get :
perpendicular x-, and y-directions for the
analysis of the projectile motion has resulted in Tf = 2 (vo sin θo )/g (3.40b)
a simplification. One of the components of Tf is known as the time of flight of the projectile.
velocity, i.e. x-component remains constant We note that Tf = 2 tm , which is expected
throughout the motion and only the because of the symmetry of the parabolic path.
y- component changes, like an object in free fall Maximum height of a projectile
in vertical direction. This is shown graphically
The maximum height h m reached by the
at few instants in Fig. 3.17. Note that at the point
projectile can be calculated by substituting
of maximum height, vy= 0 and therefore,
t = tm in Eq. (3.37) :
vy
θ = tan-1 =o  v sinθ  g  v sinθ 2
vx (
y = hm = v0 sinθ 0 
0
)
0
− 
 0 0

Equation of path of a projectile  g  2 g 

What is the shape of the path followed by the

( v 0 sin θ 0 ) 2
projectile? This can be seen by eliminating the Or, hm = (3.41)
time between the expressions for x and y as 2g
given in Eq. (3.37). We obtain: Horizontal range of a projectile
g
y = ( tan θo ) x −
The horizontal distance travelled by a projectile from
x2
2 (v o cosθo )
2 (3.39) its initial position (x = y = 0) to the position where it
passes y = 0 during its fall is called the horizontal

2024-25
40 PHYSICS

range, R. It is the distance travelled during the time y (t) = yo + voy t +(1/2) ay t2
of flight Tf . Therefore, the range R is Here, xo = yo = 0, voy = 0, ay = –g = –9.8 m s-2,
R = (vo cos θo) (Tf ) vox = 15 m s-1.
=(vo cos θo) (2 vo sin θo)/g The stone hits the ground when y(t) = – 490 m.
– 490 m = –(1/2)(9.8) t2.
2
v0 sin 2θ 0 This gives t =10 s.
Or, R= (3.42a) The velocity components are vx = vox and
g
vy = voy – g t
Equation (3.42a) shows that for a given so that when the stone hits the ground :
projection velocity vo , R is maximum when sin vox = 15 m s–1
2θ0 is maximum, i.e., when θ0 = 450. voy = 0 – 9.8 × 10 = – 98 m s–1
The maximum horizontal range is, therefore, Therefore, the speed of the stone is
2
Rm =
v0 v 2x + vy2 = 152 + 982 = 99 m s −1 ⊳
(3.42b)
g
⊳
Example 3.6 Galileo, in his book Two new ⊳ Example 3.8 A cricket ball is thrown at a
sciences, stated that “for elevations which speed of 28 m s–1 in a direction 30° above
exceed or fall short of 45° by equal amounts, the horizontal. Calculate (a) the maximum
the ranges are equal”. Prove this statement. height, (b) the time taken by the ball to
return to the same level, and (c) the
distance from the thrower to the point
Answer For a projectile launched with velocity
where the ball returns to the same level.
vo at an angle θo , the range is given by

v02 sin 2θ0

R= Answer (a) The maximum height is given by
g
hm =
(v0 sinθo )2 = (28 sin 30°)2
Now, for angles, (45° + α ) and ( 45° – α), 2θo is m
2g 2 (9.8 )
(90° + 2α ) and ( 90° – 2α ) , respectively. The
values of sin (90° + 2α ) and sin (90° – 2α ) are 14 × 14
the same, equal to that of cos 2α. Therefore, = = 10.0 m
2 × 9.8
ranges are equal for elevations which exceed or
fall short of 45° by equal amounts α. ⊳ (b) The time taken to return to the same level is
Tf = (2 vo sin θo )/g = (2× 28 × sin 30° )/9.8
⊳ = 28/9.8 s = 2.9 s
Example 3.7 A hiker stands on the edge (c) The distance from the thrower to the point
of a cliff 490 m above the ground and where the ball returns to the same level is
throws a stone horizontally with an initial
speed of 15 m s-1. Neglecting air resistance,
find the time taken by the stone to reach R=
(v sin 2θ )
2
o o
=
28 × 28 × sin 60o
= 69 m ⊳
g 9.8
the ground, and the speed with which it
hits the ground. (Take g = 9.8 m s-2 ).
3.10 UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION
Answer We choose the origin of the x-,and y-
When an object follows a circular path at a
axis at the edge of the cliff and t = 0 s at the
constant speed, the motion of the object is called
instant the stone is thrown. Choose the positive
uniform circular motion. The word “uniform”
direction of x-axis to be along the initial velocity refers to the speed, which is uniform (constant)
and the positive direction of y-axis to be the throughout the motion. Suppose an object is
vertically upward direction. The x-, and y- moving with uniform speed v in a circle of radius
components of the motion can be treated R as shown in Fig. 3.18. Since the velocity of the
independently. The equations of motion are : object is changing continuously in direction, the
x (t) = xo + vox t object undergoes acceleration. Let us find the
magnitude and the direction of this acceleration.

2024-25
MOTION IN A PLANE 41

Fig. 3.18 Velocity and acceleration of an object in uniform circular motion. The time interval ∆t decreases from
(a) to (c) where it is zero. The acceleration is directed, at each point of the path, towards the centre of
the circle.
Let r and r′ be the position vectors and v and r′ be ∆θ. Since the velocity vectors v and v′ are
v′ the velocities of the object when it is at point P always perpendicular to the position vectors, the
and P ′ as shown in Fig. 3.18(a). By definition, angle between them is also ∆θ . Therefore, the
velocity at a point is along the tangent at that triangle CPP′ formed by the position vectors and
point in the direction of motion. The velocity the triangle GHI formed by the velocity vectors
vectors v and v′ are as shown in Fig. 3.18(a1). v, v′ and ∆v are similar (Fig. 3.18a). Therefore,
∆v is obtained in Fig. 3.18 (a2) using the triangle the ratio of the base-length to side-length for
law of vector addition. Since the path is circular, one of the triangles is equal to that of the other
v is perpendicular to r and so is v′ to r′. triangle. That is :
Therefore, ∆v is perpendicular to ∆r. Since
 ∆v  ∆v ∆r
average acceleration is along ∆v  a =  , the =
 ∆t  v R
average acceleration a is perpendicular to ∆r. If
we place ∆v on the line that bisects the angle ∆r
Or, ∆v = v
between r and r′, we see that it is directed towards R
the centre of the circle. Figure 3.18(b) shows the Therefore,
same quantities for smaller time interval. ∆v and
∆v v ∆r v ∆r
hence a is again directed towards the centre. a = lim = lim = lim
In Fig. 3.18(c), ∆t Ž 0 and the average ∆t → 0 ∆t ∆ t → 0 R∆ t R ∆t → 0 ∆t
acceleration becomes the instantaneous If ∆t is small, ∆θ will also be small and then arc
acceleration. It is directed towards the centre*. PP′ can be approximately taken to be|∆r|:
Thus, we find that the acceleration of an object ∆ r ≅ v∆ t
in uniform circular motion is always directed
∆r
towards the centre of the circle. Let us now find ≅v
the magnitude of the acceleration. ∆t
The magnitude of a is, by definition, given by ∆r
lim =v
∆v Or,
a = ∆t → 0 ∆t
lim
∆t → 0 ∆t
Let the angle between position vectors r and Therefore, the centripetal acceleration ac is :

* In the limit ∆tŽ0, ∆r becomes perpendicular to r. In this limit ∆v→ 0 and is consequently also perpendicular
to V. Therefore, the acceleration is directed towards the centre, at each point of the circular path.

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42 PHYSICS

v 2 2
ω R
2
ac =   v = v2/R (3.43) ac =
v
=
2
=ω R
R 
R R
Thus, the acceleration of an object moving with 2
ac = ω R (3.46)
speed v in a circle of radius R has a magnitude
2
v /R and is always directed towards the centre.
The time taken by an object to make one revolution
This is why this acceleration is called centripetal
acceleration (a term proposed by Newton). A is known as its time period T and the number of
thorough analysis of centripetal acceleration was revolution made in one second is called its
first published in 1673 by the Dutch scientist frequency ν (=1/T ). However, during this time
Christiaan Huygens (1629-1695) but it was the distance moved by the object is s = 2πR.
probably known to Newton also some years earlier. Therefore, v = 2πR/T =2πRν (3.47)
“Centripetal” comes from a Greek term which means In terms of frequency ν, we have
‘centre-seeking’. Since v and R are constant, the ω = 2πν
magnitude of the centripetal acceleration is also v = 2πRν
constant. However, the direction changes —
ac = 4π2 ν2R (3.48)
pointing always towards the centre. Therefore, a
centripetal acceleration is not a constant vector. ⊳
Example 3.9 An insect trapped in a
We have another way of describing the
circular groove of radius 12 cm moves along
velocity and the acceleration of an object in
the groove steadily and completes 7
uniform circular motion. As the object moves
revolutions in 100 s. (a) What is the
from P to P′ in time ∆t (= t′ – t), the line CP
angular speed, and the linear speed of the
(Fig. 3.18) turns through an angle ∆θ as shown
motion? (b) Is the acceleration vector a
in the figure. ∆θ is called angular distance. We
constant vector ? What is its magnitude ?
define the angular speed ω (Greek letter omega)
as the time rate of change of angular
Answer This is an example of uniform circular
displacement :
motion. Here R = 12 cm. The angular speed ω is
∆θ given by
ω=
∆t
(3.44) ω = 2π/T = 2π × 7/100 = 0.44 rad/s
Now, if the distance travelled by the object The linear speed v is :
during the time ∆t is ∆s, i.e. PP′ is ∆s, then : v =ω R = 0.44 s-1 × 12 cm = 5.3 cm s-1
∆s The direction of velocity v is along the tangent
v=
∆t to the circle at every point. The acceleration is
directed towards the centre of the circle. Since
but ∆s = R ∆θ. Therefore :
this direction changes continuously,
∆θ acceleration here is not a constant vector.
v=R =Rω
∆t However, the magnitude of acceleration is
v= Rω (3.45) constant:
We can express centripetal acceleration ac in a = ω2 R = (0.44 s–1)2 (12 cm)
terms of angular speed : = 2.3 cm s-2 ⊳

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MOTION IN A PLANE 43

SUMMARY

1. Scalar quantities are quantities with magnitudes only. Examples are distance, speed,
mass and temperature.
2. Vector quantities are quantities with magnitude and direction both. Examples are
displacement, velocity and acceleration. They obey special rules of vector algebra.
3. A vector A multiplied by a real number λ is also a vector, whose magnitude is λ times
the magnitude of the vector A and whose direction is the same or opposite depending
upon whether λ is positive or negative.
4. Two vectors A and B may be added graphically using head-to-tail method or parallelogram
method.
5. Vector addition is commutative :
A+B=B+A
It also obeys the associative law :
(A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
6. A null or zero vector is a vector with zero magnitude. Since the magnitude is zero, we
don’t have to specify its direction. It has the properties :
A+0=A
λ0 = 0
0A=0
7. The subtraction of vector B from A is defined as the sum of A and –B :
A – B = A+ (–B)
8. A vector A can be resolved into component along two given vectors a and b lying in the
same plane :
A=λa+µb
where λ and µ are real numbers.
9. A unit vector associated with a vector A has magnitude 1 and is along the vector A:
A
n̂ =
A
The unit vectors i,ɵ ɵj, k
ɵ are vectors of unit magnitude and point in the direction of
the x-, y-, and z-axes, respectively in a right-handed coordinate system.
10. A vector A can be expressed as
A = A iɵ + A ɵj x y
where Ax, Ay are its components along x-, and y -axes. If vector A makes an angle θ
Ay
with the x-axis, then Ax = A cos θ, Ay=A sin θ and A = A = Ax2 + Ay2 , tanθ = .
Ax
11. Vectors can be conveniently added using analytical method. If sum of two vectors A
and B, that lie in x-y plane, is R, then :
R = Rx iɵ + Ry ɵj , where, Rx = Ax + Bx, and Ry = Ay + By

12. The position vector of an object in x-y plane is given by r = x iɵ + y ɵj and the
displacement from position r to position r’ is given by
∆r = r′− r
= ( x ′ − x ) iɵ + (y ′ − y ) ɵj
= ∆x iɵ + ∆y ɵj
13. If an object undergoes a displacement ∆r in time ∆t, its average velocity is given by
∆r
v= . The velocity of an object at time t is the limiting value of the average velocity
∆t
as ∆t tends to zero :

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44 PHYSICS

∆r dr
v= lim =. It can be written in unit vector notation as :
∆t → 0 ∆t dt
dx dy dz
v = v iɵ + v ɵj + v
x y
ɵ
z k where vx = dt , v y = dt , v z = dt
When position of an object is plotted on a coordinate system, v is always tangent to
the curve representing the path of the object.
14. If the velocity of an object changes from v to v′in time ∆t, then its average acceleration
v − v' ∆v
is given by: a = =
∆t ∆t
The acceleration a at any time t is the limiting value of a as ∆t Ž0 :
∆v dv
lima= =
∆t → 0 ∆t dt
ɵ ɵ ɵ
In component form, we have : a = a x i + a y j + a z k
dv x dvy dvz
where, a x = , ay = , az =
dt dt dt
15. If an object is moving in a plane with constant acceleration a = a = a x2 + a y2 and
its position vector at time t = 0 is ro, then at any other time t, it will be at a point given
by:
1 2
r = ro + v o t + at
2
and its velocity is given by :
v = vo + a t
where vo is the velocity at time t = 0
In component form :
1
x = x o + vox t + ax t 2
2
1
y = yo + voy t + ay t 2
2
v x = v ox + a x t

v y = v oy + a y t

Motion in a plane can be treated as superposition of two separate simultaneous one-

dimensional motions along two perpendicular directions
16. An object that is in flight after being projected is called a projectile. If an object is
projected with initial velocity vo making an angle θo with x-axis and if we assume its
initial position to coincide with the origin of the coordinate system, then the position
and velocity of the projectile at time t are given by :
x = (vo cos θo) t
y = (vo sin θo) t − (1/2) g t2
vx = vox = vo cos θo
vy = vo sin θo − g t
The path of a projectile is parabolic and is given by :

gx 2
y = ( tanθ0 ) x –
2 (v o cos θo )
2

The maximum height that a projectile attains is :

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MOTION IN A PLANE 45

hm =
(vo sinqo )
2g
The time taken to reach this height is :
vo sinθ o
tm =
g
The horizontal distance travelled by a projectile from its initial position to the position
it passes y = 0 during its fall is called the range, R of the projectile. It is :
vo2
R= sin 2θo
g
17. When an object follows a circular path at constant speed, the motion of the object is
called uniform circular motion. The magnitude of its acceleration is ac = v2 /R. The
direction of ac is always towards the centre of the circle.
The angular speed ω, is the rate of change of angular distance. It is related to velocity
v by v = ω R. The acceleration is ac = ω 2R.
If T is the time period of revolution of the object in circular motion and ν is its
frequency, we have ω = 2π ν, v = 2πνR, ac = 4π2ν2R

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46 PHYSICS

POINTS TO PONDER
1. The path length traversed by an object between two points is, in general, not the same as
the magnitude of displacement. The displacement depends only on the end points; the
path length (as the name implies) depends on the actual path. The two quantities are
equal only if the object does not change its direction during the course of motion. In all
other cases, the path length is greater than the magnitude of displacement.
2. In view of point 1 above, the average speed of an object is greater than or equal to the
magnitude of the average velocity over a given time interval. The two are equal only if the
path length is equal to the magnitude of displacement.
3. The vector equations (3.33a) and (3.34a) do not involve any choice of axes. Of course,
you can always resolve them along any two independent axes.
4. The kinematic equations for uniform acceleration do not apply to the case of uniform
circular motion since in this case the magnitude of acceleration is constant but its
direction is changing.
5. An object subjected to two velocities v1 and v2 has a resultant velocity v = v1 + v2. Take
care to distinguish it from velocity of object 1 relative to velocity of object 2 : v12= v1 − v2.
Here v1 and v2 are velocities with reference to some common reference frame.
6. The resultant acceleration of an object in circular motion is towards the centre only if
the speed is constant.
7. The shape of the trajectory of the motion of an object is not determined by the acceleration
alone but also depends on the initial conditions of motion ( initial position and initial
velocity). For example, the trajectory of an object moving under the same acceleration
due to gravity can be a straight line or a parabola depending on the initial conditions.

EXERCISES
3.1 State, for each of the following physical quantities, if it is a scalar or a vector :
volume, mass, speed, acceleration, density, number of moles, velocity, angular
frequency, displacement, angular velocity.
3.2 Pick out the two scalar quantities in the following list :
force, angular momentum, work, current, linear momentum, electric field, average
velocity, magnetic moment, relative velocity.
3.3 Pick out the only vector quantity in the following list :
Temperature, pressure, impulse, time, power, total path length, energy, gravitational
potential, coefficient of friction, charge.
3.4 State with reasons, whether the following algebraic operations with scalar and vector
physical quantities are meaningful :
(a) adding any two scalars, (b) adding a scalar to a vector of the same dimensions ,
(c) multiplying any vector by any scalar, (d) multiplying any two scalars, (e) adding any
two vectors, (f) adding a component of a vector to the same vector.
3.5 Read each statement below carefully and state with reasons, if it is true or false :
(a) The magnitude of a vector is always a scalar, (b) each component of a vector is
always a scalar, (c) the total path length is always equal to the magnitude of the
displacement vector of a particle. (d) the average speed of a particle (defined as total
path length divided by the time taken to cover the path) is either greater or equal to
the magnitude of average velocity of the particle over the same interval of time, (e)
Three vectors not lying in a plane can never add up to give a null vector.
3.6 Establish the following vector inequalities geometrically or otherwise :
(a) |a+b| < |a| + |b|
(b) |a+b| > ||a| − |b||

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MOTION IN A PLANE 47

(c) − b| < |a| + |b|

|a−
(d) − b| > ||a| − |b||
|a−
When does the equality sign above apply?
3.7 Given a + b + c + d = 0, which of the following
statements are correct : Q
(a) a, b, c, and d must each be a null vector,
(b) The magnitude of (a + c) equals the magnitude of
( b + d),
(c) The magnitude of a can never be greater than the
sum of the magnitudes of b, c, and d,
(d) b + c must lie in the plane of a and d if a and d are
not collinear, and in the line of a and d, if they are
collinear ?
3.8 Three girls skating on a circular ice ground of radius
200 m start from a point P on the edge of the ground
and reach a point Q diametrically opposite to P following
different paths as shown in Fig. 3.19. What is the
magnitude of the displacement vector for each ? For Fig. 3.19
which girl is this equal to the actual length of
path skate ?

3.9 A cyclist starts from the centre O of a circular park of radius 1 km, reaches the edge P
of the park, then cycles along the circumference, and returns to the centre along QO
as shown in Fig. 3.20. If the round trip takes 10 min, what is the (a) net displacement,
(b) average velocity, and (c) average speed of the cyclist ?

Fig. 3.20
3.10 On an open ground, a motorist follows a track that turns to his left by an angle of 600
after every 500 m. Starting from a given turn, specify the displacement of the motorist
at the third, sixth and eighth turn. Compare the magnitude of the displacement with
the total path length covered by the motorist in each case.
3.11 A passenger arriving in a new town wishes to go from the station to a hotel located
10 km away on a straight road from the station. A dishonest cabman takes him along
a circuitous path 23 km long and reaches the hotel in 28 min. What is (a) the average
speed of the taxi, (b) the magnitude of average velocity ? Are the two equal ?
3.12 The ceiling of a long hall is 25 m high. What is the maximum horizontal distance that
a ball thrown with a speed of 40 m s-1 can go without hitting the ceiling of the hall ?
3.13 A cricketer can throw a ball to a maximum horizontal distance of 100 m. How much
high above the ground can the cricketer throw the same ball ?

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48 PHYSICS

3.14 A stone tied to the end of a string 80 cm long is whirled in a horizontal circle with a
constant speed. If the stone makes 14 revolutions in 25 s, what is the magnitude and
direction of acceleration of the stone ?
3.15 An aircraft executes a horizontal loop of radius 1.00 km with a steady speed of 900
km/h. Compare its centripetal acceleration with the acceleration due to gravity.
3.16 Read each statement below carefully and state, with reasons, if it is true or false :
(a) The net acceleration of a particle in circular motion is always along the radius of
the circle towards the centre
(b) The velocity vector of a particle at a point is always along the tangent to the path
of the particle at that point
(c) The acceleration vector of a particle in uniform circular motion averaged over one
cycle is a null vector

3.17 The position of a particle is given by

r = 3.0t ˆi − 2.0t 2 ˆj + 4.0 k
ˆ m
where t is in seconds and the coefficients have the proper units for r to be in metres.
(a) Find the v and a of the particle? (b) What is the magnitude and direction of
velocity of the particle at t = 2.0 s ?
3.18 A particle starts from the origin at t = 0 s with a velocity of 10.0 ɵj m/s and moves in

( )
the x-y plane with a constant acceleration of 8.0ɵi + 2.0 ɵj m s-2. (a) At what time is
the x- coordinate of the particle 16 m? What is the y-coordinate of the particle at
that time? (b) What is the speed of the particle at the time ?
3.19 ɵi and ɵj are unit vectors along x- and y- axis respectively. What is the magnitude
and direction of the vectors ɵi + ɵj , and ɵi − ɵj ? What are the components of a vector

A= 2 ɵi + 3ɵj along the directions of ɵi + ɵj and ɵi − ɵj ? [You may use graphical method]
3.20 For any arbitrary motion in space, which of the following relations are true :
(a) vaverage = (1/2) (v (t1) + v (t2))
(b) v average = [r(t2) - r(t1) ] /(t2 – t1)
(c) v (t) = v (0) + a t
(d) r (t) = r (0) + v (0) t + (1/2) a t2
(e) a average =[ v (t2) - v (t1 )] /( t2 – t1)
(The ‘average’ stands for average of the quantity over the time interval t1 to t2)
3.21 Read each statement below carefully and state, with reasons and examples, if it is
true or false :
A scalar quantity is one that
(a) is conserved in a process
(b) can never take negative values
(c) must be dimensionless
(d) does not vary from one point to another in space
(e) has the same value for observers with different orientations of axes.
3.22 An aircraft is flying at a height of 3400 m above the ground. If the angle subtended at
a ground observation point by the aircraft positions 10.0 s a part is 30°, wat is the
speed of the aircraft ?

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