WELDING

Introduction
Throughout history mankind has always had the problem of joining metal. Some of the early
methods of achieving this were:
1. Casting one piece of metal on top of the other.

2. Placing the two metal pieces to be joined side by side and pouring molten metal
between them, causing the parent metal to melt and run into each other.

3. Heating the ends of the pieces of metal to be joined to a red heat, placing one on top
the other and hammering them together.

Over the years, the process of fusion welding has undergone a tremendous changes in
technology and equipment. There are now a variety of manual, semi-automatic and completely
automatic processes, including the use of robotics. However, we are mainly concern with the
following:
1. Forge welding
2. Oxyacetylene welding
3. Oxyacetylene cutting
4. Brazing
5. Electric arc welding
As an engineer you would be required to learn and develop different welding techniques, since
welding has diversified into many different areas, such as shipbuilding, bridge construction, the
building industry, automobile manufacture, railway construction, the aircraft industry and even
spacecraft construction.

Welding safety
The welder must be aware of the hazards of his trade, which involves the following:
1. Handling of hot metal.
2. Using high current electricity.
3. Toxic fumes generated during the welding operation.
4. Large quantities of ultraviolet rays are emitted by the arc that can cause severe eye
damage.
 5. Droplets of molten metal often fly from the arc
6. Heavy pieces of metal must sometimes be positioned for welding.
To remain injury free, the welder must take a positive approach to safety by observing basic
safety precautions.
1. Dressing properly – Face shield, Gas welding goggles, Gloves, Leather jacket /apron and
sleeves and fire resistant overalls (normex).
2. Check equipment – Carefully examine your equipment before starting, worn or damage
equipment should be repaired or replaced, check for gas leaks.
3. Hot metal – Use tongs or pliers to handle hot metals, cool hot metal in quench tank or
place out of the way to cool so that others will not get burned.
4. Toxic fumes – The fumes develop by welding contains poisonous metal oxides, always
weld in a well ventilated area.
5. Welding area – Shield the welding operation if others are in the welding area, Keep
welding area free of flammable materials, Refrain from welding in damp or wet areas.
Forge welding
The technique of joining two pieces of metal by forging then together is one of the oldest
methods of welding. This method is still used in industry for joining wrought iron, low-carbon
steel and medium-carbon steel pieces.
Oxyacetylene gas welding
The oxy-fuel gas welding is a process of fusion welding. In this process, the high-temperature
flame required to fuse or melt the parent metal is provided by burning a mixture of oxygen gas
and a fuel gas in varying proportions, according to the type of flames needed.

Oxygen is a colourless, tasteless, odourless gas, which exist in free state or combines other
elements. Oxygen supports burning (combustion) and combines readily with other substances
to produce a flame and heat. For industrial use, such as welding, oxygen is produce as a
liquefied gas and stored in a pressurised cylinder. By itself, oxygen is not combustible, but it is
equally important to store it away from flammable materials.
Types of welding fuel gases:
1. Propane
2. Butane
3. Acetylene
4. Butadiene
5. Methylacetylene
6. Propadiene
Acetylene is a colourless hydrocarbon gas with a strong odour. It is produce by combining
hydrogen atoms and carbon atoms, acetylene is produce by the reaction of calcium carbide.
Oxyacetylene welding equipment
To set up an oxyacetylene welding unit you will need
some basic equipment.
Acetylene cylinder
The cylinder for storing acetylene gas are made of
steel with a concave bottom, to prevent explosion
and to ensure safety the cylinder are packed a porous
material. This consists of lime, silica flour, fuller earth
and charcoal. About 40% of the cylinder volume is
filled with acetone, which absorbs a large quantity of
the acetylene under pressure. The cylinders are made
in varying sizes and are supplied with a screw on cap
to prevent accidental damage.
Left hand screw thread
Oxygen cylinder
The cylinder used for storing oxygen is made from steel and is taller than the acetylene cylinder,
they are identify by being painted black right hand screw thread .
Pressure regulators
A pressure regulator preforms two functions:
1. It reduces the high storage pressure from the cylinder to a suitable working pressure.
2. It helps maintain a constant gas pressure in the blowpipe.
Two types of pressure regulator are needed to set up an oxyacetylene welding unit: the
acetylene pressure regulator and the oxygen pressure regulator. Most regulators have two
gauges. The right gauge measures the pressure of the gas in the cylinder (supply pressure) and
the left one measures the pressure of the gas coming into the blowpipe (working pressure).
Oxyacetylene blowpipes
There are two types of blowpipes (also called torches): The welding blowpipe and the cutting
blowpipe. The two types look alike, except that the cutting blowpipe has an extra oxygen
control valve, which is used to produce an oxygen jet, which does the cutting.

The cutting nozzle, also called the tip, normally have about three small orifices surrounding a
large central orifice through which high pressure oxygen passes and does the cutting.
Welding hose is of two types. The acetylene hose carries the acetylene gas from the regulator
to the blow pipe. It is colour- coded red, to show that it is carrying a combustible gas. It has
left- handed threaded connecting fittings at each end to fix to the regulator and the blow-pipe.
The oxygen hose carries the oxygen gas from the regulator to the blow pipe. It is colour –coded
either black or green, to indicate non-combustible gas. It is fixed to the regulator and the
blowpipe with right-handed thread connecting fittings.
Blowpipe lighter
The safe way to light the blowpipe is by using a spark lighter, This can conveniently be operated
by one hand while the other hand holds the blowpipe. The spark is caused by a flint fitted to the
moving parts of the lighter, which rubs across a rough striker.

Welding goggles
You must always wear suitable welding goggles when welding. Since, they protect the eyes
from the ray of light emitted by the flames and the pool of molten metal, and also from flying
sparks. The frame is made of a plastic material that is resistant to sparks. It is fitted with two
pair of lenses. The outer pair are clear they protect the inner lenses from being damaged by
metal spatter. The inner lenses are tinted dark green of different intensities, specified in
numbers from 1 to 14.
ARC WELDING
Electric arc welding is a process of using a coated rod called an electrode to carry an electric
current, which forms an arc that creates sufficient heat between a gap at the end of the
electrode and the work, to melt both the electrode and the work, forming a welded joint when
it is solidified.
The electric arc welding process is based upon the effect of the flow of an electric current. The
current used for arc welding is produced by three basic types of machines:
1. The generator welding machine
2. Transformer welding machine
3. Transformer-rectifier welding machine
A greater flow of current produces a greater resistance, which generates intense heat.
Therefore, cooling is essential otherwise the machine will burn out. Always make sure that the
fan is working.
Effect of current polarity
The way the electrode and the work cable are connected to the terminal of the machine is
called the polarity. The direction of current flow determines the type of polarity or welding
current.
Direct current straight polarity-the electrode cable is connected to the negative terminal of the
machine, and the work cable is connected to the positive terminal. In this situation the current
travles through the work. The work therefore receives the greater part of the welding heat
generated and the electrode receives less heat and the work is heated more than the electrode.
An electrode of small diameter is recommended. A direct current straight polarity weld has a
deep penetration and a narrow weld bead with low buildup.

Direct current reversed polarity- When the electrode cable is connected to the positive
terminal of the welding machine and the work cable is connected to the negative terminal, the
polarity is referred to as direct current reverse polarity. The current travels through the
electrode, thereby taking the greater amount of the heat generated, with the work receiving
the remaining of the heat. Therefore the electrode is hotter than the work, and melts more
rapidly. Electrodes of larger diameter are therefore recommended for this polarity. A direct
current reverse polarity weld is shallow and wide with high build up.

Arc welding equipment

In addition to the welding machine you will need other workshop and personal equipment:
1. Electrode holder – is a handle like piece of equipment used to grip the electrode.

2. Ground clamp – is a metal connection at the end of the electrical cable that is
connected to the work table.

3. Chipping hammer – used for removing or chipping off slag that forms on the welded
bead.

4. Wire brush – used after chipping for further cleaning of the bead.

5. Welding helmet – to protect the throat, face and forehead from the infrared and
ultraviolet rays produce by the arc.
 6. Leather gloves

Welding electrode
An electrode is a coated or bear metal rod with the same metal composition as the metal to be
welded. The current from the welding machine flows through the electrode and creates an
electric arc at the end, melting both the electrode and the work to form a weld pool, which
solidifies to form the weld bead. Electrodes are classified by the type of materials they weld and
the electrode coating.
Variables and their effects on electric arc welding
1. Electrode selection – the use of the wrong type or size of electrode will affect the:
Strength of the weld
Weld penetration
Welding /production time
Weld undercut
Excessive overlap of the weld

2. Variation in current – It is essential to set the welding current correctly.

 Too low current causes a small weld pool, less penetration, less fusion and too much
reinforcement, overlap, and irregularity in appearance of the weld.

Too high current causes high consumption of the electrode, too big molten weld pool,
excessive splatter, rough weld bead, blowholes and excessive penetration.

3. Arc length is the distance at which the tip of the electrode is held from the surface of
the work during welding.
Too short distance produces less heat than required and too long produces too much
heating and melting of the electrode.

4. Welding speed – is the rate at which the electrode is moved from one end of the joint to
the other during welding.
Too slow welding speed causes too much over heating of the weld pool and a welding
bead that is too wide.
Too fast welding speed causes the weld to cool too fast slag and other impurities
trapped in the weld bead.

5. Electrode angle – is the angle at which the electrode is held during welding is known as
welding angle or travel angle. These angles may vary with the individual welder, but a
weld angle between 5 to 15 degrees produces good results.

READ Page 135 in motivate text book

PRACTICE 1 : SETTING UP FOR ARC WELDING
PRACTICE 2 : SCRATCHING TECHNIQUE

TYPES OF JOINTS
1. Square groove butt joint 2. Vee Grove butt joint
3. Lap joint 4. Tee joint

5. Corner joint