CONTENT:

• PMMC Meters

• DC Ammeters

• DC Voltmeters

• Ohmmeters
ANALOGUE METERS

ANALOGUE METERS ARE RELATIVELY SIMPLE AND INEXPENSIVE AND ARE OFTEN USED INSTEAD
OF DIGITAL INSTRUMENTS, ESPECIALLY WHEN COST IS OF PARTICULAR CONCERN. WHILST DIGITAL
INSTRUMENTS HAVE THE ADVANTAGE OF GREATER ACCURACY AND MUCH HIGHER INPUT IMPEDANCE,
ANALOGUE INSTRUMENTS SUFFER LESS FROM NOISE AND ISOLATION PROBLEMS. IN ADDITION, BECAUSE
ANALOGUE INSTRUMENTS ARE USUALLY PASSIVE INSTRUMENTS THAT DO NOT NEED A POWER SUPPLY,
THIS IS OFTEN VERY USEFUL IN MEASUREMENT APPLICATIONS WHERE A SUITABLE MAINS POWER
SUPPLY IS NOT READILY AVAILABLE. MANY EXAMPLES OF ANALOGUE METER ALSO REMAIN IN USE
FOR HISTORICAL REASONS.
ANALOGUE METERS

ANALOGUE METERS ARE ELECTROMECHANICAL DEVICES THAT DRIVE A POINTER AGAINST A SCALE.
THEY ARE PRONE TO MEASUREMENT ERRORS FROM SEVERAL SOURCES THAT INCLUDE INACCURATE
SCALE MARKING DURING MANUFACTURE, BEARING FRICTION, BENT POINTERS AND AMBIENT
TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS. FURTHER HUMAN ERRORS ARE INTRODUCED THROUGH PARALLAX ERROR
(NOT READING THE SCALE FROM DIRECTLY ABOVE) AND MISTAKES IN INTERPOLATING BETWEEN
SCALE MARKINGS. QUOTED INACCURACY FIGURES ARE BETWEEN ±0.1% AND ±3%.
ANALOGUE METERS

MOST COMMON METERS (VOLTMETERS, AMMETERS, AND OHMMETERS) THAT YOU USE IN YOUR WORK
OPERATE ON THE ELECTROMAGNETIC PRINCIPLE. ALL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS MUST HAVE SOME FORM
OF INDICATING DEVICE, TO BE OF ANY USE TO YOU. THE MOST BASIC INDICATING DEVICE USED AS
INSTRUMENTS ARE THE ONES THAT MEASURE CURRENT AND VOLTAGE AND OPERATES BY USING THE
INTERACTION BETWEEN THE MAGNETIC FIELDS ASSOCIATED WITH CURRENT FLOW IN THE CIRCUIT.
TYPES OF ANALOGUE METERS
• MOVING-COIL METERS
• MOVING-IRON METERS
• ELECTRODYNAMIC METERS
• CLAMP-ON METERS
• ANALOGUE MULTIMETERS
• THERMOCOUPLE METERS
• ELECTRONIC ANALOGUE METERS
BASIC METER MOVEMENT (PMMC)

A STATIONARY, PERMANENT-MAGNET MOVING-COIL (PMMC) METER IS THE BASIC METER MOVEMENT USED
IN MOST MEASURING INSTRUMENTS USED FOR SERVICING ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT. WHEN CURRENT FLOWS
THROUGH THE COIL, A RESULTING MAGNETIC FIELD REACTS WITH THE MAGNETIC FIELD OF THE PERMANENT
MAGNET AND CAUSES THE MOVABLE COIL TO ROTATE. THE GREATER THE INTENSITY OF CURRENT FLOW
THROUGH THE COIL, THE STRONGER THE MAGNETIC FIELD PRODUCED; THE STRONGER THE MAGNETIC FIELD
PRODUCED, THE GREATER THE ROTATION OF THE COIL. THE GALVANOMETER IS AN EXAMPLE OF ONE TYPE
OF STATIONARY, PERMANENT-MAGNET MOVING-COIL (PMMC) MEASURING INSTRUMENT.
ADVANTAGES OF PMMC
1. THEY HAVE LOW POWER CONSUMPTION
2. THEIR SCALES ARE UNIFORM AND CAN BE DESIGNED TO EXTEND OVER AN ARC OF 170° OR SO.
3. THEY POSSESS HIGH (TORQUE/WEIGHT) RATIO
4. THEY CAN BE MODIFIED WITH THE HELP OF SHUNTS AND RESISTANCES TO COVER A WIDE RANGE OF CURRENTS
AND VOLTAGES
5. THEY HAVE NO HYSTERESIS LOSS
6. THEY HAVE VERY EFFECTIVE AND EFFICIENT EDDY-CURRENT DAMPING
7. SINCE THE OPERATING FIELDS OF SUCH INSTRUMENTS ARE VERY STRONG, THEY ARE NOT MUCH AFFECTED BY
STRAY MAGNETIC FIELDS.
DISADVANTAGES OF PMMC

1. DUE TO DELICATE CONSTRUCTION AND THE NECESSARY ACCURATE MACHINING AND ASSEMBLY OF
VARIOUS PARTS, SUCH INSTRUMENTS ARE SOMEWHAT COSTLIER AS COMPARED TO MOVING-IRON
INSTRUMENTS.
2. SOME ERRORS ARE SET IN DUE TO THE AGEING OF CONTROL SPRINGS AND THE PERMANENT MAGNETS.
THE PRINCIPLE OF PERMANENT MAGNET MOVING COIL TYPE INSTRUMENTS HAS BEEN UTILIZED IN THE
CONSTRUCTION OF THE FOLLOWING:
1. FOR GALVANOMETER WHICH CAN BE USED FOR DETECTING EXTREMELY SMALL DC CURRENTS.
2. BY ELIMINATING THE CONTROL SPRINGS, THE INSTRUMENT CAN BE USED FOR MEASURING THE
QUANTITY OF ELECTRICITY PASSING THROUGH THE COIL. THIS METHOD IS USED FOR FLUXMETERS.
3. IF THE CONTROL SPRINGS OF SUCH AN INSTRUMENT ARE PURPOSELY MADE OF LARGE MOMENT OF
INERTIA, THEN IT CAN BE USED AS BALLISTIC GALVANOMETER.
GALVANOMETER
THE GALVANOMETER IS USED TO MEASURE VERY
LOW CURRENTS, SUCH AS THOSE IN BRIDGE CIRCUITS.
IN MODIFIED FORM, THE GALVANOMETER HAS THE
HIGHEST SENSITIVITY OF ANY OF THE VARIOUS TYPES
OF METERS IN USE TODAY. A SIMPLIFIED DIAGRAM
OF A GALVANOMETER IS SHOWN IN FIGURE. IT IS
DIFFERENT FROM OTHER INSTRUMENTS USED FOR
THE SAME PURPOSE BECAUSE ITS MOVABLE COIL IS
SUSPENDED BY MEANS OF METAL RIBBONS INSTEAD
OF A SHAFT AND JEWEL-BEARING ARRANGEMENT
OFTEN USED IN OTHER INSTRUMENTS.
GALVANOMETER
THE MOVABLE COIL IS WRAPPED AROUND THE ALUMINUM FRAME OF THE GALVANOMETER. THE COIL IS
SUSPENDED BETWEEN THE POLES OF THE MAGNET BY MEANS OF THIN, FLAT RIBBONS OF PHOSPHOR
BRONZE. THESE RIBBONS PROVIDE A CONDUCTION PATH FOR THE CURRENT BETWEEN THE CIRCUIT BEING
TESTED AND THE MOVABLE COIL. THE RIBBONS ALLOW THE COIL TO TWIST IN RESPONSE TO THE
INTERACTION OF THE APPLIED CURRENT THROUGH THE COIL AND THE MAGNETIC FIELD OF THE PERMANENT
MAGNET. THEY ALSO PROVIDE THE RESTORING FORCE FOR THE COIL. BASICALLY, THE RESTORING FORCE IS
THAT FORCE NECESSARY TO RETURN THE MOVABLE FRAME TO ITS RESTING POSITION AFTER A READING. THE
RIBBONS RESTRAIN OR PROVIDE A COUNTERFORCE TO THE MAGNETIC FORCE ACTING ON THE COIL. WHEN
THE DRIVING FORCE OF THE COIL CURRENT IS REMOVED, THE RESTORING FORCE PROVIDED BY THE RIBBONS
RETURNS THE COIL TO ITS ZERO POSITION.
READING INDICATION METHODS

TO DETERMINE THE AMOUNT OF CURRENT FLOW, WE MUST HAVE A MEANS TO INDICATE THE AMOUNT OF
COIL ROTATION. EITHER OF TWO METHODS ARE USED:
1. POINTER ARRANGEMENT

2. MIRROR ARRANGEMENT
POINTER ARRANGEMENT

IN THE POINTER ARRANGEMENT, ONE END OF THE POINTER IS MECHANICALLY CONNECTED TO THE
ROTATING COIL; AS THE COIL MOVES, THE POINTER ALSO MOVES. THE OTHER END OF THE POINTER MOVES
ACROSS A GRADUATED SCALE AND INDICATES THE AMOUNT OF CURRENT FLOW. THE OVERALL SIMPLICITY
OF THIS ARRANGEMENT IS ITS MAIN ADVANTAGE.

HOWEVER, A DISADVANTAGE OF THIS ARRANGEMENT IS THAT IT INTRODUCES A MECHANICAL COIL

BALANCING PROBLEM, ESPECIALLY IF THE POINTER IS LONG.
LIGHT AND MIRROR
IN THE LIGHT AND MIRROR ARRANGEMENT, THE USE OF A MIRROR AND A BEAM OF LIGHT SIMPLIFY THE
PROBLEM OF COIL BALANCE. WHEN THIS ARRANGEMENT IS USED TO MEASURE THE TURNING OF THE COIL, A
SMALL MIRROR IS MOUNTED ON THE SUPPORTING RIBBON, AS SHOWN. AN INTERNAL LIGHT SOURCE IS
DIRECTED TO THE MIRROR AND THEN REFLECTED TO THE SCALE OF THE METER. AS THE MOVABLE COIL
TURNS, SO DOES THE MIRROR. THIS CAUSES THE LIGHT REFLECTION TO MOVE ACROSS THE GRADUATED
SCALE OF THE METER. THE MOVEMENT OF THE REFLECTION IS PROPORTIONAL TO THE MOVEMENT OF THE
COIL; THEREFORE, THE INTENSITY OF THE CURRENT BEING MEASURED BY THE METER IS ACCURATELY
INDICATED.
IF THE BEAM OF LIGHT AND MIRROR ARRANGEMENT IS USED, THE BEAM OF LIGHT IS SWEPT TO THE RIGHT
OR LEFT ACROSS A TRANSLUCENT SCREEN (SCALE). THE TRANSLUCENT SCREEN IS DIVIDED UNIFORMLY WITH
THE ZERO-READING LOCATED AT CENTER SCALE. IF THE POINTER ARRANGEMENT IS USED, THE POINTER IS
MOVED IN A HORIZONTAL PLANE TO THE RIGHT OR LEFT ACROSS A SCALE THAT IS DIVIDED UNIFORMLY WITH
THE ZERO READING AT THE CENTER. THE DIRECTION IN WHICH THE BEAM OF LIGHT OR THE POINTER MOVES
DEPENDS ON THE DIRECTION (POLARITY) OF CURRENT THROUGH THE COIL.
D’ARSONVAL/PMMC METER

A PERMANENT MAGNET MOVING COIL (PMMC) METER – ALSO KNOWN AS A D’ARSONVAL METER OR
GALVANOMETER – IS AN INSTRUMENT THAT ALLOWS YOU TO MEASURE THE CURRENT THROUGH A COIL BY
OBSERVING THE COIL’S ANGULAR DEFLECTION IN A UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD.
IN D’ARSONVAL TYPE METERS, THE LENGTH OF THE CONDUCTOR AND THE STRENGTH OF THE FIELD
BETWEEN THE POLES OF THE MAGNET ARE FIXED. THEREFORE, ANY CHANGE IN CURRENT CAUSES A
PROPORTIONAL CHANGE IN THE FORCE ACTING ON THE COIL.

[Link]
D’ARSONVAL METER
THE COIL IS WOUND ON AN ALUMINUM FRAME
(BOBBIN) TO WHICH THE POINTER IS ATTACHED.
OPPOSITELY WOUND HAIRSPRINGS ARE ALSO
ATTACHED TO THE BOBBIN, ONE AT EITHER END.
THE CIRCUIT TO THE COIL IS COMPLETED
THROUGH THE HAIRSPRINGS. IN ADDITION TO
SERVING AS CONDUCTORS, THE HAIRSPRINGS
SERVE AS THE RESTORING FORCE THAT RETURNS
THE POINTER TO THE ZERO POSITION WHEN NO
CURRENT FLOWS.
COIL MOVEMENT
AS WE KNOW, THE DEFLECTING (MOVING) FORCE ON THE COIL IS PROPORTIONAL TO THE CURRENT
FLOWING THROUGH THE COIL. THIS DEFLECTING FORCE TENDS TO CAUSE THE COIL TO ROTATE AGAINST THE
RESTRAINING FORCE OF THE HAIRSPRINGS. WHEN THE DEFLECTING FORCE AND THE RESTRAINING FORCE
ARE EQUAL, THE COIL AND THE POINTER STOP MOVING. AS WE HAVE JUST STATED, THE DEFLECTING FORCE
IS PROPORTIONAL TO THE CURRENT IN THE COIL, THE ANGLE (AMOUNT) OF ROTATION IS PROPORTIONAL TO
THE DEFLECTING FORCE; THEREFORE, THE ANGLE OF ROTATION IS PROPORTIONAL TO THE CURRENT
THROUGH THE COIL. WHEN CURRENT STOPS FLOWING THROUGH THE COIL, THE DEFLECTING FORCE STOPS,
AND THE RESTORING FORCE OF THE SPRING’S RETURNS THE POINTER TO THE ZERO POSITION.
FORCE DIRECTION

THE CURRENT THROUGH THE SINGLE TURN OF WIRE IS IN THE DIRECTION INDICATED IN THE FIGURE (AWAY
FROM YOU ON THE RIGHT-HAND SIDE AND TOWARD YOU ON THE LEFT-HAND SIDE). IF WE APPLY THE RIGHT-
HAND MOTOR RULE, THE DIRECTION OF FORCE IS UPWARD ON THE LEFT-HAND SIDE AND DOWNWARD ON
THE RIGHT-HAND SIDE; THEREFORE, THE DIRECTION OF MOTION OF THE COIL AND POINTER IS CLOCKWISE. IF
THE CURRENT WERE REVERSED IN THE WIRE, THE DIRECTION OF MOTION OF THE COIL AND POINTER WOULD
BE REVERSED.
DAMPING
IF THE INSTRUMENT IS NOT DAMPED TO ABSORB THE ENERGY OF THE MOVING ELEMENT, THE POINTER
WILL OSCILLATE (VIBRATE) FOR A PERIOD BEFORE COMING TO A STOP IN ITS FINAL POSITION. DAMPING IS
AN ENERGY-ABSORBING SYSTEM THAT PREVENTS THIS.
THIS IS ACCOMPLISHED IN MANY D'ARSONVAL MOVEMENTS BY MEANS OF THE MOTION OF THE ALUMINUM
BOBBIN ON WHICH THE COIL IS WOUND. AS THE BOBBIN ROTATES IN THE MAGNETIC FIELD, AN
ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE IS INDUCED INTO IT AS IT CUTS THROUGH THE LINES OF FORCE. INDUCED CURRENTS
FLOW IN THE BOBBIN IN A DIRECTION OPPOSITE TO THE MOTION; THIS CAUSES THE BOBBIN TO GO BEYOND
ITS FINAL POSITION ONLY ONCE BEFORE STOPPING. THE OVERALL SENSITIVITY OF THE METER CAN BE
INCREASED USING A LIGHTWEIGHT ROTATING ASSEMBLY (BOBBIN, COIL, AND POINTER) AND USING JEWEL
BEARINGS.
TYPES OF TORQUES ACTING IN THE METER

• DEFLECTING TORQUE - THE DEFLECTING OR OPERATING TORQUE IS PRODUCED BY UTILIZING THE

ELECTROMECHANICAL EFFECT IN TURNS OF WIRE IN THE METER. THIS DEFLECTING TORQUE CAUSES THE
MOVING SYSTEM (AND THE POINTER ATTACHED TO IT) TO MOVE FROM ITS ‘ZERO’ POSITION.

• CONTROLLING TORQUE - THE DEFLECTION OF THE MOVING SYSTEM WOULD BE INDEFINITE IF THERE
WERE NO CONTROLLING OR RESTORING TORQUE. THIS TYPE OF TORQUE OPPOSES THE DEFLECTING
TORQUE AND INCREASES WITH THE DEFLECTION OF THE MOVING SYSTEM. THE POINTER IS BROUGHT TO
REST AT A POSITION WHERE THE TWO OPPOSING TORQUES ARE EQUAL.
THE CONTROLLING TORQUE ENSURES THAT CURRENTS OF DIFFERENT MAGNITUDES SHALL PRODUCE
DEFLECTION OF THE MOVING SYSTEM IN PROPORTION TO THEIR MAGNITUDE. WITHOUT SUCH TORQUE, THE
POINTER WOULD SWING OVER TO THE MAXIMUM DEFLECTED POSITION IRRESPECTIVE OF THE MAGNITUDE
OF THE CURRENT TO BE MEASURED. MOREOVER, IN THE ABSENCE OF A RESTORING TORQUE, THE POINTER
ONCE DEFLECTED, WOULD NOT RETURN TO ITS ZERO POSITION ON REMOVING THE CURRENT.
THE CONTROLLING TORQUE OR BALANCING TORQUE IN INSTRUMENTS IS OBTAINED EITHER BY:
1. SPRING CONTROL
2. GRAVITY CONTROL
SPRING CONTROL
A HAIR-SPRING, USUALLY OF PHOSPHOR-BRONZE, IS ATTACHED TO THE MOVING SYSTEM OF THE
INSTRUMENT.
WITH THE DEFLECTION OF THE POINTER, THE SPRING IS TWISTED IN THE OPPOSITE DIRECTION. THIS
TWIST IN THE SPRING PRODUCES RESTORING TORQUE WHICH IS DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL TO THE
ANGLE OF DEFLECTION OF THE MOVING SYSTEM. THE POINTER COMES TO A POSITION OF REST
(EQUILIBRIUM) WHEN THE DEFLECTING TORQUE AND CONTROLLING TORQUE ARE EQUAL.
TO ENSURE THAT CONTROLLING TORQUE IS PROPORTIONAL TO THE ANGLE OF DEFLECTION, THE
SPRING SHOULD HAVE A FAIRLY LARGE NUMBER OF TURNS SO THAT ANGULAR DEFORMATION PER UNIT
LENGTH, ON FULL-SCALE DEFLECTION IS SMALL. MOREOVER, THE STRESS IN THE SPRING SHOULD BE
RESTRICTED TO SUCH A VALUE THAT IT DOES NOT PRODUCE A PERMANENT SET IN IT.
SINCE DEFLECTION OF THE POINTER IS DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL TO CURRENT, THE SPRING-
CONTROLLED INSTRUMENTS HAVE A UNIFORM OR EQUALLY-SPACED SCALE OVER THE WHOLE OF THEIR
RANGE.
SPRINGS ARE MADE OF SUCH MATERIALS, WHICH:
(i) ARE NON-MAGNETIC
(ii)ARE NOT SUBJECT TO MUCH FATIGUE
(iii)HAVE LOW SPECIFIC RESISTANCE ESPECIALLY IN CASES WHERE THEY ARE USED FOR LEADING CURRENT IN OR
OUT OF THE INSTRUMENT
(iv)HAVE LOW TEMPERATURE-RESISTANCE COEFFICIENTS
GRAVITY CONTROL

GRAVITY CONTROL IS OBTAINED BY ATTACHING A SMALL ADJUSTABLE WEIGHT TO SOME PART OF THE
MOVING SYSTEM SUCH THAT THE TWO EXERT TORQUES IN THE OPPOSITE DIRECTIONS. THE DEGREE OF
CONTROL IS ADJUSTED BY SCREWING THE WEIGHT UP OR DOWN THE CARRYING SYSTEM. GRAVITY-
CONTROLLED INSTRUMENTS HAVE SCALES WHICH ARE NOT UNIFORM BUT ARE CRAMPED OR CROWDED AT
THEIR LOWER ENDS.
AS COMPARED TO SPRING CONTROL, THE DISADVANTAGES OF GRAVITY CONTROL ARE:
a. IT GIVES A CRAMPED SCALE
b. THE INSTRUMENT MUST BE KEPT VERTICAL

HOWEVER, ITS ADVANTAGES ARE THAT:

a. IT IS CHEAP
b. IT IS UNAFFECTED BY TEMPERATURE
c. IT IS NOT SUBJECT TO FATIGUE OR DETERIORATION WITH TIME.
• DAMPING TORQUE - A DAMPING TORQUE IS ONE WHICH ACTS ON THE MOVING SYSTEM OF THE
INSTRUMENT ONLY WHEN IT IS MOVING AND ALWAYS OPPOSES ITS MOTION. SUCH STABILIZING OR
DAMPING FORCE IS NECESSARY TO BRING THE POINTER TO REST QUICKLY, OTHERWISE DUE TO INERTIA OF
THE MOVING SYSTEM; THE POINTER WILL OSCILLATE ABOUT ITS FINAL DEFLECTED POSITION FOR QUITE
SOME TIME BEFORE COMING TO REST IN THE STEADY POSITION. THE DEGREE OF DAMPING SHOULD BE
ADJUSTED TO A VALUE WHICH IS SUFFICIENT TO ENABLE THE POINTER TO RISE QUICKLY TO ITS DEFLECTED
POSITION WITHOUT OVERSHOOTING. IN THAT CASE, THE INSTRUMENT IS SAID TO BE DEAD-BEAT.
OVERDAMPING WILL MAKE THE INSTRUMENT SLOW AND LETHARGIC.
THE DAMPING TORQUE CAN BE PRODUCED BY:
a. AIR-FRICTIONS
b. EDDY-CURRENTS
c. FLUID FRICTION
PMMC DC AMMETER

THE MOVABLE COIL OF THE D'ARSONVAL METER MOVEMENT WE HAVE BEEN DISCUSSING UP TO NOW USES SMALL- SIZE
WIRE IN ITS WINDINGS. THIS SMALL-SIZE WIRE PLACES LIMITS ON THE AMOUNT OF CURRENT THAT CAN BE SAFELY PASSED
THROUGH THE COIL. THEREFORE, THE BASIC D'ARSONVAL MOVEMENT DISCUSSED CAN BE USED TO INDICATE OR
MEASURE ONLY VERY SMALL CURRENTS. CERTAIN CIRCUIT CHANGES MUST BE MADE TO THE BASIC D'ARSONVAL METER
MOVEMENT FOR IT TO BE PRACTICAL IN EVERYDAY USE. TO MEASURE LARGE CURRENTS, YOU MUST USE A SHUNT
RESISTOR WITH THE METER.
AN AMMETER SHUNT IS A PHYSICALLY LARGE, LOW-
RESISTANCE CONDUCTOR CONNECTED IN PARALLEL
(SHUNT) WITH THE METER TERMINALS. IT IS USED TO
CARRY MOST OF THE LOAD CURRENT. SUCH A SHUNT IS
DESIGNED WITH THE CORRECT AMOUNT OF RESISTANCE SO
THAT ONLY A SMALL PORTION OF THE TOTAL CURRENT
FLOWS THROUGH THE METER COIL. THE METER CURRENT IS
PROPORTIONAL TO THE TOTAL LOAD CURRENT. IF THE
SHUNT IS OF SUCH A VALUE THAT THE METER IS
CALIBRATED IN MILLIAMPERES, THE INSTRUMENT IS CALLED
A MILLIAMMETER. IF THE SHUNT HAS SUCH A VALUE THAT
THE METER MUST BE CALIBRATED IN TERMS OF AMPERES,
IT IS CALLED AN AMMETER.
A SINGLE, STANDARDIZED METER MOVEMENT IS NORMALLY USED IN ALL AMMETERS, NO MATTER WHAT THE RANGE IS
FOR A PARTICULAR METER. FOR EXAMPLE, METERS WITH WORKING RANGES OF 0 TO 10 AMPERES, 0 TO 5 AMPERES, OR 0
TO 1 AMPERE ALL USE THE SAME METER MOVEMENT. THE VARIOUS RANGES ARE ACHIEVED WITH DIFFERENT VALUES OF
SHUNT RESISTANCE WITH THE SAME METER MOVEMENT. THE DESIGNER OF THE AMMETER SIMPLY CALCULATES THE
CORRECT SHUNT RESISTANCE REQUIRED TO EXTEND THE RANGE OF THE METER MOVEMENT TO MEASURE ANY DESIRED
VALUE OF CURRENT. THIS SHUNT IS THEN CONNECTED ACROSS THE METER TERMINALS. SHUNTS MAY BE LOCATED INSIDE
THE METER CASE (INTERNAL SHUNTS) WITH THE PROPER SWITCHING ARRANGEMENTS FOR CHANGING THEM. THEY MAY
ALSO BE LOCATED OUTSIDE THE METER CASE (EXTERNAL SHUNTS) WITH THE NECESSARY LEADS TO CONNECT THEM TO
THE METER.
SHUNT CONSTRUCTION
THE SHUNT STRIPS (see next slide - VIEW B) ARE USUALLY MADE OF THE ALLOY MANGANIN. MANGANIN HAS A
TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT OF ALMOST ZERO. THE ZERO-TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT PROPERTY IS DESIRABLE BECAUSE
OF THE HEAVY CURRENTS THAT OFTEN FLOW THROUGH SHUNTS PRODUCING HEAT. A ZERO- TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT
MATERIAL IS NOT AFFECTED BY THIS HEAT; THEREFORE, IT REMAINS STABLE IN TEMPERATURE. MOST OTHER MATERIALS
INCREASE THEIR RESISTANCE AS THEY ARE HEATED. IF SHUNTS WERE MADE OF THESE MATERIALS, THEY WOULD CARRY
LESS CURRENT. MORE AND MORE CURRENT WOULD FLOW THROUGH THE METER MOVEMENT, AND THE CHANCES OF
DAMAGE WOULD INCREASE. USING SHUNTS CONSTRUCTED WITH ZERO-TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT MATERIALS
ELIMINATES THIS PROBLEM.
THE ENDS OF THE SHUNT STRIPS ARE EMBEDDED IN HEAVY
COPPER BLOCKS. THE BLOCKS ARE ATTACHED TO THE METER
COIL LEADS AND THE LINE TERMINALS. TO ENSURE
ACCURATE READINGS, YOU SHOULD NOT INTERCHANGEABLY
USE THE METER LEADS FOR A PARTICULAR AMMETER WITH
THOSE FOR A METER OF A DIFFERENT RANGE. SLIGHT
CHANGES IN LEAD LENGTH AND SIZE MAY VARY THE
RESISTANCE OF THE METER CIRCUIT. IF THIS HAPPENS,
CURRENT WILL ALSO CHANGE AND CAUSE INCORRECT
METER READINGS. EXTERNAL SHUNTS ARE GENERALLY USED
WHERE CURRENTS GREATER THAN 50 AMPERES MUST BE
MEASURED.
MULTIPLYING FACTOR
AMMETER SENSITIVITY
AMMETER SENSITIVITY IS THE AMOUNT OF CURRENT NECESSARY TO CAUSE FULL SCALE DEFLECTION
(MAXIMUM READING) OF THE AMMETER. THE INSTRUMENT CURRENT SENSITIVITY (USUALLY STATED IN
ΜA/MM) IS USED TO DETERMINE THE CURRENT LEVEL THAT PRODUCES A MEASURED DEFLECTION. IT
MEANS THAT THE SMALLER THE AMOUNT OF CURRENT, THE MORE "SENSITIVE" THE AMMETER. FOR
EXAMPLE, AN AMMETER WITH A MAXIMUM CURRENT READING OF 1 MILLIAMPERE WOULD HAVE A
SENSITIVITY OF 1 MILLIAMPERE AND BE MORE SENSITIVE THAN AN AMMETER WITH A MAXIMUM READING
OF 1 AMPERE AND A SENSITIVITY OF 1 AMPERE. SENSITIVITY CAN BE GIVEN FOR A METER MOVEMENT, BUT
THE TERM "AMMETER SENSITIVITY" USUALLY REFERS TO THE ENTIRE AMMETER AND NOT JUST THE METER
MOVEMENT. AN AMMETER CONSISTS OF MORE THAN JUST THE METER MOVEMENT.
AMMETER RANGE
BY ADDING SEVERAL SHUNT RESISTORS IN THE METER
CASE, WITH A SWITCH TO SELECT THE DESIRED RESISTOR,
THE AMMETER WILL BE CAPABLE OF MEASURING
SEVERAL DIFFERENT MAXIMUM CURRENT READINGS OR
RANGES. MOST METER MOVEMENTS IN USE TODAY
HAVE SENSITIVITIES OF FROM 5 MICROAMPERES TO 1
MILLIAMPERE.

AS LONG AS THE CURRENT TO BE MEASURED DOES NOT

EXCEED THE RANGE SELECTED, THE METER MOVEMENT
WILL NEVER HAVE MORE THAN 100 MICROAMPERES OF
CURRENT THROUGH IT.
Design a multirange ammeter by using direct method to give the following ranges 10mA, 100mA, 1A,
10A, and 100A. If d’Arsonval meter have internal resistance of 10Ω and full scale current of 1mA.
SHUNT RESISTORS ARE MADE WITH CLOSE TOLERANCES. THAT MEANS IF A SHUNT RESISTOR IS SELECTED WITH A
RESISTANCE OF 0.01 OHMS, THE ACTUAL RESISTANCE OF THAT SHUNT RESISTOR WILL NOT VARY FROM THAT VALUE BY
MORE THAN 1 PERCENT. SINCE A SHUNT RESISTOR IS USED TO PROTECT A METER MOVEMENT AND TO ALLOW ACCURATE
MEASUREMENT, IT IS IMPORTANT THAT THE RESISTANCE OF THE SHUNT RESISTOR IS KNOWN VERY ACCURATELY. THE
FIGURE (previous slide) REPRESENTS AN AMMETER WITH INTERNAL SHUNTS. THE SHUNT RESISTORS ARE INSIDE THE
METER CASE AND SELECTED BY A SWITCH. FOR LIMITED CURRENT RANGES (BELOW 50 AMPERES), INTERNAL SHUNTS ARE
MOST OFTEN EMPLOYED.
AYRTON SHUNT
(UNIVERSAL SHUNT)
FOR A MULTIPLE RANGE AMMETER, THE AYRTON
SHUNT OR UNIVERSAL SHUNT IS FREQUENTLY A
MORE SUITABLE DESIGN. ONE ADVANTAGE OF
THIS IS THAT IT ELIMINATES THE POSSIBILITY OF
THE METER MOVEMENT BEING IN THE CIRCUIT
WITHOUT ANY SHUNT RESISTANCE. ANOTHER
ADVANTAGE IS THAT IT MAY BE USED WITH A
WIDE RANGE OF METER MOVEMENTS.
Design an Ayrton shunt to provide an ammeter with current ranges 1A, 5A, and 10A, if PMMC meter
have internal resistance of 50Ω and full scale current of 1mA.
RANGE SELECTION

• IT IS IMPORTANT TO ALWAYS START WITH THE

HIGHEST RANGE WHEN YOU USE AN AMMETER.

• IF THE CURRENT CAN BE MEASURED ON SEVERAL

RANGES, USE THE RANGE THAT RESULTS IN A
READING NEAR THE MIDDLE OF THE SCALE.
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
WHEN YOU USE AN AMMETER, CERTAIN PRECAUTIONS MUST BE OBSERVED TO PREVENT INJURY TO YOURSELF OR OTHERS
AND TO PREVENT DAMAGE TO THE AMMETER OR THE EQUIPMENT ON WHICH YOU ARE WORKING.

∙ AMMETERS MUST ALWAYS BE CONNECTED IN SERIES WITH THE CIRCUIT UNDER TEST.

∙ ALWAYS START WITH THE HIGHEST RANGE OF AN AMMETER.

∙ DE-ENERGIZE AND DISCHARGE THE CIRCUIT COMPLETELY BEFORE YOU CONNECT OR DISCONNECT THE AMMETER.

∙ IN DC AMMETERS, OBSERVE THE PROPER CIRCUIT POLARITY TO PREVENT THE METER FROM BEING DAMAGED.

∙ NEVER USE A DC AMMETER TO MEASURE AC.

∙ OBSERVE THE GENERAL SAFETY PRECAUTIONS OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DEVICES.

 AMMETER INSERTION EFFECTS
INSERTING AN AMMETER IN A CIRCUIT ALWAYS INCREASES THE RESISTANCE OF THE CIRCUIT AND THEREFORE, ALWAYS
REDUCES THE CURRENT IN THE CIRCUIT. THE ERROR CAUSED BY THE METER DEPENDS ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
THE VALUE OF RESISTANCE IN THE ORIGINAL CIRCUIT AND THE VALUE OF RESISTANCE IN THE AMMETER.

Also,
𝐼𝑚 𝑅𝑇ℎ
=
𝐼𝑒 𝑅𝑇ℎ + 𝑅𝑚
EXAMPLE 1:
CALCULATE THE VALUE OF THE SHUNT RESISTANCE REQUIRED TO CONVERT A 1 MA METER MOVEMENT,
WITH A 100 OHMS INTERNAL RESISTANCE, INTO A 0- TO 10-MA AMMETER. [11.11 OHMS]
EXAMPLE 2:
A 100-UA METER MOVEMENT WITH AN INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF 800 OHM WAS USED IN A 0- TO 100-MA
AMMETER. FIND THE VALUE OF THE REQUIRED SHUNT RESISTANCE. [0.80 OHM]
EXAMPLE 3:

COMPUTE THE VALUE OF THE SHUNT RESISTORS FOR AN AYRTON SHUNT CIRCUIT WHOSE CIRCUIT PARAMETERS ARE:
RM = 1 KΩ, IM = 100 ΜA, I3 = 1 A, I2 = 100 MA AND I1 = 10 MA. [9.09, 0.909, 0.101 OHMS]
EXAMPLE 5:

AN AMMETER HAS A PMMC INSTRUMENT WITH A COIL RESISTANCE OF RM = 99 OHMS AND FSD CURRENT OF
0.1 MA. SHUNT RESISTANCE RSH = 1 OHM. DETERMINE THE TOTAL CURRENT PASSING THROUGH THE AMMETER AT (A)
FSD, (B) 0.5 FSD, AND (C) 0.25 FSD. [10-MA, 5-MA, 2.475-MA]
EXAMPLE 6:

A PMMC INSTRUMENT HAS FSD OF 100-ΜA AND A COIL RESISTANCE OF 1 KΩ. CALCULATE THE REQUIRED
SHUNT RESISTANCE VALUE TO CONVERT THE INSTRUMENT INTO AN AMMETER WITH (A) FSD = 100-MA AND (B)
FSD = 1-A. [1.001, 0.10001 OHM]
EXAMPLE 7:

A CURRENT METER THAT HAS AN INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF

78Ω IS USED TO MEASURE THE CURRENT THROUGH RESISTOR RC AS
SHOWN. DETERMINE THE PERCENTAGE ERROR OF THE READING DUE TO
AMMETER INSERTION. E = 3V, Ra = Rb = 1kΩ. [5%]
PMMC DC VOLTMETER
VOLTAGE MEASUREMENT IS ACCOMPLISHED WITH A VOLTMETER. THE
BASIC D’ARSONVAL METER MOVEMENT CAN BE CONVERTED TO A DC
VOLTMETER BY CONNECTING A MULTIPLIER RS IN SERIES WITH THE
METER MOVEMENT.

THE PURPOSE OF THE MULTIPLIER IS TO EXTEND THE VOLTAGE RANGE OF

THE METER AND TO LIMIT CURRENT THROUGH THE D’ARSONVAL METER
MOVEMENT TO A MAXIMUM FULL-SCALE DEFLECTION CURRENT.
VOLTMETER SENSITIVITY
VOLTMETER SENSITIVITY IS FOUND BY TAKING THE RECIPROCAL OF THE FULL-SCALE DEFLECTION CURRENT.

SINCE DIFFERENT METER MOVEMENTS ARE USED IN VARIOUS VOLTMETERS AND SINCE THE VALUE OF THE MULTIPLIER
RESISTOR IS DIFFERENT FOR EACH RANGE, TOTAL RESISTANCE IS A DIFFICULT INSTRUMENT RATING TO EXPRESS. MORE
MEANINGFUL INFORMATION CAN BE CONVEYED TO THE USER VIA THE SENSITIVITY RATING OF THE INSTRUMENT. THIS
RATING, GENERALLY PRINTED ON THE METER FACE, TELLS THE RESISTANCE OF THE INSTRUMENT FOR A ONE-VOLT RANGE.
TO DETERMINE THE TOTAL RESISTANCE THAT A VOLTMETER PRESENTS TO A CIRCUIT,

Rs = S x Range – Rm
EXAMPLE 8:

CALCULATE THE VALUE OF THE MULTIPLIER RESISTANCE ON THE 50-V RANGE OF A DC VOLTMETER THAT USED 500-UA
METER MOVEMENT WITH AN INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF 1 KΩ. [99 KΩ]
MULTI-RANGE VOLTMETER

BY ADDING A ROTARY SWITCH ARRANGEMENT,

WE CAN USE THE SAME METER MOVEMENT FOR
RANGES OF DC VOLTAGE AS SHOWN.
Design DC voltmeter by using direct method with d’Arsonval meter of 100Ω and full scale deflection
of 100μA to give the following ranges: 10mV, 1V, and 100V.
EXAMPLE 9:

CALCULATE THE VALUE OF THE MULTIPLIER RESISTANCES FOR THE MULTIPLE-RANGE DC VOLTMETER CIRCUIT SHOWN.
[59 KΩ, 199 KΩ, 599 KΩ]
COMMERCIAL TYPE
VOLTMETER
IN THIS TYPE OF VOLTMETER, THE MULTIPLIER
RESISTORS ARE CONNECTED IN SERIES, AND THE
RANGE SELECTOR SWITCHES THE APPROPRIATE
AMOUNT OF RESISTANCE INTO THE CIRCUIT IN
SERIES WITH THE METER MOVEMENT. THE
ADVANTAGE OF THIS CIRCUIT IS THAT ALL
MULTIPLIER RESISTORS EXCEPT THE FIRST RA HAVE
STANDARD RESISTANCE VALUES AND CAN BE
OBTAINED COMMERCIALLY IN PRECISION
TOLERANCE.
 𝐕∗
𝐑 ∗𝐬 = − 𝐑𝐦
𝐈𝐦
A basic d’Arsonval movement with internal resistance of 100Ω and half scale current deflection of 0.5 mA is to be
converted by indirect method into a multirange DC voltmeter with voltages ranges of 10V, 50V, 250V, and 500V.
EXAMPLE 10:
CALCULATE THE VALUE OF THE MULTIPLIER RESISTORS FOR THE MULTIPLE-RANGE DC VOLTMETER CIRCUIT
OF THE COMMERCIAL TYPE VOLTMETER SHOWN PREVIOUSLY. [59 KΩ, 140 KΩ, 400 KΩ]
VOLTMETER LOADING EFFECT

WHEN A VOLTMETER IS USED TO MEASURE THE VOLTAGE ACROSS A CIRCUIT COMPONENT, THE VOLTMETER
CIRCUIT ITSELF IS IN PARALLEL WITH THE CIRCUIT COMPONENT. SINCE THE PARALLEL COMBINATION OF TWO
RESISTORS IS LESS THAN EITHER RESISTOR ALONE, THE RESISTANCE SEEN BY THE SOURCE IS LESS WITH THE
VOLTMETER CONNECTED THAN WITHOUT. THEREFORE, THE VOLTAGE ACROSS THE COMPONENT IS LESS
WHENEVER THE VOLTMETER IS CONNECTED. THE DECREASE IN VOLTAGE MAY BE NEGLIGIBLE OR IT MAY BE
APPRECIABLE, DEPENDING ON THE SENSITIVITY OF THE VOLTMETER BEING USED. THIS EFFECT IS CALLED
VOLTMETER LOADING AND THE RESULTING ERROR IS CALLED A LOADING ERROR.
Also,
𝐼𝑚 𝑅𝑇ℎ
=
𝐼𝑒 𝑅𝑇ℎ + 𝑅𝑚
Example:
Two different voltmeters are used to measure the voltage across resistor RB in the circuit shown . The meters
are as follows:
Meter A: S = 1kΩ/V, Rm = 0.2kΩ, range = 10V
Meter B: S = 20kΩ/V, Rm = 1.5kΩ, range = 10V

Calculate
(a) Voltage across RB w/out any meter connected across it [5V]
(b) Voltage across RB when meter A is used [3.53V]
(c) Voltage across RB when meter B is used [4.9V]
(d) Error in voltmeter readings [29.4%, 2%]
PMMC OHMMETER

THE BASIC D’ARSONVAL METER MOVEMENT

MAY ALSO BE USED IN CONJUNCTION WITH A
BATTERY AND A RESISTOR TO CONSTRUCT A
SIMPLE OHMMETER CIRCUIT SUCH AS THE
ONE SHOWN. THE AMPLITUDE OF THE
CURRENT IS LIMITED BY THE RESISTORS RZ
AND RM.
 SERIES TYPE OHMMETER
• WHEN THERE IS NO RESISTANCE TO BE MEASURED,
THE CURRENT DRAWN BY THE CIRCUIT WILL BE
MAXIMUM AND THE METER WILL SHOW A
DEFLECTION.

• BY ADJUSTING R2 THE METER IS ADJUSTED TO A FULL-

SCALE CURRENT VALUE SINCE THE RESISTANCE WILL BE
ZERO AT THAT TIME. THE CO-RESPONDING POINTER
INDICATION IS MARKED AS ZERO. AGAIN, WHEN THE
TERMINAL AB IS OPENED IT PROVIDES VERY HIGH
RESISTANCE AND HENCE ALMOST ZERO CURRENT WILL
FLOW THROUGH THE CIRCUIT. IN THAT CASE, THE
POINTER DEFLECTION IS ZERO WHICH IS MARKED AT A
VERY HIGH VALUE FOR RESISTANCE MEASUREMENT.
SERIES TYPE OHMMETER

• SO, A RESISTANCE BETWEEN ZEROS TO A VERY HIGH VALUE IS MARKED AND HENCE CAN BE MEASURED.
SO, WHEN RESISTANCE IS TO BE MEASURED, THE CURRENT VALUE WILL BE SOMEWHAT LESS THAN THE
MAXIMUM AND THE DEFLECTION IS RECORDED AND ACCORDINGLY, RESISTANCE IS MEASURED.

• THIS METHOD IS GOOD BUT IT POSSESS CERTAIN LIMITATIONS SUCH AS THE DECREASE IN THE POTENTIAL
OF THE BATTERY WITH ITS USE SO ADJUSTMENT MUST BE MADE FOR EVERY USE. THE METER MAY NOT
READ ZERO WHEN TERMINALS ARE SHORTED, THESE TYPES OF PROBLEMS MAY ARISE WHICH IS
COUNTERACTED BY THE ADJUSTABLE RESISTANCE CONNECTED IN SERIES WITH THE BATTERY.
 SHUNT TYPE OHMMETER
• IN THIS TYPE OF METERS, WE HAVE A BATTERY
SOURCE, AND AN ADJUSTABLE RESISTOR IS
CONNECTED IN SERIES WITH THE SOURCE. WE HAVE
CONNECTED THE METER IN PARALLEL TO THE
RESISTANCE WHICH IS TO BE MEASURED. THERE IS A
SWITCH USING WHICH WE CAN ON OR OFF THE
CIRCUIT.
• THE SWITCH IS OPENED WHEN IT IS NOT IN USE. WHEN
THE RESISTANCE TO BE MEASURED IS ZERO, THE
TERMINALS A AND F ARE SHORTED SO THE CURRENT
THROUGH THE METER WILL BE ZERO. THE ZERO
POSITION OF THE METER DENOTES THE RESISTANCE TO
BE ZERO.
SHUNT TYPE OHMMETER

• WHEN THE RESISTANCE CONNECTED IS VERY HIGH, THEN A SMALL CURRENT WILL FLOW THE TERMINAL AF
AND HENCE FULL-SCALE CURRENT IS ALLOWED TO FLOW THROUGH THE METER BY ADJUSTING THE SERIES
RESISTANCE CONNECTED WITH THE BATTERY.
• SO, FULL-SCALE DEFLECTION MEASURES VERY HIGH RESISTANCE. WHEN THE RESISTANCE TO BE
MEASURED IS CONNECTED BETWEEN A AND F, THE POINTER SHOWS A DEFLECTION BY WHICH WE CAN
MEASURE THE RESISTANCE VALUES.

• IN THIS CASE, THE BATTERY PROBLEM MAY ARISE WHICH CAN BE COUNTERACTED BY ADJUSTING THE
RESISTANCE. THE METER MAY HAVE SOME ERROR DUE TO ITS REPEATED USE ALSO.
 MULTI-RANGE OHMMETER

• THIS INSTRUMENT PROVIDES THE READING UP TO A

VERY WIDE RANGE. IN THIS CASE, WE HAVE TO SELECT
THE RANGE SWITCH ACCORDING TO OUR
REQUIREMENTS. AN ADJUSTER IS PROVIDED SO THAT
WE CAN ADJUST THE INITIAL READING TO BE ZERO.
• THE RESISTANCE TO BE MEASURED IS CONNECTED IN
PARALLEL TO THE METER. THE METER IS ADJUSTED SO
THAT IT SHOWS FULL-SCALE DEFLECTION WHEN THE
TERMINALS IN WHICH THE RESISTANCE CONNECTED IS
FULL-SCALE RANGE THROUGH THE RANGE SWITCH.
MULTI-RANGE OHMMETER
• WHEN THE RESISTANCE IS ZERO OR SHORT CIRCUIT, THERE IS NO CURRENT FLOW THROUGH THE METER AND
HENCE NO DEFLECTION. SUPPOSE WE HAVE TO MEASURE A RESISTANCE UNDER 1 OHM, THEN THE RANGE
SWITCH IS SELECTED AT THE 1-OHM RANGE AT FIRST.

• THEN THAT RESISTANCE IS CONNECTED IN PARALLEL, AND THE CORRESPONDING METER DEFLECTION IS NOTED.
FOR 1 OHM RESISTANCE, IT SHOWS FULL-SCALE DEFLECTION BUT FOR THE RESISTANCE OTHER THAN 1 OHM IT
SHOWS A DEFLECTION WHICH IS LESS THAN THE FULL LOAD VALUE, AND HENCE RESISTANCE CAN BE MEASURED.

• THIS IS THE MOST SUITABLE METHOD OF ALL THE OHMMETERS AS WE CAN GET AN ACCURATE READING IN THIS
TYPE OF METER. SO, THIS METER IS MOST WIDELY USED NOWADAYS.
Analog Multi-meter