10TH, BIOLOGY: LIFE PROCESS CHP NO.

06

1. INTRODUCTION
The maintenance of living organism must go on even at the conditions, when they are not physically
active. Even when we sit idle and during sleeping, their maintenance job through cells functioning has to
go on. The life process includes the activities performed by the different organs to maintain the body.

Some of the life processes in the living beings are described below:
• Nutrition: The process of obtaining energy through consumption of food is called as nutrition.
• Respiration: The process of acquiring oxygen through breathing and make it available to cells for the
process of breaking down of simple food to release energy.
• Transportation: Transportation is the process by which the food and oxygen is carried from one organ
to other organs in the body.
• Excretion: It is the process by which the metabolic waste by- products are removed from the different
organs and released out of the body.

2. NUTRITION
The process by which an organism takes food and utilizes it is called nutrition.
Need of nutrition: Organisms need energy to perform various activities. The energy is supplied by the
nutrients. Organisms need various raw materials for growth and repair. These raw materials are provided
by nutrients

Nutrients: Materials which provide nutrition to organisms are called nutrients. Carbohydrates. Proteins
and fats are the main nutrients and are called macronutrients. Minerals and vitamins are required in
small amounts and hence are called micronutrients.
Types of nutrition:

• Autotrophic Nutrition: The mode of nutrition in which an organism prepares its own food is called
auto tropic mode of nutrition. Green plants and blue – green algae follow the auto tropic mode of
nutrition.
• Heterotrophic Nutrition: The mode of nutrition in which an organism cannot synthesize its own
food and is dependent on other organism (autotrophs) for food is called heterotrophic nutrition.
Organisms other than green plants and blue-green algae follow heterotrophic mode of nutrition.

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Autotropic nutrition: Auto tropic organisms are able to produce organic matter from simple
inorganic materials. They consequently create their own food – but require a source of energy to do
this.
- Photoautrophs harvest energy from light to produce organic matter.
- Chemoautotrophs use energy from inorganic reactions in the environment to drive the creation
of organic matter.

Heterotrophic nutrition: Heterotrophic nutrition is typical of animals. These organisms eat organic
matter in other organisms – either alive (as hunters) or dead (as scavengers).
Heterotrophic nutrition can be further classified into

Saprophytic nutrition - In this mode of nutrition, the organism breaks down the food material outside
the body (externally) and then absorbs it. The food is broken down by the enzymes present in the
digestive juice that secrete externally.

Saprophytic organisms are the decay organism. They digest dead materials using enzymes that they
secrete externally. Fungi like bread mould, yeast, mushroom and many bacteria are saprophytes.
All the decomposers follow saprophytic nutrition. Some insects, like housefly also follow this mode of
nutrition.

➢ Holozoic nutrition: In holozoic nutrition the digestion happens inside the body of the organism, i.e.
after the food is ingested. Most of the animals follow this mode of nutrition.

➢ Parasitic nutrition: In this mode, the organisms derive nutrition from plants and animals without
killing them. Examples of parasites are cuscuta (amarbel), ticks, lice, leeches and tapeworms.

3. PLANT NUTRITION
Green plants prepare their own food. They make food in the presence of sunlight. Sunlight provides
energy, carbon dioxide and water are the raw materials and chloroplast is the site where food is made.

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[Link]: The process by which green plants prepare food is called photosynthesis.
During this process the solar energy is converted into chemical energy and carbohydrates are
formed. Green leaves are the main sites of photosynthesis. The green portion of the plants contains a
pigment chloroplast, which contains chlorophyll. The whole process of photosynthesis can be shown
by the following equation
6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2
Water used in photosynthesis taken up from the soil by the roots in the terrestrial plants.

3.2. Steps of photosynthesis

- Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll
- Conversion of light energy to chemical energy and splitting of water molecule into hydrogen and
oxygen.
- Reduction of carbon dioxide to carbohydrates

The splitting of water molecule is part of the light reaction. Other steps are part of the dark
reaction during photosynthesis. Oxygen is the byproduct of photosynthesis. Carbohydrates
produced are utilized for providing energy to the plant. Carbohydrates are subsequently
converted into starch and are stored in leaves and other storage parts. Starch serves as an internal
energy reserve as and when required by the plant.

3.3. Significance of photosynthesis

• Photosynthesis is the main way through which solar energy is made available for different living beings
• Green plants are the main producers of food in the ecosystem. All other organism directly or indirectly
depends on green plants for food.
• The process of photosynthesis also helps in maintaining the balance of carbon dioxide and oxygen in the
air.

[Link] section of leaf and stomata

Stomata- They are the tiny pores present on the surface of the leaves. Gaseous exchange takes place
in the leaves through these pores for the process of photosynthesis.

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The plant closes its pore when it does not need carbon dioxide for photosynthesis. The opening and
closing of the stomatal pore is the function of the guard cell.
The guard cells swell when water flows into them, causing the stomatal pore to open.
When the guard cells shrink, the stomatal pore closes.

Diagram of Stomatal pore

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4. ANIMAL NUTRITION
Heterotrophic Nutrition: When an organism takes food from another organism, it is called
heterotrophic nutrition. Different heterotrophic organisms follow different methods to take and utilize
food. Based on this heterotrophic nutrition can be divided into two types.
• Saprophytic Nutrition: In saprophytic nutrition the digestion of food takes place before ingestion of
food. This type of nutrition is usually seen in fungi and some other microorganism. The organism
secretes digestive enzymes on the food and then ingests the simpler substances. Saprophytes feed on
dead materials and thus help in decomposition dead remains of plants and animals.
• Holozoic nutrition: In Holozoic nutrition, the digestion of food after the ingestion of food. Thus
digestion takes place inside the body of the organism. Holozoic nutrition happens in five steps. viz
ingestion, digestion, absorption, assimilation and egestion.

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Steps of holozoic nutrition

• Ingestion: The process of taking in the food is called ingestion
• Digestion: The process of breaking complex food substances into simpler molecules is called
digestion. Simple molecules thus obtained can be absorbed by the body.
• Absorption: The process of absorption of digested food is called absorption.
• Assimilation: The process of utilization of digested food for energy and for growth and repair is
called assimilation.
• Egestion: The process of removing undigested food from the body is called egestion.

Nutrition in amoeba
Amoeba is a unicellular animal which follows holozoic mode of nutrition. The cell membrane of
amoeba keeps on protruding into pseudopodia. Amoeba surrounds a food particle with
pseudopodia and makes a food vacuole. The food vacuole contains the food particle and water.
Digestive enzymes are secreted in the food vacuole and digestion takes place. After that digested
food is absorbed from the food vacuole. Finally the food vacuole moves near the cell membrane
and undigested food is expelled out.

Nutrition in Paramoecium
Paramoecium is also a unicellular organism.
The cell has a definite shape. The food is taken in at a definite spot.
The food is moved to this spot by the movement of cilia which cover the entire surface of the
cell. This is the first step in the nutrition of Paramoecium which is called ingestion and is
followed by digestion, absorption, assimilation and egestion.

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5. NUTRITION IN HUMAN BEINGS

Human beings are complex animals which have a complex digestive system. The human digestive
system is composed of an alimentary canal and some accessory glands. The alimentary canal is divided
into several parts, viz, oesophagus stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum and anus. Salivary
glands, liver and pancreas are the accessory glands which lie outside the alimentary canal.

5.1. Structure of the human digestive system

• Mouth or buccal cavity: The mouth has teeth and tongue. Salivary glands are also present in the
mouth. The tongue has gustatory receptors which perceive the sense of taste. Tongue helps in
turning over the food, so that saliva can be properly mixed in it.
- Teeth help in breaking down the food into smaller particles so that swallowing of food becomes
easier. There are four types of teeth in human beings. The incisor teeth are used for cutting the
food. The canine teeth for tearing the food and for cracking hard substances. The premolars are
used for coarse grinding of food. The molars are used for fine grinding of food.
- Salivary glands secrete saliva. Saliva makes the food slippery which makes it easy to swallow
the food. Saliva also contains the enzyme salivary amylase or ptyalin. Salivary moistens the
ingested food with mucus, sterilizes it with lysozyme and partially digests starch part of food into
sugar with the help of salivary amylase or ptyalin.

• Oesophagus(food pipe)
- The slightly digested food from the mouth enters the food pipe.
- When the slightly digested food enters the food pipe, the walls of food pipe start contraction and
expansion movements called as peristaltic movements.
- This peristaltic movement of food pipe pushes the slightly digested food into the stomach.

• Stomach: Stomach is a bag like organ. Highly muscular walls of the stomach help in churning
the food. The walls of stomach secrete hydrochloric acid. Hydrochloric acid kills the germs
which may be present in food. Moreover it makes the medium inside the stomach as acidic. The
acidic medium is necessary for gastric enzymes to work. The enzyme pepsin secreted in stomach
does partial digestion of protein. The mucus secreted by the walls of the stomach saves the inner
lining of stomach from getting damaged from the hydrochloric acid.

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• Small intestine: It is a highly coiled tube like structure. The small intestine is longer than the
large intestine but its lumen is smaller than that of the large intestine. The small intestine is
divided into three parts viz duodenum, jejunum and ileum. From stomach acidic food enters
small intestine, the longest part of alimentary canal and this is regulated by sphincter muscle.
Complete digestion of carbohydrates, protein and fats take place in the small intestine by the
secretions of liver and pancreas

• Liver: Liver is the largest organ in the human body. Liver manufactures bile, which gets stored
in gall bladder. From the gall bladder bile is released as and when required.

• Pancreas: Pancreas is situated below the stomach. It secretes pancreatic juice which contains
many digestive enzymes. Bile and pancreatic juice go to the duodenum through a hepato –
pancreatic duct. Bile secreted by liver makes the acidic food alkaline and acts on large globules
of fat into smaller globules so that the enzymes can act on easily. The process of breakdown of
large fats globules into small globules which increases the efficiency of the pancreatic enzymes
is called emulsification of fats. Pancreas secretes pancreatic juice which contains
enzyme Trypsin and chymotrypsin for digesting proteins, lipase for digesting emulsified fats.
The walls of the small intestine contain glands secreting intestinal juice which converts finally
complex carbohydrates into glucose, proteins to amino acids and fats into fatty acid.
- After that the enzyme lipase digests fat into fatty acids and glycerol. Trypsin and chymotrypsin
are enzymes which digest protein into amino acids .Complex carbohydrates are digested into
glucose. The major part of digestion takes place in the duodenum.
- No digestion takes place in jejunum. The inner wall in the ileum is projected into numerous
finger- like structures called villi. Villi increase the surface area inside the ileum so that optimum
absorption can take place.
- The villi are richly supplied with blood vessels and these take absorbed food to all the cells of
the body, where it is utilized for obtaining energy, building up new tissues and the repair of old
tissues.

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• Large intestine: Large intestine is smaller than small intestine. Undigested food goes into the
large intestine. Some water and salt are absorbed by the walls of the large intestine. After that the
undigested food goes to the rectum from where it is expelled out through the anus. The excretion
of waste materials by anus is regulated by the anal sphincter.

[Link] of digestion: Secretions of liver and pancreas mixes with food. Pancreatic enzymes
make it alkaline. Bile juice from liver too helps in it. Bile salts break the fat present in the
form of large globules into smaller ones, increasing the efficiency of enzyme action.
Enzymes like Trypsin digest proteins and lipase breaks down fats. Intestinal juice converts
proteins to amino acids, complex carbohydrate to glucose and fat into fatty acids and
glycerol.

NOTE

• Phloem tissue transports soluble products of photosynthesis

• Xylem tissue transports water and minerals in plants
• Diffusion is insufficient to meet the oxygen requirements of multicellular organisms like
human: Multicellular organism such as human possesses complex body designs. They have
specialized cells and tissues for performing various necessary function of the body such as intake
of food and oxygen. Unlike unicellular organism, multicellular cells are not in direct contact
with the outside environment. Therefore diffusion cannot meet their oxygen requirements.
[NCERT]
• Criteria to decide something is alive: Any visible movement such as walking, breathing or
growing in generally used to decide whether something is alive or not. However, a living
organism can also have movements, which are not visible to the naked eye. Therefore, the
presence of life processes is a fundamental criterion that can be used to decide whether
something is alive or not. [NCERT]
• Outside raw materials used for by a living organism: An organism uses outside raw materials
mostly in the form of food and oxygen. The raw materials required by an organism can be quite
varied depending on the complexity of the organism and its environment. [NCERT]
• Difference between Autotrophic and Heterotrophic nutrition [NCERT]

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• The raw materials for photosynthesis become available to the plant as [NCERT]
- Water comes from soil, through the xylem tissue in roots and stems
- Carbon dioxide comes in the leaves through stomata
- Sunlight, an important component to manufacture food, is absorbed by the chlorophyll and other
green parts of the plants.
• Life process such as nutrition, respiration, transportation, excretion etc are essential for
maintaining life. [NCERT]
• Other materials needed by the plants like nitrogen; phosphorous, iron and magnesium are
taken up from the soil.
• Nitrogen is an essential element used in the synthesis of proteins and other compounds. It is
taken up in the form of inorganic nitrates or nitrites. Or it is taken up as organic compounds
which have been prepared by bacteria from atmospheric nitrogen.
• In small intestine food is completely digested
• Pancreatic juice contains Trypsin enzyme
• Liver secretes bile juice
• Large intestine absorbs water from unabsorbed food
• HCL and Enzymes are 2 secretions released by gastric glands
• Digesting of fats occurs in duodenum and jejunum parts of small intestine with the help of
enzyme lipase that acts on emulsified fat to form fatty acid and glycerol.
• Small intestine in alimentary canal is the site of complete digestion of carbohydrates, proteins
and fats in humans.
• Nutrition a necessity for an organism because it is required to provide energy to the various
metabolic processes in the body. It is essential for the growth of new cells and repair or

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replacement of worn out cells. It is needed to develop resistance against various

diseases.[NCERT exemplar]
• The 2 events that occur in photosynthesis are absorption of light energy by chlorophyll and
conversion of light energy into chemical energy and splitting up of water molecules into
hydrogen and oxygen
• Digestion starts from buccal cavity in mouth and its enzyme is salivary amylase.
• Final products after digestion
Carbohydrates – Glucose
Proteins – Amino acids
Fats – Glycerol + Fatty acids
• The function of
- Gastric sphincter : Controls the release of food from the stomach to small intestine
- Anal sphincter : Controls the release of undigested waste from the rectum through the anus
- Muscles of stomach wall :Help in mixing the food thoroughly with more digestive juice by
peristalsis
- HCL acid :Creates an acidic medium which facilitates the action of the enzyme pepsin
- Mucus: Protects the inner lining of the stomach from the action of the acid.
• If all plants are removed from the surface: If all plants were to be removed from the surface of
Earth, there will be excess of carbon dioxide cause there are no plants to convert it into oxygen.
Green plants are the sources of energy for all organism, all herbivores will die due to starvation.
[NCERT exemplar]
• Herbivores have longer small intestine to allow the cellulose to be digested completely.
Herbivores have longer intestine than carnivores to digest grass. The intestine would host many
small bacteria that process and breakdown cellulose into glucose.
• Small intestine designed to absorb food: The digested food is taken up by the walls of the
intestine. The inner lining of the small intestine has numerous fingers – like projections called
villi which increase the surface area for absorption. The villi are richly supplied with blood
vessels which take the absorbed food to each and every cell of the body.
• Peristaltic movement: The lining off alimentary canal has muscles that contract rhythmically in
order to push the food forward. This is called peristaltic movements [CBSE marking scheme]

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• Role of Bile juice in digestion of food: The food coming from the stomach is acidic and has to
be made alkaline for the pancreatic enzyme to act. Bile juice accomplishes this. Bile salts break
down larger globules of fats into smaller globules increasing the efficiency of enzyme action.
• Trypsin + Proteins → Amino acids
• Amylase + Carbohydrates → Simple sugars
• Lipase + Fats →fatty acids + Glycerol

6. RESPIRATION
The process by which a living being utilizes the food to get energy is called respiration.

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Respiration is an oxidation reaction in which carbohydrate is oxidized to produce energy. Mitochondria

are the site of respiration and the energy released is stored in the form of ATP (Adenosine triphosphate).
ATP is stored in mitochondria and is released as per needed.
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy

[Link] of respiration
- Breaking down glucose into pyruvate: This step happens in the cytoplasm. Glucose molecule
is broken down into pyruvic acid. Glucose molecule is composed of 6 carbon atoms while
pyruvic acid is composed of 3 carbon atoms.
- Fate of pyruvic acid: Further breaking down of pyruvic acid take place in mitochondria and the
molecules formed depend on the type of respiration in a particular organism. Respiration is of
two types, aerobic respiration and anaerobic respiration.

[Link] of respiration
- Aerobic respiration: This type of respiration happens in the presence of oxygen. Pyruvic acid is
converted into carbon dioxide. Energy is released and water molecule is also formed at the end
of this process.
- Anaerobic respiration: This type of respiration happens in the absence of oxygen. Pyruvic acid
is either converted into ethyl alcohol or lactic acid. Ethyl alcohol is usually formed in case of
anaerobic respiration in microbes, like yeast or bacteria. Lactic acid is formed in some microbes
as well as in the muscle cells.

Differences [NCERT]

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6.3. Breakdown of glucose in a cell to provide energy [NCERT]

Glucose is first broken down in the cell cytoplasm into a 3 carbon molecule called pyruvate.
Pyruvate is further broken down by different ways to provide energy

[Link] in leg muscles on running (crams): When someone runs too fast, he may experience a
throbbing pain in the leg muscles. This happens because of anaerobic respiration taking place in the
muscles. During running the energy demand from the muscle cells increases, this is compensated by
anaerobic respiration and lactic acid is formed in the process. The deposition of lactic acid causes the
pain the leg muscles. The pain subsides after taking rest for some time.

[Link] OF GASES: For aerobic respiration organism need a continuous supply of oxygen
and carbon dioxide produced during the process needs to be removed from the body. Different
organism use different methods for intake of oxygen and expulsion of carbon dioxide.
- Diffusion is the method which is utilized by unicellular and some simple organism for this
purpose.
- In plants also, diffusion is the process utilized for exchange of gases through stomata and the
large inter cellular spaces ensure that the cells are close contact with the air
- In complex animals, respiratory system does the job of exchange of gases.

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- Gills are the respiratory organs for fish. Fish take in water through their mouths and force it past
the gills where the dissolved oxygen is taken up by the blood.
- Since availability of oxygen is less in the aquatic environment, the breathing rate of aquatic
organism is faster than the terrestrial organism
- Insects have a system of spiracles and trachea which is used for taking in oxygen.
- Terrestrial organisms have developed lungs for exchange of gases. Availability of oxygen is not
a problem in terrestrial environment so breathing rate is slower compared to what it is in fishes.

[Link] of glucose in a cell to provide energy

- Glucose is first broken down in the cell cytoplasm into a 3 carbon molecule called pyruvate.
Pyruvate is further broken down by different ways to provide energy.
- The energy released during cellular respiration is immediately used to synthesize a molecule
called ATP. ATP is used to fuel all the activities of the [Link] is broken down giving rise to a
fixed amount of energy which can drive endothermic reactions taking place in the cell.

7. HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

The human respiratory system is composed of a pair of lungs. These are attached to a system of tubes
which open on the outside through then nostrils.
Following are the main structures in the human respiratory system.
Nostrils: There are two nostrils which converge to form a nasal passage. The inner lining of the nostrils
is lined by hairs and remains wet due to mucus secretion. The mucus and the hairs help in filtering the
dust particles out from inhaled air. Further, air is warmed up when it enters the nasal passage.
Pharynx: It is a tube like structure which continues after the nasal passage.
Larynx: This part comes after the pharynx. This is also called the voice box.
Trachea: This is composed of rings of cartilage. Cartilaginous rings prevent the collapse of trachea in
the absence of air.
Bronchi: A pair of bronchi comes out from the trachea, with one bronchus going to each lung.
Bronchioles: A bronchus divides into branches and sub- branches inside the lung.
Alveoli: These are air sacs at the end of bronchioles. Alveolus is composed of a very thin membrane and
is the place where blood capillaries open. This is alveolus where oxygen mixes with the blood and
carbon dioxide exit from the blood. The exchange of gases in alveoli takes place due to pressure

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differential. The blood brings carbon dioxide from the rest of the body for release into the alveoli, and
the oxygen in the alveolar air is taken up by the blood in the alveolar blood vessels to be transported to
all the cells of the body.

[Link] of carbon dioxide and oxygen in human beings [NCERT]

- Hemoglobin transports oxygen molecule to all the body cell for cellular respiration
- The hemoglobin pigment present in the blood gets attached to four O2 molecules that are
obtained from breathing. It thus forms oxy-hemoglobin and the blood becomes oxygenated. This
oxygenated blood is then distributed to all the body cells by the heart. After giving away O2 to
the body cells, blood takes away CO2 which is the end product of cellular respiration. Now the
blood becomes de-oxygenated.
- Since hemoglobin pigment has less affinity for CO2, CO2 is mainly transported in the dissolved
form. This de-oxygenated blood gives CO2 to lung alveoli and takes O2 in return.

Breathing mechanism: The breathing mechanism of lungs is controlled by the diaphragm and the
intercostal muscles. Diaphragm is a membrane which separates the thoracic chamber from the
abdominal cavity. When diaphragm moves down, the lungs expand and air is inhaled. When diaphragm
moves up, the lungs contact and air is exhaled. During the breathing cycle, when air is taken and let out,
the lungs always contain a residual volume of air so that there is sufficient time for oxygen to be
absorbed and for the carbon dioxide to be released.

*
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NOTE

• A physical process by which oxygen is taken in and CO2 is given out is called breathing
• In respiratory pigment in human beings is hemoglobin, it is present in RBC of blood in humans
• Diffusion is the principle of exchange of gases
• Aerobic respiration occurs in mitochondria of the cell
• Oxygenated and deoxygenated bloods are separate in heart of mammals because this allows highly
efficient supply of oxygen and meet their high energy needs as they are warm blooded animals.
• Diaphragm separates chest cavity from abdominal cavity
• Lungs in humans are designed to maximize the area for exchange of gases: The exchange of gases
takes place between the blood of the capillaries that surround the alveoli and the gases present in the
alveoli. Thus, alveoli are the site for exchange of gases. The lungs get filled up with air during the
process of inhalation as ribs are lifted up and diaphragm is flattened. The air that is rushed inside the
lungs fills the numerous alveoli present in the lungs. [NCERT]
• Regulation of guard cells of stomatal pores: The swelling of guard cells due to absorption of water
causes opening of stomatal pores while shrinking of guard cells closes the pores. Opening and closing
of stomata occurs due to turgor changes in guard cells. When the guard cells are turgid, stomatal pores
is open while in flaccid condition the stomatal aperture closes.
• Consequences of a deficiency of hemoglobin in our bodies: Hemoglobin is the respiratory pigment that
transports oxygen to the body cells for cellular respiration. Therefore, deficiency of hemoglobin in blood
can affect the oxygen supplying capacity of blood. This can lead to deficiency of oxygen in the body
cells. It can also lead to a disease called anemia. [NCERT]
• Alveoli designed to maximize the exchange of gases: The alveoli are the small balloon-like structures
present in the lungs. The walls of the alveoli consist of extensive network of blood vessels. Each lung
contains 300−350 million alveoli, making it a total of approximately 700 million in both the lungs. The
alveolar surface when spread out covers about 80 m2 area. This large surface area makes the gaseous
exchange more efficient. [NCERT]
• How desert plants perform photosynthesis if their stomata remains closed during day time?
Desert plants take up carbon dioxide at night and prepare an intermediate compound which is acted
upon by the energy and absorbed by the chlorophyll during the day.
• Three characteristics of lungs which makes it an efficient respiratory surface is

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- It has large surface area and branched

- Contains an extensive network of blood vessels
- It is thin, delicate and fine [CBSE marking scheme]

8. TRANSPORTATION IN AIMALS
Circulatory system: The circulatory system is responsible for transport of various substances in human
beings. It is composed of the heart arteries, veins and blood capillaries. Blood plays the role of the
carrier of substances.

Heart: Heart is a muscular organ which is composed of cardiac muscles. It is so small that it can fit
inside and adult’s fist. The heart is a pumping organ which pumps the blood. The human heart is
composed of four chambers right auricle, right ventricle, left auricle and left ventricle.
Systole: Contraction of cardiac muscles is called systole.
Diastole: Relaxation of cardiac muscles is called diastole.
Arteries: These are thick walled blood vessels which carry oxygenated blood from the heart to different
organs. Pulmonary arteries are exception because they carry deoxygenated blood from heart to lungs
where oxygenation of blood takes place.
Veins: These are thin walled blood vessels which carry deoxygenated blood from different organs to the
heart. Pulmonary veins are exceptions because they carry oxygenated blood from lungs to the heart.
Valves are present in veins to prevent back flow of blood.
Capillaries: These are blood vessels which have single-celled walls. Blood capillaries connect arteries
and veins.
Blood: Blood is a connective tissue which plays the role of the carrier for various substances in the
body. Blood is composed of plasma, blood cells and platelets.
Blood plasma: Blood plasma is a pale coloured liquid which is composed of water. Blood plasma forms
the matrix of blood.
Blood cells: There are two types of blood cells. Red blood Cells (RBC’s) and white blood cells (WBC’s)
Red blood corpuscles (RBC): These are of red colour because of the presence of hemoglobin which is
a pigment. Hemoglobin readily combines with oxygen and carbon dioxide. The transport of oxygen
happens through hemoglobin. Some part of carbon dioxide is also transported through hemoglobin.

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White blood corpuscles (WBCS): These are of pale white colour. They play important role in the
immunity.
Platelets: Platelets are responsible for blood coagulation. Blood coagulation is a defense mechanism
which prevents excess loss of blood in case of an injury.
Lymph: Lymph is similar to blood but RBC’s are absent in Lymph. Lymph is formed from the fluid
which leaks from blood capillaries and goes to the intercellular spaces in the tissues. This fluid is
collected through lymph vessels and finally returns to the blood capillaries. Lymph also plays an
important role in the immune system. Lymph carries digested and absorbed fat from the intestine and
drains excess fluid from extracellular space into the blood.
Double Circulation: In the human heart, blood passes through the heart twice in one cardiac cycle. This
type of circulation is called double circulation. One complete heart beat in which all the chambers of the
heart contract and relax once is called cardiac cycle. The heart beats about 72 times per minute in a
normal adult. In one cardiac cycle the heart pumps out 70 mL blood and thus about 4900 mL blood in a
minute. Double circulation ensures complete segregation of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood which
is necessary for optimum production in warm- blooded animals.
In animals that do not use energy to maintain body temperature amphibians or many reptiles have three
chambered hearts and tolerate some mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.
Fish have two chambered heart and the blood is pumped to the gills, is oxygenated there and passes
directly to the rest of the body. Thus the blood goes only once through the heart in the fish during one
cycle of passage through the body.
In vertebrates, the blood goes through the heart twice during each cycle. This is known as double
circulation.

NOTE

• It is necessary to separate oxygenated blood and deoxygenated blood by mammals and birds: Warm-
blooded animals such as birds and mammals maintain a constant body temperature by cooling
themselves when they are in a hotter environment and by warming their bodies when they are in a
cooler environment. Hence, these animals require more oxygen (O2) for more cellular respiration so
that they can produce more energy to maintain their body temperature. [NCERT]
• Capillaries are the site of exchange of material between the blood and surrounding cells.
• The largest artery in the human body is Aorta

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• Ventricles have to pump blood into various organs so they have thicker walls than the walls of atria.
• Lymph carries digested and absorbed fat from intestine.
• Lymph is a colourless fluid containing white blood cells containing less protein than plasma. Its function
is to carry digested fat/absorption of fat and drains excess of fluid from extracellular space back into the
blood. [CBSE marking scheme]

Circulation of blood through the heart

Systematic Vein → Sinus venous → Right Auricle → Right Ventricle → Pulmonary Artery → Lungs →
Pulmonary vein → Left Auricle → Left ventricle → Trunchus → Arteriosusu → Systematic Circulation
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• Schematic representation of transport and exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide

• The blood circulation in human heart is called double circulation because the blood passes through
the heart twice in one complete cycle of the body – once through the right half in the form of
deoxygenated blood and once through the left half in the form of oxygenated blood.
• Veins have thin walls compared to arteries because the walls of the arteries are found to be thicker
than that of a Vein because the blood that is carried from the heart to the capillaries has more high
pressure. As the blood flowing through the veins does not have much pressure as in that of the arteries
their walls are thinner as compared to artery walls.
• Arteries are thick walled blood vessel: Thick walls of arteries help them to resist the pressure of flow of
blood in them. Arteries are elastic so as to produce enough pressure to push the blood and help it flow.
[NCERT exemplar]
• Veins are thin walled blood vessels because veins collect the blood from different organs and bring it
back to the heart. The blood is no longer under pressure and blood flows only in one direction.
[NCERT exemplar]
• Veins have valve in them: Main function of valve is to prevent back flow of blood. Since the blood
pressure in veins is very low they have valves that prevent back flow of blood.
[NCERT exemplar]
• The components of the transport system in human beings: The main components of the transport
system in human beings are the heart, blood, and blood vessels. Their function are:

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- Heart pumps oxygenated blood throughout the body. It receives deoxygenated blood from the
various body parts and sends this impure blood to the lungs for oxygenation.
- Heart pumps oxygenated blood throughout the body. It receives deoxygenated blood from the
various body parts and sends this impure blood to the lungs for oxygenation.
- The blood vessels (arteries, veins, and capillaries) carry blood either away from the heart to
various organs or from various organs back to the heart. [NCERT]

9. BLOOD PRESSURE
The force that blood exerts against the wall of a vessel is called blood pressure. This pressure is much
greater in arteries than in veins. The pressure of blood inside the artery during ventricular systole
(contraction) is called systolic pressure and pressure in artery during ventricular diastole (relaxation) is
called diastolic pressure. The normal systolic pressure is about 120mm of Hg and diastolic pressure is
80mm of Hg.
Blood pressure is measured with an instrument called sphygmomanometer. High blood pressure is also
called hypertension and is caused by constriction of arterioles, which results in increased resistance to
blood flow. It can lead to the rupture of an artery and internal bleeding.

[Link] IN PLANTS
- Soil is the natural and richest source of raw material for plants.
- Raw materials like nitrogen, phosphorous and other minerals are absorbed by plants from soil by roots.
- Plants absorb water and minerals from soil by roots and transport to the leaves.
- As the distance between roots and leaves is large, diffusion is not sufficient to provide raw materials to
leaves and energy to roots.
- Plants use slow transport system but large, as required in tall plants to transport energy from leaves and
raw materials form roots.
- A group of special cells forming vascular tissue transport water and nutrients to all the cells of the
plants.

Plants have specialized vascular tissues for transportation of substances. There are two types of vascular
tissues in plants. Viz, xylem and phloem [NCERT]

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Xylem: Xylem is responsible for transportation of water and minerals. It is composed of tracheids,
xylem vessels, and xylem parenchyma and xylem fibers. Tracheids and xylem vessels are the conducting
elements. The xylem makes a continuous tube in plants which runs from roots to stem and right up to the
veins of leaves.

Transportation of water and minerals is plants [NCERT]

The components of xylem tissue (tracheids and vessels) of roots, stems, and leaves are interconnected to
form a continuous system of water-conducting channels that reaches all parts of the plant. Transpiration
creates a suction pressure, as a result of which water is forced into the xylem cells of the roots. Then
there is a steady movement of water from the root xylem to all the plant parts through the interconnected
water-conducting channels

Phloem: Phloem is responsible for transportation of food. Phloem is composed of sieve tubes
companion cells, phloem parenchyma and bast fibers. Sieve tubes are the conducting elements in
phloem.

Transportation of food in plants [NCERT]

Phloem transports food materials from the leaves to different parts of the plant body. The transportation
of food in phloem is achieved by utilizing energy from ATP. As a result of this, the osmotic pressure in
the tissue increases causing water to move into it. This pressure moves the material in the phloem to the
tissues which have less pressure. This is helpful in moving materials according to the needs of the plant.
For example, the food material, such as sucrose, is transported into the phloem tissue using ATP energy.

Ascent of sap: The upward movement of water and minerals from the roots to different plants parts is
called ascent of sap. Many factors are at play in ascent of sap and it takes place in many steps. They are
explained as follows:

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Root pressure: The walls of cells of root hairs are very thin. Water from soil enters the root hairs
because of osmosis. Root pressure is responsible for movement of water up to the base of the stem.
Capillary action: A very fine tube is called capillary. Water or any liquid rises in the capillary because
of physical forces and this phenomenon is called capillary action. Water in stem rises up to some height
because of capillary action.
Adhesion – cohesion of water molecules: Water molecules make a continuous column in the xylem
because of forces of adhesion and cohesion among the molecules.
Transpiration pull: Loss of water through stomata and lenticels in plants is called transpiration.
Transpiration through stomata creates vaccum which creates suction, called transpiration pull. The
transpiration pull sucks the water column from the xylem tubes and thus water is able to rise to great
heights in even the tallest plants.
Transport of food: Transport of food in plants happens because of utilization of energy. Thus unlike
the transport through xylem it is a form of active transport. Moreover the flow of substances through
phloem takes place in both directions. I.e. it is two way traffic in phloem.

NOTE

• The methods used by plants to get rid of excretory products: Plants can get rid of excess of water by
transpiration. Waste materials may be stored in the cell vacuoles or as gum and resin, especially in old
xylem. It is also stored in the leaves that later fall off. [NCERT]
• Transport of soluble product of photosynthesis or food from leaves to other parts of plants is called
translocation. For translocation, food molecules enter the part of the phloem called the sieve tubes
where they can be transported upwards or downwards to all the parts of the plant including roots.

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Translocation is achieved by utilizing energy from the ATP that provides osmotic pressure required for
upward and downward movement of food.
• The process of transpiration is useful to plants because the upward movement of sap or water from
roots to leaves
- Regulates temperature
- Under optimal condition, leaf can transpire its own weight of water in less than an hour.
- Phloem tissues help in transport of food.
- Food is transported in both upward and downward direction.
- Transports of food in phloem required energy in the form of ATP.

[Link]
The biological process of removal of harmful nitrogenous metabolic waste from the body is called
excretion. Unicellular organisms excrete by diffusion from the body surface into the surrounding water
and multicellular organisms use specialized organ to perform same function.
Many wastes are produced during various metabolic activities. These need to be removed in time
because their accumulation in the body can be harmful and even lethal for an organism.

HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM

The human excretory system is composed of a pair of kidneys. A tube called ureter, comes out of each
kidney and goes to the urinary bladder. Urine is collected in the urinary bladder, from where it is
expelled out through urethra as and when required.

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Kidney: Kidney is a bean shaped organ which lies near the vertebral column in the abdominal cavity.
The kidney is composed of many filtering units called nephrons. Nephron is called the functional unit of
kidney.

Function of kidneys
- Nephrons are the basic filtration unit of human beings. It removes poisonous substances such as
urea and other salts along with excess water from the blood and urine that is excreted out from
the body
- It regulates the osmotic pressure /water balance of the blood
- It regulates pH of the blood.

Nephron: It is composed of a tangled mess of tubes and a filtering part called glomerulus. Glomerulus is
a network of blood capillaries to which renal artery is attached. The artery which takes blood to the
glomerulus is called afferent arteriole and the one receiving blood from the glomerulus is called efferent
arteriole. Glomerulus is enclosed in a capsule like portion called Bowman’s capsule. The Bowman’s
capsule extends into a fine tube which is highly coiled. Tubes from various nephrons converge into
collecting duct which finally goes to the ureter.

Structure and functioning of nephrons [NCERT]

Nephrons are the basic filtering units of kidneys. Each kidney possesses large number of nephrons,
approximately 1-1.5 million. The main components of the nephron are glomerulus, Bowman’s capsule,
and a long renal tubule.

Functioning of a nephron
- The blood enters the kidney through the renal artery, which branches into many capillaries
associated with glomerulus.
- The water and solute are transferred to the nephron at Bowman’s capsule.
- In the proximal tubule, some substances such as amino acids, glucose, and salts are selectively
reabsorbed and unwanted molecules are added in the urine
- The filtrate then moves down into the loop of Henle, where more water is absorbed.

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- From here, the filtrate moves upwards into the distal tubule and finally to the collecting duct.
Collecting duct collects urine from many nephrons.
- The urine formed in each kidney enters a long tube called ureter. From ureter, it gets transported
to the urinary bladder and then into the urethra.

Filtration in glomerulus: Filtration happens because of very high pressure inside the glomerulus. The
lumen of efferent arteriole is smaller than that of afferent arteriole. Due to this the blood entering the
glomerulus experiences very high pressure and due to this the waste products are filtered out through the
thin membrane of capillaries in the glomerulus. The filtered blood is sent to the systematic circulation
through efferent arteriole and the filtrate goes to the Bowman’s capsule. That is how urine is formed
inside the kidneys. Reabsorption of water and some other filtrates takes place in the tubular part of the
[Link] increases the concentration of urine. The human urine is mainly composed of water and
urea.

Excretion in plant: Plants have no special organs for removal of waste. The waste products of
respiration and photosynthesis are used as raw materials for each other. Oxygen gas produced as a by -
product of photosynthesis is used up during respiration and carbon dioxide produced during respiration
is sued up during photosynthesis.

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Excretion is carried out in plants in the following ways: [NCERT]

1. The gaseous waste, oxygen, carbon dioxide and water vapour are removed through stomata of leaves
and lenticels of stems.
2. Some waste products collect in the leaves and bark of trees. When the leaves and bark are shed, the
wastes are eliminated.
3. Some waste products are rendered harmless and then stored in the plant body as solid bodies.
Raphides, tannins resins gum, rubber and essential oils are some such wastes.

Artificial kidneys (Hemodialysis)

- Kidneys are vital organs for survival. Several factors like infection, injury or restricted blood
flow to kidneys reduce the activity of kidneys. This leads to accumulation of poisonous wastes in
the body, which can even lead to death.
- In case of kidney failure, an artificial kidney can be used. An artificial kidney is a device to
remove nitrogenous waste products from the blood through dialysis.
- Artificial kidneys contain a number of tubes with a semi-permeable lining, suspended in a tank
filled with dialyzing fluid. This fluid has the same osmotic pressure as blood, except that it is
devoid of nitrogenous wastes. The patient’s blood is passed through these tubes.
- During this passage, the waste products from the blood pass into dialyzing fluid by diffusion.
- The purified blood is pumped back into the patient. This is similar to the function of the kidney,
but it is different since there is no reabsorption involved.

NOTE

• Regulation of urine produced: The amount of urine produced depends on the amount of excess water
and dissolved wastes present in the body. Some other factors such as habitat of an organism and
hormone such as Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) also regulates the amount of urine produced. [NCERT]
• Liver synthesizes urea
• Excretory unit of kidney is Nephrons
• The major components of human urine are urea and uric acid.

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• Role of leaves in excretion: Excess of water in plants is excreted by transpiration and guttation that
take place through leaves. Carbon dioxide and oxygen that can be considered as waste products of
respiration and photosynthesis respectively are excreted through stomata present on leaves.
• Urinary bladder stores urine.
• Ureter connects kidney and urinary bladder
• Urethra is the part where urine is passed out
• Differences [NCERT]

• Difference between transpiration and translocation

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