CHEM 015: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS

CHAPTER 1- CHEMISTRY: A SIENCE FOR THE 21st CENTURY An element is a substance that cannot be separated
into simpler substances by chemical means.
• 114 elements have been identified
• 82 elements occur naturally on Earth gold, aluminum,
lead, oxygen, carbon
• 32 elements have been created by scientists
technetium, americium, seaborgium

The scientific method is a systematic approach to

research

A hypothesis is a tentative explanation for a set of

observations
A compound is a substance composed of atoms of two
or more elements chemically united in fixed proportions.
• Compounds can only be separated into their pure
components (elements) by chemical means.
A law is a concise statement of a relationship between • Water, Glucose, Ammonia
phenomena that is always the same under the same Classification of Mater
conditions. (Force = mass x acceleration)

A theory is a unifying principle that explains a body of

facts and/or those laws that are based on them.
Atomic Theory

Three States of Matter

1. Solid - molecules are held close together in an
orderly fashion with little freedom of motion.
Chemistry is the study of matter and the changes it 2. Liquid - molecules are close together but are not
undergoes. held so rigidly in position and can move past one
1. Matter is anything that occupies space and has another.
mass. 3. Gas - molecules are separated by distances that are
2. A substance is a form of matter that has a definite large compared with the size of the molecules.
composition and distinct properties.

A mixture is a combination of two or more substances in

which the substances retain their distinct identities.
1. Homogenous mixture (solution) – The composition
of the mixture is the same throughout (at the
atomic/molecular level). (soft drink, milk, solder,
salt water)
Physical or Chemical
2. Heterogeneous mixture – The composition is not
a. A physical change does not alter the composition or
uniform throughout. (cement, iron fillings in sand)
identity of a substance. (ice melting, sugar dissolving
Physical means can be used to separate a mixture into in water)
its pure components. (distillation, magnet)
 CHEM 015: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
b. A chemical change alters the composition or identity • Density =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
of the substance(s) involved. (hydrogen burns in air
to form water)

Extensive and Intensive Properties

a. An extensive property of a material depends upon
how much matter is is being considered. (mass,
length, volume)
b. An intensive property of a material does not depend
upon how much matter is is being considered.
(density, temperature, color)

Matter - anything that occupies space and has mass.

• mass – measure of the quantity of matter
➢ SI unit of mass is the kilogram (kg)
➢ 1kg = 1000 g
• Weight – force that gravity exerts on an object
➢ Weight = c x mass
➢ On earth, c = 10; on moon, c ~ 0.1
➢ A 1kg bar will weigh 1kg on earth and 0.1 kg on
moon

Scientific Notation
• The number of atoms in 12 g of carbon-12:
602,200,000,000,000,000,000,000
6.022 x 1023

• The mass of a single carbon atom in grams:

0.0000000000000000000000199
1.99x10−23

Volume – SI derived unit for volume is cubic meter (𝑚3 ).

Addition or Subtraction
1. Write each quantity with
the same exponent n
2. Combine 𝑁1 and 𝑁2
3. The exponent, n, remains
the same

Density – SI derived unit for density is kg/𝑚3 Multiplication

𝑔 𝑔 𝑘𝑔
• 1 𝑚3 = 1 𝑚𝑙 = 1000 𝑚3 1. Multiply 𝑁1 and 𝑁2
2. Add exponents 𝑛1 and 𝑛2
 CHEM 015: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS
Division Precision – how close a set of measurements are to
1. Multiply 𝑁1 and 𝑁2 each other
2. Add exponents 𝑛1 and 𝑛2

Significant Figures
• Any digit that is not zero is significant
1.234 kg 4 significant figures
• Zeroes between nonzero digits are significant
606 m 3 significant figures
• Zeroes to the left of the first nonzero digit are not
significant
0.08 L 1 significant figure
• If a number is greater than 1, then all zeros to the Dimensional Analysis Method of Solving Problems
right of the decimal point are significant 1. Determine which unit conversion factor(s) are
2.0 mg 2 significant figures needed
• If a number is less than 1, then only the zeros that 2. Carry units through calculation
are at the end and in the middle of the number are 3. If all units cancel except for the desired unit(s), then
significant the problem was solved correctly.
0.00420 3 significant figures

Addition/Subtraction
The answer cannot have more digits to the right of the
decimal point than any of the original numbers.
How many mL are in 1.63L?

Multiplication/Division
The number of significant figures in the result is set by
the original number that has the smallest number of
significant figures

Exact Numbers
Numbers from definitions or numbers of objects are
considered to have an infinite number of significant CHAPTER 2
figures DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY (1808)
1. Elements are composed of extremely small particles
called atoms.
2. All atoms of a given element are identical, having
the same size, mass and chemical properties. The
atoms of one element are different from the atoms
Accuracy – how close a measurement is to the true of all other elements.
value
 CHEM 015: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS
3. Compounds are composed of atoms of more than
one element. In any compound, the ratio of the
numbers of atoms of any two of the elements
presents is either an integer or a simple fraction.
4. A chemical reaction involves only the separation,
combination, or rearrangement of atoms; it does not
result in their creation or destruction. (LAW OF
CONSERVATION OF MASS)
 CHEM 015: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS

• A molecule is an aggregate of two or more atoms in

ATOMIC NUMBER, MASS NUMBER, AND ISOTOPES a definite arrangement held together by covalent
bonds.
• Atomic number (Z) = number of protons in the
nucleus.
• Mass number (A) = number of protons + number of
neutrons.
• Isotopes are atoms of the same element (same
number of protons) but different numbers of • A diatomic molecule contains only two atoms.
neutrons in their nuclei. (𝐻2 , 𝑁2 , 𝑂2 , 𝐵𝑟2 , 𝐻𝐶𝑙, 𝐶𝑂)
• A polyatomic molecule contains more than two
atoms. (𝑂3 , 𝐻2 𝑂, 𝑁𝐻3 , 𝐶𝐻4 )
• An ion is an atom, or group of atoms, that has a net
positive or negative charge.
➢ Cation: ion with a positive charge. If a neutral
atom loses one or more electrons it becomes a
cation.

➢ Anion: ion with a negative charge. If a neutral

atom gains one or more electrons it becomes an
anion

➢ A monatomic ion contains only one atom.

(𝑁𝑎+, 𝐶𝑙 − , 𝐶𝑎2+ , 𝑂2− , 𝐴𝑙 3+ , 𝑁 3−
➢ A polyatomic ion contains more than one atom.
(𝑂𝐻− , 𝐶𝑁 − , 𝑁𝐻4+ , 𝑁𝑂3− )
 CHEM 015: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS

• A molecular formula shows the exact number of

atoms of each element in a molecule of the
substance.
• An empirical formula shows the simplest whole-
number ratio of the atoms in a substance.

• Ionic compounds consist of a combination of cations

and anions.
➢ the formula is always the same as the empirical
formula
➢ the sum of the charges on the cation(s) and
anion(s) in each formula unit must equal zero CHEMICAL NOMENCLATURE

• IONIC COMPOUNDS – often a metal + nonmetal

 CHEM 015: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS
• Transition metal ionic compounds
➢ Indicate the charge on the metal with Roman
numerals (the Stock naming system).
➢ Common names use the “ic” and “ous” endings.

• Molecular compounds
➢ Made of nonmetals or nonmetals + metalloids.
➢ Use common names for these: H2O, NH3 , CH4
➢ The element further left in periodic table is first.
➢ The element closest to bottom of group is first.
➢ If more than one compound can be formed from • A base can be defined as a substance that yields
the same elements, use the prefixes to indicate hydroxide ions (𝑂𝐻− )when dissolved in water.
the number of each kind of atom to specify the
compound.
➢ The last element ends in “ide.”

• Hydrates are compounds that have a specific

number of water molecules attached to them.

• An acid can be defined as a substance that yields

hydrogen ions (𝐻+ ) when dissolved in water.
➢ Pure substance, hydrogen chloride, HCl (g).
➢ Dissolve in water yields 𝐻+ and 𝐶𝑙 − ions,
hydrochloric acid, HCl (aq).
• An oxoacid is an acid that contains hydrogen,
oxygen, and another element.

CHAPTER 3: Mass Relationships in Chemical Reactions

Micro World atoms Macro World
atoms & molecules grams
 CHEM 015: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS
• Atomic Mass is the mass of an atom in atomic mass
units (amu)
➢ By Definition: 1 atom 𝐶 “weighs” 12 amu
12

➢ On this scale:
❖ 1𝐻= 1.00794
❖ 16𝑂= 15.9994

• Molecular Mass (molecular weight) is the sum of the

atomic masses (in amu) in a molecule.

• The mole (mol) is the amount of a substance that

contains as many elementary entities as there are
atoms in exactly 12.00 grams of 12𝐶.
• 1 mol = 𝑵𝑨 = 6.0221367 x 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑 (Avogadro’s Number,
𝑵𝑨 )
• Molar mass is the mass of 1 mole of atoms (eggs,
shoes, marbles) in grams.

• Formula Mass is the sum of the atomic masses (in

amu) in a formula unit of an ionic compound.
CHEM 015: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS
• A process in which one or more substances is changed
into one or more new substances is a chemical reaction.
• A chemical equation uses chemical symbols to show
what happens during a chemical reaction.

Balancing Chemical Equation

1. Write the correct formula(s) for the reactants on the left
side and the correct formula(s) for the product(s) on the
right side of the equation.

Ethane reacts with oxygen to form carbon

dioxide and water
𝑪𝟐 𝑯𝟔 + 𝑶𝟐 → 𝑪𝑶𝟐 + 𝑯𝟐 𝑶

2. Change the numbers in front of the formulas

(coefficients) to make the number of atoms of each
element the same on both sides of the equation. Do not
change the subscripts.

𝟐 𝑪𝟐 𝑯𝟔 𝑵𝑶𝑻 𝑪𝟒 𝑯𝟏𝟎

3. Start by balancing those elements that appear in only

one reactant and one product.

4. Balance those elements that appear in two or more

reactants or products.
 CHEM 015: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS

5. Check to make sure that you have the same number of

each type of atom on both sides of the equation.

Reaction Yield
• Theoretical Yield is the amount of product that would
result if all the limiting reagent reacted.
• Actual Yield is the amount of product actually obtained
from a reaction

CHAPTER 6: THERMOCHEMISTRY
ENERGY is the capacity to do work
• Radiant energy comes from the sun and is earth’s
primary energy source
• Thermal energy is the energy associated with the
random motion of atoms and molecules
• Chemical energy is the energy stored within the
bonds of chemical substances
• Nuclear energy is the energy stored within the
collection of neutrons and protons in the atom
• Potential energy is the energy available by virtue of
an object’s position

Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions

• Limiting Reactant – compound/substance that is
• Heat is the transfer of thermal energy between two
used up first in a chemical reaction.
bodies that are at different temperatures.
• Excess Reactant – compound/substance that is
• Temperature is a measure of the thermal energy.
supplied in excess amount to ensure all of the limiting
Temperature ≠Thermal Energy
reactant is used up.
 CHEM 015: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS
Potential energy of hiker 1 and hiker 2 is the same even
though they took different paths. energy, pressure,
volume, temperature

First Law of Thermodynamics

Energy can be converted from one form to another, but
cannot be created or destroyed.

Thermochemistry - is the study of heat change in

chemical reactions.

The system is the specific part of the universe that is of

interest in the study.

Another form of the FIRST LAW for 𝜟𝑬𝒔𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎 𝜟𝑬 = 𝒒 + 𝒘

• 𝜟𝑬 is the change in internal energy of a system
• q is the heat exchange between the system
and the surroundings
• w is the work done on (or by) the system
• w = -P𝜟V when a gas expands against a
• Exothermic Process - is any process that gives off
constant external pressure
heat – transfers thermal energy from the system to
the surroundings.
𝟐𝑯𝟐 (𝒈) + 𝑶𝟐 (𝒈) → 2𝑯𝟐 𝑶(𝒍) + 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 (heat)
𝑯𝟐𝟎(𝒈) → 𝑯𝟐 𝟎 (𝒍) + 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚
• Endothermic Process - is any process in which heat
has to be supplied to the system from the
surroundings. Work Done on the System
energy + 2HgO (s) → 2Hg(l) + 𝑶𝟐 (g) w= F x d
energy + 𝑯𝟐𝑶 (𝒔) → 𝑯𝟐𝑶(𝒍)
w= -P𝜟V 𝜟V> 0
𝑭
PxV= x 𝒅𝟑 = F x d = w - P𝜟V < 0
𝒅𝟐

Wsys < 0

Thermodynamics - is the scientific study of the

interconversion of heat and other kinds of energy Example:
A sample of nitrogen gas expands in volume from 1.6 L
State functions are properties that are determined by
to 5.4 L at constant temperature. What is the work done
the state of the system, regardless of how that condition
in joules if the gas expands (a) against a vacuum and
was achieved.
(b) against a constant pressure of 3.7 atm?

w = -P 𝜟V

(a) 𝜟V = 5.4 L – 1.6 L = 3.8 L P = 0 atm

W = -0 atm x 3.8 L = 0 L • atm = 0 joules

 CHEM 015: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS
(b) 𝜟V = 5.4 L – 1.6 L = 3.8 L P = 3.7 atm How much heat is evolved when 266 g of white
phosphorus (P4) burn in air?
w = -3.7 atm x 3.8 L = -14.1 L•atm
101.3𝐽
𝑃4 (𝑠) + 5𝑂2 (𝑔) → 𝑃4 𝑂10 (𝑙) 𝛥𝐻 = −3013𝑘𝐽
w = -14.1 L•atm x = −1430𝐽
1𝐿 (𝑎𝑡𝑚)
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑃4 3013 𝑘𝐽
266 g 𝑃4 𝑥 𝑥 = 6470𝑘𝐽
123.9 𝑔 𝑃4 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑃4
Enthalpy and the First Law of Thermodynamics

Enthalpy (H) is used to quantify the heat flow into or out

of a system in a process that occurs at constant pressure.
• The specific heat (s) of a substance is the amount of
heat (q) required to raise the temperature of one
gram of the Substance by one degree Celsius.
• The heat capacity (C) of a substance is the amount
of heat (q) required to raise the temperature of a
given quantity (m) of the substance by one degree
Celsius.

How much heat is given off when an 869 g iron bar

cools from 94⁰C to 5⁰C?
s of Fe = 0.444 J/g •⁰C
𝜟t = 𝒕𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 –𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 = 5⁰C – 94⁰C = -89⁰C
q = ms𝜟t = 869 g x 0.444 J/g • ⁰C x – 89⁰C = -34,000 J
Thermochemical Equations
• The stoichiometric coefficients always refer to the
number of moles of a substance
𝐻2 𝑂 (𝑠) → 𝐻2 𝑂 (𝑙) 𝛥𝐻 = 6.01𝑘𝐽
• If you reverse a reaction, the sign of H changes
𝐻2 𝑂 (𝑙) → 𝐻2 𝑂 (𝑠) 𝛥𝐻 = −6.01𝑘𝐽
• If you multiply both sides of the equation by a factor
n, then H must change by the same factor n.
2𝐻2 𝑂 (𝑠) → 2𝐻2 𝑂 (𝑙) 𝛥𝐻 = 2 𝑥 6.01𝑘𝐽 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟎𝒌𝑱
• The physical states of all reactants and products
must be specified in thermochemical equations.
𝐻2 𝑂 (𝑠) → 𝐻2 𝑂 (𝑙) 𝛥𝐻 = 6.01𝑘𝐽
𝐻2 𝑂 (𝑙) → 𝐻2 𝑂 (𝑔) 𝛥𝐻 = 44.0𝑘𝐽
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(Enthalpy is a state function. It doesn’t matter how you
get there, only where you start and end.)

Examples:
Benzene (C6H6) burns in air to produce carbon dioxide
and liquid water. How much heat is released per mole of
benzene combusted? The standard enthalpy of formation
of benzene is 49.04 kJ/mol.

Because there is no way to measure the absolute value

of the enthalpy of a substance, must I measure the
enthalpy change for every reaction of interest?

Establish an arbitrary scale with the standard enthalpy of

formation (𝛥𝐻𝑓0 ) as a reference point for all enthalpy
expressions.

Standard enthalpy of formation (𝛥𝐻𝑓0) is the heat change

that results when one mole of a compound is formed
from its elements at a pressure of 1 atm

The standard enthalpy of formation of any element in its

most stable form is zero.

𝛥𝐻𝑓0 (𝑂2 ) = 0 𝛥𝐻𝑓0(C, graphite) = 0

𝛥𝐻𝑓0(𝑂3 ) = 142 𝑘𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙

𝛥𝐻𝑓0(C, diamond) = 1.90kJ/mol

The standard enthalpy of reaction (∆𝐻𝑟𝑥𝑛

0
) is the enthalpy
of a reaction carried out at 1 atm.

aA + bB cC + dD

Hess’s Law: When reactants are converted to products,

the change in enthalpy is the same whether the
reaction takes place in one step or in a series of steps.
 CHEM 015: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS
oxidation states of
individual substances
involved in the redox
reaction.
• Half reactions can be
written to describe both
undergoing oxidation
(known as the anode) and the metal undergoing
reduction (known as the cathode).

Balancing Redox Reduction

Half-Reaction Method in Acidic Solution

1. Determine oxidation numbers
2. Figure out what is being oxidized and reduced
The enthalpy of solution (∆𝐻𝑟𝑥𝑛
0
) is the heat generated
3. Write half reactions
or absorbed when a certain amount of solute dissolves 4. Balance atoms other than 0 and H
in a certain amount of solvent. 5. Add 𝐻2 𝑂 to balance O, and 𝐻+ to balance H
6. Add electrons to balance charges
7. Multiply half reactions to make the number of
electrons equal in both
8. Add the half reactions cancelling out stuff that
appears on both sides
9. Do a final check to make sure everything balances

ELECTROCHEMICAL ENERGY
Oxidation-Reduction Reaction Step 1:
• A day without electricity from either the power
company or batteries is unimaginable in our
technological society
• Electrochemical energy is what we normally call the
conversion of chemical energy into electrical energy
or vice versa This include reactions transferring
electrons, redox reactions (reduction-oxidation)
• Electrochemical processes are redox reactions in
which the energy released by a spontaneous
reaction is converted to electricity or in which
electricity is used to drive a nonspontaneous
chemical reaction. Step 2:

• A Half Reaction is either the oxidation or reduction

reaction component of a redox reaction. A half
reaction is obtained by considering the change in
 CHEM 015: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS
Step 3: Step 9:

Step 4 and 5: Half-Reaction Method in Basic Solution

1. Determine oxidation numbers
2. Figure out what is being oxidized and reduced
3. Write half reactions
4. Balance atoms other than 0 and H
5. Add 𝐻2 𝑂 to balance O, and 𝐻+ to balance H
6. Add electrons to balance charges
7. Multiply half reactions to make the number of
electrons equal in both
Step 6: 8. Add the half reactions cancelling out stuff that
appears on both sides
9. For each 𝐻+ , add one 𝑂𝐻− to both sides
10. Combine 𝐻+ and 𝑂𝐻− to make 𝐻2 𝑂
11. Subtract 𝐻2 𝑂 from both sides if possible
12. Do a final check to make sure everything balances

Practice Exercise:
Given the unbalanced equation, show the first 8 steps
in using the half reaction method in Basic solution to
get

Step 7:
Step 9:

Step 10:

Step 8:
 CHEM 015: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS
Step 11: • Here the anode is negative and cathode is the
positive electrode. The reaction at the anode is
oxidation and that at the cathode is reduction
• The electrons are supplied by the species getting
oxidized. They move from anode to the cathode in
the external circuit

Electrolytic Cell
• An electrolytic cell converts electrical energy into
chemical energy
Step 12: • The redox reaction is not spontaneous and electrical
energy has to be supplied to initiate the reaction
• Both the electrodes are placed in a same container
in the solution of molten electrolyte
• Here, the anode is positive and cathode is the
negative electrode. The reaction at the anode is
oxidation and that at the cathode is reduction. The
external battery supplies the electrons. They enter
through the cathode and come out through the
anode

Galvanic and Electrochemical Cells Both galvanic and electrolytic cells will consist of two
electrodes (an anode and a cathode), which can be
Galvanic Cells (Voltaic Cells) made of the same or Different metals, and an
• are driven by a spontaneous chemical reaction that electrolyte in which the two electrodes are immersed.
produces an electric current through an outside
circuit. These cells are important because they are Cell Potentials and Spontaneity
the basis for the batteries that fuel modern society. • E⁰ cell is the electromotive force (also called cell
The reverse reaction in each case is non- voltage or cell potential) between two-half cells. The
spontaneous and requires electrical energy to occur. greater the E⁰ cell of a reaction the greater the
• It is possible to construct a cell that does work on a driving force of electrons through the system, the
chemical system by driving an electric current more likely the reaction will proceed (more
through the system. These cells are called electrolytic spontaneous). EO cell is measured in volts (V).
cells. Electrolytic cells, like galvanic cells, are
composed of two half-cells one is a reduction half The overall voltage of the cell = the half-cell potential of
cell, the other is an oxidation half-cell. the reduction reaction + the half-cell potential of the
oxidation reaction. To simplify,

E⁰ cell = E⁰ reduction - E⁰ oxidation

E⁰ cell = E⁰ cathode - E⁰ anode

• A redox reaction is spontaneous if the standard

electrode potential for the redox reaction, E⁰ redox
reaction is positive
E⁰(redox reaction) = E⁰(reduction reaction) +
E⁰(oxidation reaction)
And E⁰(redox reaction) > 0
That is, E⁰(redox reaction) is positive
• If E⁰ (redox reaction) is positive, the reaction will
proceed in the forward direction(spontaneous)
➢ Spontaneous redox reactions can be used
produced electricity (see galvanic cells (voltaic
Electrochemical Cell (Galvanic Cell) cells))
• A galvanic cell convents chemical energy into • If E⁰ (redox reaction), is negative (E⁰(redox
electrical energy reaction)<0), the reaction will not proceed in the
• Here, the redox reaction is spontaneous and is forward direction (non-spontaneous)
responsible for the production of electrical energy
• The two half-cells are set up in different containers,
being connected through the salt bridge or porous
partition
 CHEM 015: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS
Note: the reaction will be spontaneous in the NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY AND ENERGY
reverse direction! And non-spontaneous redox
reactions cannot be used to produce electricity. Nuclear Chemistry
• is the study of reactions involving changes in
atomic nuclei or the dense region consisting of
protons and neutrons at the center of an atom.

• In addition to writing symbols for various chemical

elements, we must also explicitly indicate protons,
neutrons, and electrons. In fact we must show the
numbers of protons and neutrons present in every
species in such an equation.
• For example, 146𝐶 is referenced as carbon-14. It
(please see the power point given for a clearer image) has 6 protons and 8 neutrons
• Atoms with the same atomic number but different
mass numbers are isotopes of the same element.

Isotopes of Carbon:

Nuclear Stability
POINTS TO REMEMBER ABOUT THE TABLE IN • From Coulomb’s law we know that like charges repel
CALCULATIONS and unlike charges attract one another. The stability
• The E⁰ value apply to the half-cell reactions as read of any nucleus is determined by the difference
in the forward (left to right) direction between coulombic repulsion and the short-range
• The more positive E⁰ is, the greater the tendency for attraction.
the substance to be reduced • If repulsion > attraction, the nucleus disintegrates,
• The half- cell reactions are reversible. Depending on emitting particles and/or radiation.
the conditions, any electrode can act either as an • If attractive forces prevail, the nucleus is stable.
anode or as a cathode
• Under standard-state conditions, any species that The principal factor that determines whether a nucleus
appears on the right of any half-cell reaction is stable is the neutron to proton ratio (n/p)
located below it • n/p is close to 1 = low atomic number = stable
• Changing the stoichiometric coefficients of half-cell • atomic number = n/p > 1. This means that a larger
reaction does not affect the value of E⁰ because number of neutrons is needed to counteract the
electrode potentials are intensive properties. This strong repulsion among the protons and stabilize the
means that the value E⁰ is unaffected by the size of nucleus.
the electrodes or the amount of solutions present • A nucleus is stable if it cannot be transformed into
• Like 𝛥𝐻, 𝛥𝐺 , 𝛥𝑆, the sign E⁰ changes but its another configuration without adding energy from
magnitude remains the same when we reverse a the outside. Of the thousands of nuclides that exist,
reaction. about 250 are stable. A plot of the number of
neutrons versus the number of protons for stable
 CHEM 015: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS
nuclei reveals that the stable isotopes fall into a Nuclear Reactions
narrow band.

A balanced nuclear reaction equation indicates that

there is a rearrangement during a nuclear reaction in
the nucleons (subatomic particles within the atoms’
nuclei) rather than atoms. Nuclear reactions also follow
conservation laws, and they are balanced in two ways:

1. Conservation of Mass number: The sum of the

mass numbers of the reactants equals the sum of
the mass numbers of the products.
2. Conservation of Atomic number: The sum of the
charges of the reactants equals the sum of the
charges of the products.

• The nuclei that are to

the left or to the right
of the band of
stability are unstable RADIOACTIVITY
and exhibit Notable Scientists
radioactivity. a. Henry Antoine Becquerel - First
• They change person to discover the natural
spontaneously evidence of radioactivity.
(decay) into other Radioactivity is the result of an atom
nuclei that are either trying to reach a more stable
in, or closer to, the nuclear configuration.
band of stability. b. Pierre and Marie Curie worked
These nuclear decay together in isolating polonium
reactions convert and radium. They were the first
one unstable isotope to use the term "radioactivity"
(or radioisotope) into and were pioneers in its study.
another, more Together with Becquerel,
stable, isotope.
 CHEM 015: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS
received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903 for their
joint research in radiation phenomena.

The process of radioactive decay, can be achieved via

three primary methods:

1. Alpha decay radioactive nucleus changes into a

different more stable nucleus, with 2 fewer protons
and 2 fewer neutrons, and a helium nucleus is
emitted. The alpha particles lose energy in these
collisions, and they do not penetrate very far through
materials, and can be stopped by just 30cm of air or
a sheet of paper.

• Each individual radioactive substance has a

characteristic decay period or half-life. A half-life is
2. Beta decay the interval of time required for one half of the
• When beta minus (β− ) decay occurs, a neutron in atomic nuclei of a radioactive sample to decay. It
the radioactive nucleus is converted into a proton. can range from thousands of years to milliseconds.
An electron and an electron antineutrino (𝜐𝑒 )are Cobalt-60, which is used in radiation cancer therapy,
emitted. has half-life of 5.27 years.
14
6𝐶 → 147𝑁 + −10β+ 00𝜐𝑒

• When a beta plus (β+ ) decay occurs, a proton in

the radioactive nucleus is converted into a
neutron. A positron and an electron neutrino,
( 𝝊𝒆 )are emitted. This is also called as positron
decay.

Electron Capture Decay

• Electron capture is the radioactive decay process
by which an atom’s inner orbital electron is
absorbed within the nucleus followed by
conversion of a proton to a neutron and emission
of a neutrino, (𝝊𝒆 ).
• The decay pathway has similarities to beta decay
and is often termed inverse beta decay.

Transmutation
• Nuclear Transmutation is the result from the
bombardment of result from the bombardment of
nuclei by neutrons, protons, or other nuclei.

3. Spontaneous Fission - - the nucleus will split into two

nearly equal fragments and several free neutrons. A
large amount of energy is also released.
 CHEM 015: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS
• An example of a nuclear transmutation is the large amount of energy in the form of heat and
conversion of 147𝑁 to 146𝐶 , which results when the radiation.
nitrogen isotope captures a neutron. • This process releases a large amount of energy
because the heavy nucleus is less stable than its
products.
• The first nuclear fission reaction to be studied was
that of uranium-235 bombarded with slow neutrons,
whose speed is comparable to that of air molecules
at room temperature.

Two types of nuclear transmutation:

a. Natural transmutation by stellar nucleosynthesis in the
past created most of the heavier chemical elements
in the known existing universe, and continues to take
Nuclear chain reaction is a self-sustaining sequence of
place to this day, creating the vast majority of the
nuclear fission reactions. The neutrons generated during
most common elements in the universe, including He,
the initial stages of fission can induce fission in other
O and C.
uranium-235 nuclei, which in turn produce more
• In the present, natural transmutation occurs when
neutrons, and so on. In less than a second, the reaction
certain radioactive elements present in nature
can become uncontrollable, liberating a tremendous
spontaneously decay by a process that causes
amount of heat to the surroundings. For a chain reaction
transmutation, such as alpha or beta decay.
to occur, enough uranium-235 must be present in the
b. Artificial transmutation when stable nuclei is
sample to capture the neutrons.
bombarded with a particle and forced to become
unstable and result in transmutation. Nuclear reactor - number of fissionable nuclei available
• It may occur in is carefully controlled to prevent a “runaway” chain
machinery that has reaction.
enough energy to Atomic bomb - a very rapid growth in the number of
cause changes in the fissions is sought.
nuclear structure of the
elements. Such machines include particle Fission weapons are normally made with materials
accelerators. having high concentrations of the fissile isotopes
uranium-235, plutonium239.
Particle accelerators made it possible to synthesize the
so called transuranium elements (elements with atomic Nuclear Fusion
numbers greater than 92). It uses electric and magnetic • The combining of small nuclei into larger ones, is
fields to increase the kinetic energy of charged species largely exempt from the waste disposal problem.
so that a reaction will occur. • For the lightest elements, nuclear stability increases
with increasing mass number. If two light nuclei
combine or fuse together to form a larger, more
stable nucleus, an appreciable amount of energy
will be released in the process.
• Nuclear fusion occurs constantly in the sun. The sun is
made up mostly of hydrogen and helium. Because
fusion reactions take place only at very high
temperatures, they are often called thermonuclear
reactions.
• In contrast to the fission process, nuclear fusion looks
Nuclear Fission like a very promising energy source.
• Nuclear fission is the process in which a heavy • Although thermal pollution would be a problem,
nucleus (mass number > 200) divides to form smaller fusion has the following advantages:
nuclei of intermediate mass and one or more a. The fuels are cheap and almost inexhaustible and
neutrons. b. The process produces little radioactive waste.
• In nuclear fission, atoms are split apart, which • If a fusion machine were turned off, it would shut
releases energy. During nuclear fission, a neutron down completely and instantly, without any danger
collides with a uranium atom and splits it, releasing a of a meltdown.
• NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY AND ENERGY
 CHEM 015: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS
THERMOCHEMISTRY ADDITIONAL CONCEPTS where Si and Sf are the entropies of the system in the
initial and final states, respectively.
Spontaneity
• Thermodynamics deals with the interconversion of
heat and other forms of energy. Studying
thermodynamics will enable us to determine whether
or not a reaction will occur when reactants are
brought together under a specific conditions
example temperature, pressure and concentration
spontaneous
• If a reaction does occur under the given set of
conditions is called spontaneous reaction. However,
if a reaction does not nonspontaneous occur under
specified conditions, it is said to be nonspontaneous.

For example, diamond and graphite are solids, but

diamond has a more ordered structure and hence a
smaller number of microstates.
Exothermicity favors the spontaneity of a reaction but
Consider the natural gases methane and ethane.
does not guarantee it. Just as it is possible for an
Ethane has a more complex structure and hence more
endothermic reaction to be spontaneous, it is possible
for an exothermic reaction to be nonspontaneous. In ways to execute molecular motions, which also increase
its microstates.
other words, we cannot decide whether or not a
chemical reaction will occur spontaneously solely on Both helium and neon are monatomic gases, which
the basis of energy changes in the system. To make this cannot execute rotational or vibrational motions, but
kind of prediction we need another thermodynamic neon has a greater standard entropy than helium
quantity, which turns out to be entropy. because its molar mass is greater.
Entropy Law of Thermodynamics
• To determine the spontaneity of the reaction, a
thermodynamic quantity called entropy must be 1. The First Law of Thermodynamics states that energy
considered. can be converted from one form to another, but it
• Entropy (S) is described as a measure of how spread cannot be created or destroyed.
out or dispersed the energy of a system is among the • One measure of these changes is the amount of
different possible ways that system can contain heat given off or absorbed by a system during a
energy. constant-pressure process, which chemists define
• The greater the randomness, the greater the entropy. as a change in enthalpy (ΔH).
Most processes are accompanied by a change in 2. The Second Law of Thermodynamics is defined as the
entropy. entropy of the universe increases in a spontaneous
In 1868, Boltzmann showed that the entropy of a system process and remains unchanged in an equilibrium
is related to the natural log of the number of microstates process.
(W):
Spontaneous process: Δ𝑺𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒗 = Δ𝑺𝒔𝒚𝒔 + Δ𝑺𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒓 > 0
S = k(lnW) Equilibrium process: Δ𝑺𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒗 = Δ𝑺𝒔𝒚𝒔 + Δ𝑺𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒓 > 0

where k is called the Boltzmann constant (1.38 x 10-23 • The second law of thermodynamics tells us that a
J/K). Thus, the larger the W, the greater is the entropy of spontaneous reaction increases the entropy of
the system. And entropy as a state function, it can be the universe; that is, Δ𝑺𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒗 > 0.
measured as,
In order to determine the sign of Δ𝑺𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒗 for reaction,
ΔS = 𝑺𝒇 − 𝑺𝒊 however, we would need to calculate both Δ𝑺𝒔𝒚𝒔 and
Δ𝑺𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒓 .In general, we are usually concerned only with
 CHEM 015: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS
what happens in a particular system. We know that for
a spontaneous process, we have

Δ𝑺𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒗 = Δ𝑺𝒔𝒚𝒔 + Δ𝑺𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒓 > 0

Δ𝑺𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒗 = Δ𝑺𝒔𝒚𝒔 – (Δ𝑯𝒔𝒚𝒔 / T) > 0

TΔ𝑺𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒗 = -Δ𝑯𝒔𝒚𝒔 + TΔ𝑺𝒔𝒚𝒔 > 0

Now we have a criterion for a spontaneous reaction

that is expressed only in terms of the properties of the
system (Δ 𝑯𝒔𝒚𝒔 and Δ 𝑺𝒔𝒚𝒔 ) and we can ignore the
surroundings.

-TΔ𝑺𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒗 = Δ𝑯𝒔𝒚𝒔 - TΔ𝑺𝒔𝒚𝒔 > 0

This equation says that for a process carried out at

constant pressure and temperature T, if the changes in
enthalpy and entropy of the system are such that Δ𝑯𝒔𝒚𝒔
- TΔ 𝑺𝒔𝒚𝒔 is less than zero, the process must be
spontaneous

In order to express the spontaneity of a reaction more

directly, we introduce another thermodynamic function
called Gibbs free energy (G), or simply free energy:

G = H – TS

All quantities pertain to the system, and T is the

temperature of the system. You can see that G has units
of energy. Like H and S, G is a state function.

The change in free energy (ΔG) of a system for a

constant-temperature process is

ΔG = ΔH - T ΔS

The standard free-energy of reaction (ΔG˚) is the free-

energy change for a reaction when it occurs under
standard-state conditions

3. The Third Law of thermodynamics states that entropy

of a perfect crystalline substance is zero at the
absolute zero of temperature.