The Rocks

The materials of the crust or lithosphere are generally called as rocks. The
smallest component of the crust or the lithosphere is element. The earth is
made up of certain elements as follows:
Important Elements of the Whole Earth and the Crust:
Whole Earth Earth’s Crust
1. Iron (Fe) 1. Oxygen (O2)
2. Oxygen (O2) 2. Silicon (Si)
3. Silicon (Si) 3. Aluminium (Al)
4. Magnesium (Mg) 4. Iron (Fe)
5. Nickel (Ni) 5. Calcium (Ca)
6. Sulphur (S) 6. Magnesium (Mg)
7. Calcium (Ca) 7. Sodium (Na)
8. Aluminium (Al) 8. Potassium (K)
More than one element of the earth’s crust is organized to form compounds
which are known as minerals and minerals are organized to form rocks.
Rocks play very important role in determining the characteristic features of
several types of erosional landforms because the nature and magnitude of
erosion largely depends upon the structure and composition of rocks.
These rocks differ in
 Texture: the degree to which something is rough or smooth, or soft or
hard
 Structure: the way in which the parts of a system or object are arranged
or organized, or a system arranged in this way
 Mode of occurrence: The depth at which these rocks are found.
 Colour
 Permeability: allows water, gas to pass
 Degree of resistance to denudation
There are several types of minerals in the earth crust such as
 Silicate Minerals (90% of the earth’s crust, generally acidic in
 nature, Silicon + Oxygen)
 These are very important rock making minerals. The most
outstanding rock forming silicate groups of minerals are as follows. The
most abundant and important rock forming silicate group of mineral is
feldspar.

Fig. Silicate Group of Minerals

 Non-Silicate Minerals (10% of the earth’s crust)

 Carbonates E.g. Calcite, Limestone, Marbles
 Oxides e.g. Hematite, Casserite, Magnetite etc.
 Sulphates e.g. Gypsum
 Halides e.g. NaCl
 Metallic minerals e.g. Gold, Diamond, Aluminium etc.

Classification of Rocks:
 Igneous Rocks:
 They are solidified form of magma or lava and are also known as
Primary rocks because they formed first on the earth.
 They are mostly hard rocks as water percolates with difficulty.
 Mostly granular or crystalline in nature, these properties depend
upon rate of cooling.
 They do not form strata or layers.
 They are less affected by chemical weathering except basalt.
 They do not contain any fossils.
  E.g. Granite, Gabbro, Pegmatite, Basalt, Olivine etc.
Classification of Igneous rocks
1. On the basis of chemical composition
 Felsic Rocks
 Acidic and lighter in weight
 It contains 65-85% silica, thus it is viscous in liquified form.
 The density is 2.75 to 2.8 units due to less percentage of iron and
magnesium.
 The rocks are lighter in color
 It is crystalline in nature (Because of slow cooling magma large
bubbles are solidified in magmatic rock)
 E.g. Granite
 Intermediate Rocks
 Acidic and lighter in weight
 It contains 55-65% silica, thus although viscous in liquified form but
relatively lesser than felsic rocks.
 It has higher density than mafic rocks but lower than felsic rocks.
 It is lighter in color
 E.g. Andecite
 Mafic Rocks
 Basic and heavier
 It contains 45-55% silica, this is more fluidic in nature.
 It has high density i.e. 2.8 to 3 units due to high concentration of
iron and magnesium.
 It is darker in color due to dominance of Iron.
 E.g. Basalt, Dolerite, Gabbro
 Ultramafic Rocks
 It is basic and heavier than all other igneous rocks.
 It contains less than 40% silica, thus is highly fluidic.
  It has very high density i.e. 2.8 to 3.8 units, this is due to high
concentration of iron and magnesium.
 It is darker in color and is found deep into the surface.
 E.g. Peridotite
On the basis of texture of crystals igneous rocks can be classified into
 Glassy Igneous Rocks (without grains of any size): They are
characterized by general absence of grains and is produced by very fast
cooling of magma on surface of the earth. Obsidians, pitch stones, perlite
etc. are the most common example.
 Aphanitic Igneous Rocks (Includes fine particles): The word ‘aphanitic’
has been derived from a Greek word ‘phaneres’ meaning thereby visible.
These rocks are characterized by small grains that can be visible without
a microscopic vision. Basalt, felsite and the rocks of sills and dykes are
the example of this category.
 Phaneritic Igneous Rocks (Includes large crystals): These rocks contain
grains that is large enough to see it without microscope. As the equal size
and form of grains, the equigranular texture represents a uniform rate of
cooling and the large size of the crystals. For example, coarse grained
and plutonic igneous rocks are such as granite, diorites etc.
 Porphyritic Igneous Rocks (mixed grained igneous rocks): They contain
two types of grains with different sizes. These are found two stages of
cooling. In initial stage, the rate of cooling is slow resulting larger crystals
but in next stage, the rate of cooling is faster than earlier that forms
smaller crystals. Porphyritic texture occurs both in aphanitic and
phaneritic rocks. For example, basalt, granite, felsite, diorite etc.
 Pyroclastic Igneous Rocks: The word ‘pyroclastic’ has also been derived
from the Greek word ‘klastos’ meaning thereby broken. These rocks are
characterized by broken and fragmented rather than the interlocking or
interconnected crystals. Such type of igneous rock constitutes bombs,
lapilli, breccia, volcanic dusts, ashes, tuffs etc.
 Vesicular Igneous Rocks: It
is a
volcanic
rock
texture characterized by a
rock being pitted with many cavities (known as vesicles) at its surface and
inside. This texture is common in
aphanitic, or glassy,
igneous rocks that
have come to the surface of the earth, a process known as
extrusion. As
magma rises to the surface the pressure on it decreases. When this
happen gases dissolved in the magma are able to come out of solution,
 forming gas bubbles (the cavities) inside it. When the magma finally
reaches the surface as lava and cools, the rock solidifies around the gas
bubbles and traps them inside, preserving them as holes filled with gas
called vesicles.
Economic Significance of Igneous Rocks
 Many types of igneous rocks are used as building stone, facing stone,
and decorative material, such as that used for tabletops, cutting boards,
and carved figures.
 Granite is a very important building material and is also used for idol
making.
 Pumice is used as an abrasive material in hand soaps, emery boards, etc.
 Gneiss, Schist and Gabbro are very hard and widely used as crushed
stone for concrete aggregate, road surfaces and railroad ballast.
 Igneous rocks may also contain many important ores such tin or valuable
minerals such as diamonds.
Sedimentary Rocks:
 The word ‘sedimentary’ has been derived from Latin word ‘sedimentum’
which means ‘settling down’.
 According to the geologists, sedimentary rocks account for only 5 per
cent of earth’s surface or 16 km of outer earth’s surface.
 Each and every alluvial plain on the global earth’s surface is agriculturally
more prosperous than igneous and metamorphic rocks. For example,
Indo-Gangetic plain in India, Nile River plain in Egypt, Mississippi Missouri
Plain in North America, Amazon River plain in South America, Hwang Ho
Yangtze Si Kiang plain in China, Rhine River valley in Europe, Murray-
Darling valley in Australia etc.
 They contain fossils of plants and animals.
 Around 75% of surface area of the earth is made up of these rocks.
Despite of their largest coverage over surface they constitute only 5%
area of the crust.
 The deposition of various types & sizes to form sedimentary rocks takes
place in certain sequence & system.
 Thus, they contain several layers or strata and are seldom crystalline
 rocks.
 Like crystalline rocks they are not found in massive forms.
 The layers of these rocks are generally deformed due to compressional
and tensional forces.
 They may be well consolidated poorly consolidated & even
unconsolidated.
 Most of the rocks are permeable and porous.
 E.g. Sandstone, Conglomerate, Shale, Loess, Gypsum, Dolomites,
limestone etc.
Economic Significance of Sedimentary Rocks
 Sedimentary rocks are not as rich in minerals of economic value as the
igneous rocks.
 But important minerals such as hematite iron ore, phosphates, building
stones, coals, petroleum and material used in cement industry are found.
 The decay of tiny marine organisms yields petroleum. Petroleum occurs
in suitable structures only.
 Important minerals like bauxite, manganese, tin are derived from other
rocks but are found in gravels and sands carried by water. Sedimentary
rocks also yield some of the richest soils.
Metamorphic rocks:
 They are derived from Igneous rocks, Sedimentary rocks or metamorphic
rocks.
 When already formed metamorphic rocks are again metamorphosed, the
process is known as re-metamorphism.
 It is formed out of existing rocks undergoing recrystallization.
 It includes rocks that have been changed either in form or composition
without disintegration but through pressure, volume & temperature
changes.
 Unlike igneous rocks, the texture of metamorphic rocks is the result of
recrystallization or conversion of one mineral to another in the solid state.
 Metamorphism occurs when rocks are forced down to lower levels by
tectonic processes or when molten magma rising through the crust
 comes in contact with the crustal rocks or the underlying rocks are
subjected to great amount of pressure by overlying rocks.
 Different types of metamorphism are
 Contact Metamorphism:
 The rocks come in contact with hot intruding magma and
lava and the rock materials recrystallize under high
temperature.
 This process is also called as thermal metamorphism
because rocks are changed in their forms due to high
temperature of intruding magmas.
 Such metamorphism occurs during volcanic activity when
the physical properties of the surrounding rocks are
changed due to intense heat of the rising magmas.
 Regional Metamorphism:
 When the rocks are altered in the form in extensive area the
process is called regional metamorphism.
 In such metamorphism pressure plays dominant role in the
alteration of the form of the rocks though the temperature is
also an important factor.
 The sedimentary rocks are folded due to compressive
forces during the period of mountain building.
 This process results in intense pressure and heat which
ultimately alter the original form of the concerned rocks.
 There are two types of regional metamorphism i.e.
 Static Metamorphism: It occurs when the pressure is
applied vertically on the rocks i.e. superincumbent
force. This pressure does not allow rocks to move.
 Dynamic Metamorphism: It occurs when the pressure
is applied horizontally on the rocks. This results into
displacement of the rocks from their original position.
 E.g. Marbles (from limestone), Schist (from shale), Quartzite
(from sandstone), Gneiss (from Conglomerate and granite).
Rock Cycle
 Each of the rock types is related to the others through different physical
and chemical processes.
 Mountains can expose igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks to
weathering and erosion.
 Grains of sediment (or boulders!) break off of these exposed rocks, and,
due to gravity, move downhill either in a stream bed or by rolling. This
travel causes further breakdown of the sediment, which eventually
reaches the ocean. The sediment, once deposited in
an ocean basin, gets
buried by other sediment, and compacted into a sedimentary rock. If
it’s
buried deep enough, or if the basin becomes part of an
orogen, it can
be metamorphosed, becoming a metamorphic rock.
 Eventually, the rock can either become exposed through sea level fall or
mountain-building, where it starts the journey back to the ocean again, or
it can be recycled back into the mantle at a subduction zone, perhaps
one day returning to the surface as an igneous rock.
 The following concept map shows the rock cycle in terms of earth
processes. New material comes from mid-ocean ridges and volcanoes; it
is weathered, deformed, compacted and cemented, until it is recycled
back into the mantle at a subduction zone.