Writing Fundamentals II - Paragraphs

Learning Outcome
When you complete this module you will be able to:
Write a unified, coherent paragraph using a clear topic sentence, technical
terminology and specific support, given a technical topic.

Learning Objectives
Here is what you will be able to do when you complete each objective:
1. Identify the key idea or topic sentence in a paragraph.

2. Describe paragraph unity.

3. Describe paragraph coherence.

4. Identify five common patterns of development for a paragraph: chronological,

spatial, comparison and contrast, reasons and examples and process.

5. Summarize the rules for effective paragraphs.

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 INTRODUCTION

Some of the same characteristics that make sentences effective apply equally to
paragraphs. Like sentences, paragraphs must be structured to have unity in that
they are limited to one key idea. Also, like sentences, paragraphs should be clear
and concise. In addition, an effective paragraph should be coherent in that the
sentences are arranged in a logical sequence. Finally, a paragraph should have
adequate development of a central or key idea. A well-structured paragraph has
these three qualities: unity, coherence, and adequate development.

Experienced writers use tone and emphasis to suit the topic. They also adjust the
lengths of the different paragraphs they use so that a certain sense of variety, in
addition to the other qualities mentioned, is achieved.

PARAGRAPH STRUCTURE

Paragraphs serve as groupings of related sentences about one idea. Often a

paragraph focuses thought and structures ideas in bite-size chunks that can be
absorbed by the reader easily in a single reading. There is no one correct
paragraph length.

• In typical academic essays paragraphs may be ten sentences long and may
consist of two hundred words.

• In a newspaper article most paragraphs tend to be two or three sentences

long and are seldom more than fifty words.

• In technical writing most paragraphs tend to be four to seven sentences

long and around one hundred words.

The key idea in each paragraph should be fully developed without any repetition.
If the idea is very complex, each aspect of the idea should be dealt with in a
separate paragraph. A detailed, fully developed explanation is more likely to
convince your reader than a superficial overview in an extremely short paragraph.

An essential element in any paragraph is the topic sentence. In junior high, we

learned that the topic sentence is the key sentence in the paragraph and comes at
the beginning of the paragraph. Later, we learned that, in fact, the topic sentence
can come anywhere in the paragraph. Later still, we learned that some paragraphs
do not have a topic sentence since a professional writer can often carry the
sentence along without explicit signposts represented by the topic sentence. In
technical writing, however, eighty percent of the time the topic sentence should
come at the beginning of the paragraph.

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There are several reasons why it is more effective to have the topic sentence at the
opening:

• Since the topic sentence, sometimes called the control sentence, is the
key or main sentence, it helps the reader when this key information is
presented at the opening. The reader is then able to focus on the
supporting sentences in the rest of the paragraph which back up this key
information.

• The reader can read more efficiently when this key information is
presented at the opening of the paragraph. The reader in a hurry can read
only the opening sentence in each paragraph and still get the gist of the
total information.

• The writer is more able to focus his or her thoughts so that the rest of the
paragraph follows a logical pattern. The writer is then better able to
develop the supporting evidence using the opening sentence as a focal
point.

In addition to the topic sentence, many paragraphs end with a summary or

clincher sentence, which reinforces the key idea stated at the opening. This type
of paragraph is more common in essays than in other types of writing.
Occasionally, this type of paragraph is also found in more formal types of
technical writing.

The following paragraph illustrates some of these points:

The cellular telephone is a portable communication device with an

integral transmitter-receiver and a whip antenna. It communicates
with a transmitter-receiver located within a city and its surrounding area.
Each transmitter has a range of up to 12 kilometres. The area covered is
called a cell, from which the name cellular has evolved. If a caller drives
from one cell to another, the calls are transferred automatically from one
cell to another.
(Adapted from R. Blicq. Technically Write.)

This paragraph consists of five sentences with the topic sentence at the opening.
The topic sentence suggests the paragraph is going to give us information about
the cellular telephone and the remaining four sentences do that. Because it is a
comparatively brief paragraph, there is no need for a clincher sentence at the end.

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 Here is another example:

Laptop computers have become increasingly popular. They can weigh

as little as two kilograms and can easily be fitted into a briefcase. They are
also inexpensive and can be purchased for under $700. However, they
normally do not have a printer. They also have a much smaller memory
than a PC and limited capability. For many, however, these
disadvantages are outweighed by the advantages.
(Adapted from R. Blicq. Technically Write.)

Again, this example has the topic sentence at the opening, but also has a clincher
sentence at the end. The first paragraph simply expanded on the characteristics of
the cellular telephone, whereas the second example gave both advantages and
disadvantages of the laptop computer. Because of this, the writer felt it necessary
to tie both of these elements together in the sixth sentence, which summarizes and
links up with the opening topic sentence.

If we were to illustrate those two paragraph development patterns, the first would
resemble a triangle like this:

Figure 1
Paragraph Development Pattern

The second would resemble a diamond like this:

Figure 2
Summary or Clincher Development Pattern

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PARAGRAPH UNITY

Despite their slightly different development patterns, both these paragraphs

illustrate the principle of unity. In each of them, all the sentences relate to the
same key idea. Look at the following example where this isn’t the case. (The
sentences are numbered for ease of reference.)

(1) In the last few years, thousands of people have left the oil and gas
industry entirely or have gone overseas to make a living. (2) Some experts
estimate that when the rig count reaches 275 rigs, Alberta is in a crisis
situation. (3) In 1985 there were 80 drilling contractors open for business in
Canada. (4) Last week there were 260 rigs operating which means the
problem will be even greater in January and February.
(Adapted from Calgary Herald.)

The four sentences all relate to problems in the oil and gas industry, as indicated
by the opening topic sentence, but sentence (3) appears to deal with the situation
of drilling contractors in 1985, whereas sentences (2) and (4) relate to the present
number of rigs. In other words, including sentence (3) in the paragraph violates
the principles of unity.

Here is another example:

My roommate Randy is probably the brightest student at SAIT. His IQ is so

high that the last time he was tested it went off the scale. He has A’s in
every course he is taking this semester--all twelve of them. The mathematics
teacher often asks him for help with the more difficult problems. Doctor
Polyani, a Nobel prize winner in chemistry, often chats with him on the
phone about their latest research. There are two other really bright people in
my class this year also. Randy served on the budget committee and this year
the deficit has been reduced by six million dollars. People as bright as
Randy only come along once in a generation.

Sentence six, beginning There are two other, does not really belong in the
paragraph. All the other sentences relate to the intelligence of Randy but sentence
six introduces a new idea. To sum up, every sentence in a paragraph should relate
to a central idea, normally announced in the topic sentence. Although the topic
sentence can come anywhere in the paragraph, it is often more effective when
placed at the opening of the paragraph.

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 COHERENCE

Coherence in sentences and paragraphs refers to the arrangement of ideas in a

logical, orderly sequence. A paragraph that is coherent moves smoothly from one
aspect of the central idea to the next, in an orderly fashion with no confusing gaps
between statements.

Ensuring coherence often is part of the revision process, where we take our first
draft and ensure that each sentence relates to the previous and the subsequent
sentence sentences in grammar and structure. Of the many ways to achieve
coherence, the following list indicates four of the most common:

• Transitional expressions
• Pronouns
• Repetition of words and ideas
• Parallel structure

Transitional Expressions

Transitional expressions are words and phrases that connect ideas expressed in a
paragraph or in sentences. Transition means going across or linking.

Look at the following example:

There are three reasons why many people believe an institution that
concentrates on teaching specific skills in a narrow area is short changing
its students. Firstly, the workplace changes so rapidly that what may be
relevant one year may be redundant the next year. Secondly, students will
have to constantly upgrade and change their skills to cope with a rapidly
evolving world economy, whether they take this upgrading in a formal
setting or not. Thirdly, most students must learn broad humanizing skills to
enable them to be better world citizens. Since learning is life-long, teaching
students how to study and acquire new skills should be the function of
every educational institute.

The three words in bold, Firstly, Secondly, and Thirdly, are examples of
transition words aimed at improving the coherence of the paragraph.

The following table indicates other specific transition words or phrases used to
achieve coherence:

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 TYPES TRANSITIONAL WORDS AND PHRASES

Addition Also, in addition, and, next, then, finally

Comparison Similarly, in the same way, in comparison

Contrast But, however, nevertheless, on the contrary

Example Thus, namely, for example, for instance

Place In the front, adjacent to, in the distance, near

Result Therefore, consequently, with the result that, thus,

so, so that

Sequence First, second, third, firstly, secondly, thirdly, then, eventually,

finally, afterwards, meanwhile, subsequently

Summary In summary, to sum up, in conclusion, finally

Table 1
Transitional Expressions

If a paragraph length in a report extends beyond eight or ten lines, the paragraph
can also be divided into numbered subparagraphs as illustrated below:

There are three reasons why many people believe that an institution that
concentrates on teaching specific skills in a narrow area is short changing its
students.

1. The workplace changes so rapidly that what may be relevant one year may
be redundant the next year.

2. Students will have to constantly upgrade and change their skills to cope
with a rapidly evolving world economy whether they take this upgrading
in a formal educational setting or not.

3. Most students have to learn broad humanizing skills to enable them to be

better world citizens.

Since learning is life-long, teaching students how to study and acquire new
skills should be the function of every educational institute.

The numbers are used to improve the appearance of long paragraphs, but they can
also take the place of transition words. The paragraph is still coherent in that the
ideas in the paragraphs are connected to the topic sentence.

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 Pronouns

Pronouns referring clearly to nouns or other pronouns can also help to connect
ideas in a paragraph. For example, in the previous paragraph about Randy, the
words He, his, and him are pronouns referring to Randy which maintain the
coherence of the paragraph. In the paragraph about laptop computers, the words
they and these similarly help to maintain the coherence of the paragraph.

Repetition

Repetition is a third method used to achieve coherence in a paragraph. A key

word used to express an idea in the topic sentence is repeated in a supporting
sentence to link the idea expressed in the paragraph.

Here is a paragraph that achieves its coherence by the third method, repetition:

The standard textbooks on technical communication give speaking very

short shrift. Many otherwise excellent texts deal solely with the writing
aspect and exclude by their very title all other aspects. Most of the
remaining technical textbooks give little space to oral communications;
the majority devotes fewer than four pages to it. Textbooks that give more
extensive space to the topic usually incorporate the information in a single
chapter, which is also devoted to listening.

As you have seen, the word text or textbook is repeated three times after its use
in the first sentence.

Parallel Structure

Parallel structure, the most complex of the four methods used to achieve
coherence, uses the same sentence or phrase pattern several times in a paragraph
to achieve a rhythm that unifies the paragraph. Parallel structure is often used in
technical writing to reinforce connection among ideas, but this structure has to be
introduced in a way that is deliberate and concise. It uses a more complex form
of repetition of structure in sentences or phrases rather than of single words. Here
is a non-technical paragraph that achieves coherence by use of parallel structure:

The Beatles were already famous when they were “discovered” by Ed

Sullivan in February, 1964. In Britain, they had three consecutive chart
toppers, they had appeared before the Queen at the Royal Command
Performance, and they had been voted the number one group of 1963.
In addition, they had toured Europe successfully several times and had top
hits in Europe, in Hong Kong, and in Australia. They also had their own
radio show and were preparing to make their first movie. Only in North
America were the Beatles unknown.

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The parallelism of the three clauses in sentence two and the three phrases in
sentence three reinforces the coherence of the paragraph. The paragraph also
makes use of other methods of achieving coherence.

• The transitional phrase In addition is used in sentence three and the

transitional word also in sentence four.

• The pronoun they is used several times in the paragraph

• The past perfect tense of verbs characterized by the use of the word had is
used several times.

This particular example illustrates, of course, that often a combination of

techniques is used to achieve coherence.

PARAGRAPH DEVELOPMENT

Although there are over a dozen different patterns of paragraph development in

paragraphs, we should first examine the introductory and concluding paragraphs
of a business document.

Introductory and Concluding Paragraphs

A short memo may, in fact, contain one single paragraph, but the introductory
paragraph always lays the foundation for the remainder of the information in a
report. A good introductory paragraph answers the journalistic questions who,
what, where, when, why, and how, and like the news article, much of the key
information is stated in the opening paragraph of a letter, memo, or report.
However, unlike a news article, the key information is often restated in specific
terms in the conclusion of the report. The news article trails off into less
significant details because the writer knows the editor may trim off the ending of
the story. On the other hand, the technical writer is deliberately repetitive and may
state the key information three times:

• in general terms at the opening

• in specific details in the body

• in terms of future implications at the conclusion

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 The typical introductory paragraph in technical writing covers the origin, purpose,
and scope of the topic. It does not attempt to give the reader all the information
but just enough so that the reader can decide whether the information is relevant
or should be passed on to someone else who will be better able to act on the
information. Unlike the essayist who may anticipate the reader is going to read the
whole essay, the technical report writer has to cater to a variety of different
readers, only some of whom will read the whole document. The following table
contrasts the difference between typical methods used in the introduction of the
technical report and the essay.

TECHNICAL REPORT OPENING ESSAY OPENING

Statistics Anecdote

Definition of terms Quotation

Identification of situation Specific example

Background information Analogy

Purpose and scope of report Thesis statement

Table 2
Typical Methods

The concluding paragraph of any report should bring the discussion to a logical
end. It should neither be too abrupt nor a mere restatement of previous ideas. It
should leave the reader with a sense of completeness and a clear indication of
what the next step should be. No new material should be introduced and no minor
points from the body of the report should be recalled. Some possible devices for
writing concluding paragraphs include

• summarizing key points

• indicating future action

• suggesting a change(s).

PATTERNS OF PARAGRAPH DEVELOPMENT

All paragraphs must make use of sufficient detail to ensure that the paragraph has
developed the topic fully enough to convey the writer’s purpose to the reader.
RENNS is a useful acronym to help us remember some of the main methods of
developing the details in a paragraph (Adapted from Simon & Schuster.
Handbook for Writers. 2nd ed.). RENNS stands for

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 • Reasons
• Examples
• Names
• Numbers
• Senses (sight, smell, sound, taste, touch)

This device does not mean that every paragraph uses all categories nor does it
mean that the details of the development takes place in any particular order. Read
the following paragraph and see how many RENNS you can locate:

The Canadian Association of Oilwell Drilling Contractors forecasts that

5 200 wells will be drilled in Canada during 1993, compared to 4 800 wells
this year. The CAODC also predicts that an average of 143 drilling rigs will
work throughout 1993 compared to 124 rigs in 1992. With only 414 rigs
expected to be available in 1993 compared to 436 in 1992, this prediction
means a 35% utilization rate compared to 1992’s rate of 28%. Art Hibbarb,
president of the association, believes that 1992 will prove to be “the worst of
the worst.”
(Adapted from Calgary Herald)

The paragraph contains the first four of the five types of RENNS. You might also
have noticed that the topic sentence is the last rather than the first as they key idea
is that the oil and gas industry has turned the corner. Overall, RENNS is useful in
showing us methods of making any of our generalizations specific.

In any piece of writing, the paragraphs have to be developed by a logical pattern

appropriate for the subject matter. Whatever the pattern of development used in a
paragraph, the information has to be carefully selected. If necessary, tell the
reader beforehand the basis of that selection. Often the writer will indicate the
pattern of development in the introductory section or in the topic sentence.

1. Chronological

The chronological pattern of paragraph development presents the information

in the order in which it happened. In technical writing, the chronological
approach is often used for progress reports covering a short period, historical
events, instructions, and explanation of a process or procedure. The example
is a paragraph using the chronological pattern of development:

On February 13, 1947, the discovery of oil at Leduc ushered in a new

era in Alberta. Further discoveries were made in the Leduc-Woodbend
area so that by 1948 there were 131 productive wells. By 1949, there
were over 350 and by 1951, over 800. Additional discoveries made at
Pembina in 1953 and Swan Hills in 1957 ensured that by 1971,
petroleum and its related products had superseded agriculture as the
mainstay of the Alberta economy.
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 Here is an additional example of an introductory paragraph serving as a
preview of the succeeding paragraphs:

Scotland’s greatest poet was born in the hamlet of Alloway in

Southern Scotland on January 25, 1759. His early years were spent
tending to the chores on the family farm. After several unhappy love
affairs, he was contemplating immigrating to the West Indies when he
learned of the success of his first publication a book of Scots poetry.
Later he married and moved to Dumfries where he died in 1796. His
name was Robert Burns and his poetry has become famous the world
over.

The following paragraph uses the chronological pattern of development to

explain a completed procedure:

First, a physical modelling method was used to confirm the initial

mathematical models of windbox airflow. Then a scale model of the
windbox was built and water was pumped through it to simulate
airflow. Next, tiny plastic shears of neutral buoyancy were introduced
and their movement was observed. Finally, based on these
observations, baffles were installed and the test was rerun.
(Adapted from Power Engineering)

To sum up, use the chronological approach if the order of events is

particularly important and if the events themselves are important enough to be
of significance to the reader.

2. Spatial

Spatial order is occasionally referred to as location and usually involves the

positioning of places or objects relative to each other. Usually, the topic
sentence provides this central point of reference that orientates all the other
places mentioned. Here is an example:

As we entered the house, we were met by the stench of animals both

dogs and cats. The unheated front porch was subject to drafts as I
could hear the constant whistle of the wind. Beyond, the minute living
room was cramped with oversized furniture which impeded our
progress. Off the living room, the kitchen retained the odor of the
previous night’s meal liver and onions. Looking out the kitchen
window, I could discern in the yard two dog runs and an abandoned
Ford. The asking price of the house was $159 900.

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 Technical descriptions of mechanisms are also often arranged in spatial order.
The description might begin with a general overall description of the
mechanism followed by a specific description of the parts. The organization
used in describing these parts is spatial, which might be from outside to
inside, top to bottom, the order in which the parts work or are put
together.

When writing a paragraph organized according to the spatial pattern, ensure

that you use adequate transitions to reinforce the sense of movement.

3. Comparison and Contrast

A comparison and contrast paragraph shows both similarities and differences

between objects, people or ideas. The following paragraph compares and
contrasts solar energy with more conventional energy sources:

Solar energy makes use of the largely untapped and unlimited energy
of the sun. Its rays are nonpolluting, renewable, and not subject to
manipulation by any multinational corporation. It is natural, creates no
disposal problem, and is clean and convenient. However, being
natural, solar energy is subject to the vagaries of climate. It also
requires expensive initial construction costs. In addition, some people
find the sight of collectors on rooftops and the side of buildings a mere
substitution of a new form of visual pollution for the old.

Here is another example, which compares and contrasts a memo and a

business letter:

Letters and memos have both similarities and differences. Both

business letters and memos are written in a vocational context as part
of our work duties. Both tend to be short and relatively informal. Both
should be clear, concise, and correct and enable the reader to focus on
the key information immediately. However, the memo is an internal
document that stays within the organization, while the letter is an
external document and goes to a reader outside the organization.
Typically, we have a close working relationship with the reader of our
memo while we may not ever have met the person who reads our
letter. Finally, the formats of letters and memos are vastly different.

When writing comparison and contrast paragraphs, it is best to have at least

three similarities and three differences in the paragraphs. Fewer than that
tends to leave the paragraph undeveloped and the reader unconvinced.

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 4. Reasons and Examples

The reasons and examples pattern of development is common in all types of

writing, particularly technical writing. Usually, the opening topic sentence
contains a generalization or a premise which is proved by the examples given
in the remainder of the paragraph. This is usually termed the deductive
approach and goes from the general to the specific. The inductive approach,
by contrast, presents the specific information in the opening sentences of the
paragraph and ends with the generalization in the final topic sentence. The
two methods can be illustrated in Table 3.

DEDUCTIVE INDUCTIVE

Generalization Specific details

(topic sentence)

Specific details Generalization

(topic sentence)

Table 3
Patterns of Organization

The deductive approach is used more often than the inductive approach since,
when time is at a premium, most of us want the key information first, before
we look at the evidence. In laboratory reports, however, the inductive
approach is used more often since the reader is interested in the details and in
the evidence as well as the conclusion itself.

Here is an example of a reasons and examples paragraph which uses the

deductive approach:

The Integrated Services Digital Network which uses fibre optic cable
rather than standard wire telephone lines transmits information through
a digital rather than an analog network. It offers significant advantages
compared to a standard telephone system.

• Telephone conversations, pictures and computer messages can be

sent simultaneously over the same line with enhanced clarity.

• Computer messages can be transmitted instantaneously without the

use of a modem.

• Fax messages can be sent ten times as quickly compared to

traditional systems.

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 Note that in this paragraph the first sentence gives necessary background
information, and the topic sentence is the second one in the paragraph. The
advantages can be written in subparagraphs or points all supporting the topic
sentence.

5. Process

The process paragraph explains to your reader how to make or do something

or how something works. Often the opening sentence is a preview statement
that establishes why the process is important and what major steps or stages
are involved. In a technical report, the key information may be given in the
form of a numbered list of steps, each step beginning with an action verb in
the imperative mood such as:

1. Press the ENTER key.

2. Enter new data....

In paragraph form the format may be different, but the information is also
broken down into simple steps presented in chronological order. The amount
of detail given depends both on the knowledge of the reader and the purpose
of the writer. If your process is, for example, a description of how a volcano
erupts, the paragraph would normally give the reader a general picture. If
describing how to adjust the carburetor in a 1957 T Bird, you would be better
to be as detailed as possible.

Generally, if you are giving your reader a set of specific instructions that you
wish your reader to follow, you would use the numbered steps as in the
example below:

The following steps will help you prepare for the job interview:

1. Research the company and find out as much as possible about it

and its product(s) or service(s).

2. Rehearse some responses to typical job interview questions.

3. Review the information on your resume and be prepared to

elaborate on the information contained therein.

In order to improve your chances of success at the interview, make

sure you are neat, presentable, and punctual on the actual interview
day.

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 Note the use of action verbs research, rehearse, review and note also the
enumeration of the key steps. Again the topic sentence is the opening one.

Here is another paragraph instructing students on how to prevent student

burnout:

Burnout is not only a problem affecting business executives; it can

also affect you as a student. To control burnout, exercise moderation in
all areas. It’s not always possible to be an A student, be a star athlete,
maintain a job, and lead a busy social life. Avoid doing any single
activity for extended periods of time. Try to get at least eight hours
sleep every night and avoid alcohol, tobacco, and caffeine. No one is
immune to burnout, but moderation minimizes your chances of being a
victim.

Make sure your process paragraph is written at the reader’s level of understanding
and communicates the basic steps in the process in a simple, straightforward
fashion. Try to imagine yourself doing something for the first time by following
the information in the paragraph.

SUMMARY OF RULES FOR EFFECTIVE PARAGRAPHS

1. Ensure that the paragraph deals with only one main idea.

2. Express the main idea in a topic sentence, usually at the beginning of the
paragraph.

3. Ensure that the paragraph has unity by having all sentences support the main
idea.

4. Ensure the paragraph flows smoothly by using appropriate coherence devices.

5. Ensure the paragraph is adequately developed using RENNS.

6. Use a variety of patterns of paragraph development, including chronological,

spatial, comparison and contrast, reasons and examples, and process.

7. Strive for variety in paragraph length. While most paragraphs should average
four to seven sentences, occasional use of a short paragraph is often very
effective. Avoid writing too many paragraphs that are over ten lines long.

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