POST GRADUATE DIPLOMA IN

WATER, HYGIENE

AND SANITATION

MODULE 5

INTRODUCTION TO SANITATION
 Executive Summary

Access to water and sanitation is one of the major challenges for the 21st century. According to
WHO (2004), 1.1 billion people across the world do not have access to safe water and 2.4 billion
people do not have access to basic sanitation facilities. As a consequence every year around 4
million people, the majority of who are children, die from water and sanitation related diseases.
Water is not only important for public health, but also for general livelihoods: crop production
(70 to 80% of all water used is for crop production), livestock production, industry, commerce
and daily life depend on access to water. Water-supply conditions therefore affect health, hunger,
and poverty and community development.

This disastrous access to water and sanitation is due partly to a lack of infrastructure but also to
poor management that creates waste, contamination and degradation of the environment. Water
shortages may lead to tensions between individuals, communities or countries, which can evolve
into conflicts. At the same time, the demand for water is increasing due to population growth,
urbanization (rural exodus) and industrialization. Urbanization has also created extremely poor
sanitary conditions.

Most of these problems can be solved through comprehensive management of water resources
and demand. Water is a finite resource that must be managed with a global vision that works at
three levels: international to define rules to protect water resources and to avoid international
conflicts; national to apply defined rules and to define national water-access policies; and local

to develop local initiatives to ensure communities’ water access.

The Post graduate Diploma in WASH which is a eight module course which starts with
introduction of the basic concepts in WASH, Then taking the students to other topics like Water
Supply, Communicable Diseases, Sanitation and Waste Management and finally embarking the
final two modules on urban Wash since currently more than half of world population live in
urban area, and it’s in urban areas where the problem of poor sanitation and waste management
is severely felt.
 Table of Contents

Introduction to Sanitation and Waste Management.............................................Pg. 3

The Effects of Poor Sanitation and Waste Management.....................................Pg. 20

Rapid Assessment of Urban Sanitation and Waste Management.....................Pg. 35

Liquid Wastes: Sources, Types and Characteristics............................................Pg. 53

Latrine Technology Options for Urban Areas......................................................Pg. 66

Liquid Waste Management and Treatment..........................................................Pg. 86

Assignment ................................................................................................................Pg. 105

 Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION TO SANITATION AND WASTE MANAGEMENT

Introduction

All humans produce wastes of various types; for example, urine and faeces, wastes
from washing and cooking, and solid wastes produced at home and in workplaces,
schools, hospitals and other public buildings. All these wastes need to be controlled and
managed for the benefit of people and the environment that they live in. In urban areas
where people live close together and space can be limited, managing these wastes is a
difficult problem.

In this study session we will introduce you to the main topics and issues related to
sanitation and waste management, which will be discussed in detail in the rest of this
Module.

What are sanitation and waste management?

We can think of sanitation as the prevention of human contact with wastes, or as the
provision of facilities and services for the safe disposal of human faeces and urine. More
formally, the World Health Organization (WHO, n.d.) defines sanitation as:

The provision of facilities and services for the safe disposal of human urine and faeces,
the maintenance of hygienic conditions, through services such as garbage collection and
wastewater disposal.

By ‘facilities’, we mean the structures that are used to provide sanitation. This ranges
from latrines and toilets, the system for collecting the excreta from latrines, through to
sewage treatment systems. By ‘services’ we mean the whole scheme for providing
sanitation; providing facilities, maintaining them, treating the wastes from them and
organising finance and payments.

The WHO (n.d.) goes on to state that:

....inadequate sanitation is a major cause of disease world-wide and improving sanitation is
known to have a significant beneficial impact on health both in households and across
communities.

Waste management is defined in the European Union’s Waste Framework Directive

(European Commission, 2008) as:

.......the collection, transport, recovery and disposal of waste, including the supervision of such
operations and the after-care of disposal sites, and including actions taken as a dealer or broker.

The two terms – sanitation and waste management – both refer to waste, but sanitation
is primarily concerned with liquid waste and waste management is primarily concerned
with solid waste. Liquid wastes are any wastes in a liquid form such as wastewater and
sewage. Faeces and the contents of pit latrines and septic tanks are also classed as liquid
wastes. Solid wastes are anything in solid form that is discarded as unwanted.

You will find that, in practice, sanitation and waste management are used in ways that
overlap and some organisations include solid waste management as part of sanitation.
Throughout this Module, we will be using the following definitions:

Sanitation means preventing people from coming into contact with wastes by
providing facilities and services for the treatment and disposal of human excreta and
other liquid wastes produced in homes, workplaces and public buildings.

Waste management is the collection, treatment and disposal of solid wastes produced
in the home, workplace and public buildings.

Some of the consequences of a lack of waste management and sanitation can be seen in
Figures 1.1 and 1.2.
Figure 1.1 The effect of no waste Figure 1.2 The effect of poor sanitation:
management: paper, plastics and other liquid wastes are discharged into rivers
solid waste litter the environment. and streams that may be used as a water
source.

Although sanitation and waste management address different issues using different
techniques, they have a number of features in common. For example, they both:
 deal with wastes
 are concerned with safeguarding human health and preventing disease
 cause major problems if not done correctly
 help to reduce environmental pollution (introduction into the environment of
substances liable to cause harm)
 need to be paid for by the users, the city authorities or the government.

Types of liquid and solid waste

The aim of this section is to introduce the different types of solid and liquid wastes and
to clarify what we mean by the term ‘waste’. The Basel Convention (an international
agreement on the exporting of hazardous waste) states that (UNEP, 2011):

‘wastes’ are substances or objects which are disposed of or are intended to be disposed
of or are required to be disposed of by the provisions of national law.

You should note that this definition includes both solids and liquids. Solid and liquid
wastes are usually transported and treated in different ways, so in this Module we will
consider the two wastes separately. Note that all human excreta (urine and faeces) are
considered to be liquid wastes.

Types of liquid waste

The types and characteristics of liquid wastes are discussed in Study Session 4, but a
useful general classification of domestic liquid waste is as follows:

Blackwater – is wastewater that contains or consists of urine and faeces. It contains

pathogens (disease-causing agents).

Greywater, or sullage, is wastewater from human washing and bathing, kitchen sinks,
clothes washing, etc. It does not contain excreta.

Stormwater (or surface run-off or rainwater run-off) is wastewater that flows on the
surface of the land to join streams. Note that this is considered as wastewater because it
contains many different contaminants.

Sewage is a combination of wastewater coming from any of the above sources and
flows in underground sewers or open ditches.

Excreta is a combination of urine and faeces.

Types of solid waste

There are different ways of classifying solid wastes according to the source of
generation or the nature of the waste. Solid waste can be categorised as follows:

Residential waste: from households and residential areas. This is sometimes called
household waste. Garbage, rubbish, trash and refuse are other terms for residential
waste.

Commercial waste: from businesses such as food and drink establishments, shops, etc.

Industrial waste: from various types of industrial processes, e.g. food processing, paper
manufacture, manufacture of chemicals and metal processing.
Institutional waste: from public and government institutions, e.g. offices, religious
institutions, schools, universities, etc. This is similar to residential and commercial
waste in composition.

Municipal waste (or municipal solid waste) covers all the above wastes produced in an
urban area. It is similar in composition to residential waste but excludes some industrial
wastes.

Healthcare waste: any solid waste produced in hospitals, clinics, health posts and other
health facilities.

Agricultural waste: waste that comes from farming.

Waste from open areas: street sweepings, contents of roadside dustbins, ditches and
other public places.

Construction and demolition waste: from various types of building and demolition
activities in urban areas.

Electronic and electrical waste (e-waste): wastes generated from used electronic
devices and household appliances.

There are other ways of classifying wastes and we will look at these in Study Session 7.

The sanitation ladder and waste hierarchy

Generally speaking, all countries are aiming to improve their standards of sanitation
and waste management, and have many policies and regulations to try and achieve
these improvements. We will look at some of these regulations in later study sessions,
but the sanitation ladder and the waste hierarchy provide an excellent summary of
these aims.

The sanitation ladder

The sanitation ladder provides a measure of progress towards the provision of

adequate sanitation facilities for every household. The WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring
Programme (JMP) version of the ladder is shown in Figure 1.3.
The lowest rung of the ladder is open defecation, where people without access to
latrines or toilets deposit their faeces in open spaces. Unimproved facilities are one step
above open defecation and include latrines that do not ensure the separation of faeces
from humans. The next stage is shared facilities, which are facilities that would be
classed as improved, but are shared by two or more households. At the top of the
ladder are the improved facilities, where human contact with faeces is avoided.
Different types of latrine facilities are discussed in Study Session 6.
Figure 1.3 The WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) sanitation ladder.

The waste hierarchy

The waste hierarchy is shown in Figure 1.4 and is discussed in Study Session 9. The
hierarchy ranks the different ways of dealing with waste in order of desirability. At the
top is waste reduction, which means not generating waste in the first place or
minimising the amount of waste produced. Below that is waste reuse (for example,
refilling a drinks bottle), followed by recycling (processing of wastes into new raw
materials). A fourth option is the recovery of energy by burning or biological treatment.
Disposal, ideally in a landfill site, is the final option for any wastes that cannot be dealt
with in any other way. A landfill site is an area of land set aside for the final disposal of
solid waste.

Figure 1.4 The waste hierarchy.

The top three stages of the hierarchy (reduction, reuse and recycling) are often referred
to as the ‘3 Rs’, a term we will use throughout this Module.

What are some of the ways that you could reuse wastes at home.

Some suggestions are to:

 use empty food containers to store food that was bought loose

 refill plastic drinks bottles with water

  use clothes from your oldest child to dress younger children

 use worn-out clothes as cleaning cloths

 give books to friends when you have finished with them.

Sanitation and waste management in urban areas

Sanitation and waste management can cause problems in any community, regardless of
its size. In urban areas, where people live close together these problems can have a
much greater effect on people’s health and on their surroundings. The following
sections explore some of these issues.

The trend of urbanisation

Most of the population in the world lives in urban areas. The United Nations
Department of Economic and Social Affairs (2014) predicts that between 2014 and 2050
the global urban population will rise from 3.9 billion to 6.4 billion people, and that
about 90% of this increase will be in Asia and Africa. In Ethiopia, the proportion of
people living in urban areas is still low, but the growth in urbanisation (the increase in
the numbers of people living in urban areas) is greater than in many other countries, as
shown in Figure 1.5.
Figure 1.5 Population growth rate per year in Ethiopia and other regions of the world (Haddis et
al, 2013).

Explain in a few sentences what Figure 1.5 shows.

Figure 1.5 shows that the urban population of Ethiopia is growing at slightly more than
5% per year, which is more than twice the growth rate for the country as a whole. In
Africa and other developing countries, the urban growth rate is much greater than the
overall growth rate, but the difference is not as great as in Ethiopia. In contrast, the
overall growth rate in industrialised countries is much lower than that of the
developing world, and their urban growth rate is slightly lower than the overall growth
rate.

Many cities in Ethiopia have developed in a rapid and unplanned way as people
migrate to the cities seeking employment and a better life. This growth affects the
provision of sanitation and waste management facilities and other infrastructure such
as water supply, roads and electricity supplies. As an example, the city of Addis Ababa
receives settlers from every corner of the country, many of whom live in illegal
settlements without sanitary facilities and other infrastructure. As shown in Figure 1.5,
statistical reports indicate that Ethiopia has a total population growth rate of 2.5% a
year, with urban centres growing at a rate of 5.1% (Haddis et al., 2013). It is expected
that by 2020, one in five Ethiopians will be living in urban areas, and by 2030, half of the
country’s population will be living in urban centres (Teller et al., 2007).

As a result of rapid and unplanned urban growth, the sanitation problem of Addis
Ababa is one of the worst in the country. For instance, 26% of the houses and the
majority of slum-dwellers have no latrine facility, so they use rivers, ditches and open
spaces (UN-Habitat, 2008).

Rapid urbanisation creates a number of health and environmental risks to the

population (Bai et al., 2012) in addition to those caused by inadequate sanitation and
waste management. These include:
  infectious diseases among crowded communities with substandard living
conditions
 acute and chronic respiratory and other illnesses as a result of air pollution
 chronic and non-communicable diseases that are on the rise with unhealthy
urban lifestyles (physical inactivity, unhealthy diets, tobacco smoking, and the
harmful use of alcohol)
 injuries resulting from motor vehicle collisions, violence and crime
 health risks related to climate change, such as heat stress and changed patterns of
infectious disease, which are considered to be one of the biggest health risks in
the twenty-first century.

In the next section we will look at some of these challenges in more detail.

Environmental challenges

Urbanisation can have a major effect on the environment in the following areas.

Challenges emerging from rural-urban interaction

Urban centres are usually surrounded by rural communities and the two areas depend
on each other to supply many of their needs. Urban areas depend on the rural areas to
provide food, fuel and construction materials. In return, the rural community depends
on urban areas to supply employment, commercial products, advanced healthcare
provision, education and equipment, machinery, and other industrial outputs. Having
said this, problems may arise when there is a large temporary influx of people from the
rural to the urban areas. Examples include:

the increased demand for sanitation facilities in the area around a city market

the manure generated by animals that are brought for sale or used for transport (Figure
1.6)

the congestion caused by the number of people and animals using the roads.
Figure 1.6 An animal market in Addis Ababa.

Challenges emerging from the urban situation

Even without the influxes from rural areas, urban centres are congested and crowded.
They have often grown without any planning, so the problems arising from the lack of
sanitation, waste management and the other infrastructure mentioned above are
present. Urban growth also means that there is an increase in the area of land covered
with concrete and other hard surfaces.

Why would an increase in the area of land covered with concrete or other hard surface
be a problem?

When rainwater falls on soil it will usually soak in. When it falls on concrete it runs off
the surface and can cause flooding if the rainfall is heavy.

Urban development reduces the ability of the ground to absorb rainwater. In urban
areas a high proportion of the ground is paved, which prevents the absorption of
rainwater. Also, unplanned developments usually lack the drainage ditches or channels
necessary to carry away surface waters. These two factors combine to create an
increased risk of flooding and the outbreak of waterborne disease that can follow
floods.
Challenges from industrial discharges

Most industries in developing countries discharge untreated or partially treated liquid

wastes to sewers, where these are available, or to rivers, streams or ditches. Industries
also release waste gases that may contain harmful substances and produce solid wastes
that may contain hazardous materials (such as poisons, strong acids, infectious
material, etc. that can cause harm to humans because of their properties). As a result,
unregulated industries can harm human health and the environment in many ways.

Challenges from transport

We have already mentioned problems from traffic congestion, but the use of a large
number of often badly maintained petrol- and diesel-fuelled cars, lorries and buses
cause additional health problems. The exhaust gases from these vehicles contain fine
particles, partly burned fuel and acidic substances that make breathing difficult and
cause irritation of the lungs. While this is a problem for all people, it is much worse for
the old, the very young and the ill, especially those with heart problems or who suffers
from asthma.

Challenges to society

Increasing urbanisation puts pressures on society as a whole as well as on the

environment. People who migrate to cities may become unemployed and then need to
be provided for. This puts pressure on welfare provision and on the charities that
provide assistance to the hungry and the homeless. Even people who have jobs find it
difficult to find somewhere to live and may develop illegal unplanned settlements that
affect the planning and service provision of the government sectors. These settlements
also add to the city’s sanitation and waste problems.

The urban population requires daily supplies of food, fuel and other goods which can
put pressure on the infrastructure needed to deliver and sell these goods. Once goods
reach the end of their lives they become waste, increasing the pressure on the waste
collection and treatment systems.
Challenges to administration

A growth in population creates more work for the city’s administration. If funds are not
available to increase staff numbers to deal with this demand, problems will occur. In the
case of sanitation and waste management, as well as services not being provided to the
whole of the city, the additional workload can reduce the effectiveness of the
governance of these programmes, which can result in lower standards and a poorer
service for the entire city.

To deal with the problems of population growth, various organisations need to work
together; for example, water, sanitation and health service providers, and non-
governmental organisations (NGOs). When growth is rapid, these organisations can be
overwhelmed and so coordination can break down. This may mean that in some cases,
efforts are duplicated, and sometimes there will be gaps in addressing some aspects of
the programme.

If public administration and regulation is already weak, the entire system can fail. In the
absence of good regulation, standards of sanitation and waste provision can fall,
increasing pressures in other areas such as health services.

The present state of sanitation in Ethiopia

The WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) collects and publishes data for
water supply and sanitation for all the countries of the world. The JMP data for
sanitation coverage in Ethiopia in 2012 is shown in Figure 1.7.
Figure 1.7 Sanitation facilities used in Ethiopia by people living in urban areas, rural areas and
by the total population. (JMP, 2014)

There has been a marked reduction in the practice of open defecation throughout
Ethiopia in recent years, particularly in rural areas. This has been accompanied by a rise
in the use of latrine facilities, but there is still a long way to go to eliminate open
defecation and provide all people with access to improved facilities.

There is far less information available on solid waste management in Ethiopia than
there is on sanitation. Outside Addis Ababa and other large cities, household waste is
not collected and people tend to dispose of their waste in informal ‘open dumpsites’
where no records are kept. Organic materials (e.g. food, paper) eventually decompose,
but other materials such as plastics accumulate or are blown around by the wind. Not
surprisingly, there are no reliable figures for the amount of waste produced outside the
main cities. In Addis Ababa, Basha (2007) estimated that around 2000 tons of waste
were generated each day, around 75% of which was residential waste. Of this total:
 around 50–60% was collected by the city authority and taken to a local disposal
site (Figure 1.8)
  5–10% was recycled
 the remainder was either burned in open fires or dumped in open spaces, in
watercourses or by the roadside.

Clearly, there is much progress to be made in collecting city waste and in finding a safe
way of disposing of it.

Figure 1.8 Repi waste disposal site in Addis Ababa.

Policies, strategies and programmes

There are several national policies, strategies and programmes that are relevant to
improving sanitation and hygiene in Ethiopia. Key policies are:

The Health Policy (1993) which stresses that environmental health, occupational health
and safeguarding the environment are priority issues.

The Environmental Policy (1997) which promotes the use of renewable resources and
recycling, and includes specific policies for industrial waste.

The Water Resources Management Policy (1999) which describes the conservation,
exploitation, use and protection of water resources.

These policies are reinforced by proclamations such as the Public Health Proclamation
No. 200/2000, the Ethiopia Water Resources Management Proclamation No. 4/1995,
and the Proclamation for the Establishment of the Ethiopian Environmental Protection
Authority 2002. These proclamations provide support for regions, zones and woredas to
develop a regulatory framework for their activity in the water, sanitation and hygiene
sector.

The National Hygiene and Sanitation Strategy of 2005 (MoH, 2005) sets out a ‘sanitation
vision’ for Ethiopia that is:

100% adoption of improved (household and institutional) sanitation and hygiene by

each community which will contribute to better health, a safer, cleaner environment,
and the socio-economic development of the country.

The goal of 100% access to basic sanitation has been carried forward to other policies
and programmes, and is one of the targets of the new One WASH National Programme.
(‘WASH’ stands for ‘water, sanitation and hygiene’.) The One WASH National
Programme (OWNP), as the name suggests, is a single programme that combines the
three interlinked components. Announced in 2013, it aims to address the WASH
challenges in Ethiopia by adopting a unified and collaborative approach. The overall
objective of the OWNP (FDRE, 2014) is:

.................to improve the health and well-being of communities in rural and urban areas
in an equitable and sustainable manner by increasing access to water supply and
sanitation and adoption of good hygiene practices.

The OWNP is unlike previous WASH programmes because it takes a sector-wide

approach and involves the federal ministries of Water, Irrigation and Energy, Health,
Education, and Finance and Development.

The four ministries have signed a memorandum of understanding (MoU) that sets out
their roles and responsibilities. It therefore cuts across the traditional separation of
responsibilities between ministries and has structures and processes designed to ensure
closer cooperation and collaboration between all the stakeholders.

In comparison with the WASH sector, there are fewer policies and regulations relevant
to solid waste. The Solid Waste Management Proclamation of 2007 has the objective to
‘enhance at all levels capacities to prevent the possible adverse impacts while creating
economically and socially beneficial assets out of solid waste’ (FDRE, 2007). It sets out
the obligation for urban administrations to create the right conditions to promote
investment in solid waste management services and ensure the participation of local
communities in the process of designing and implementing their solid waste
management plans. It also sets out requirements for the supply and management of
specific types of waste, including glass, tin cans, plastic bags, used tyres, food-related
waste, household waste, and construction and demolition waste.

Summary of Study Session 1

In Study Session 1, you have learned that:

 ‘Sanitation’ and ‘waste management’ both refer to the appropriate management
of waste to protect people and the environment. Sanitation generally focuses on
liquid waste and waste management on solid waste.
 Liquid waste includes all types of wastewater and includes human excreta. Solid
waste is any solid material discarded by people and is often classified according
to its source.
 The ‘sanitation ladder’ illustrates the different types of sanitation provision in
order of desirability.
 The waste hierarchy is a guide to the different ways of treating wastes from
waste reduction (the best option) through to disposal (the worst option).
 The challenges of rapid and unplanned population growth and urbanisation in
Ethiopia make it difficult to achieve acceptable levels of sanitation and waste
management quickly.
 Sanitation in Ethiopia has shown significant improvement in recent years. There
is less data for trends in waste management.
 There are several Ethiopian policies, strategies, proclamations and programmes
that address sanitation and waste management issues.

Chapter 2
THE EFFECTS OF POOR SANITATION AND WASTE MANAGEMENT

Introduction

Many people in Ethiopia have limited knowledge and understanding of the good
hygiene practices that reduce the health risks from poor sanitation and waste
management. The Health Extension Programme (HEP) was established by the
Ethiopian government in 2004 to address this problem within the broader aim of
creating a healthy society and providing accessible health care at community level.
Initially the HEP focused on rural communities but this has since been extended to
pastoral areas and, in 2010, to urban communities. An important part of the programme
is to improve hygiene and environmental sanitation and give people information about
good health and hygiene practices (Health Extension and Education Center, 2007).
Creating a healthy society also depends on improvements to sanitation and waste
management and as an urban WASH worker you will be supporting this activity.

In this study session you will learn about the risks to people’s health and to the
environment that result from poor sanitation and waste management. You will also
look at ways of reducing these risks.

Health effects of poor sanitation and waste management

Ethiopia’s urban and peri-urban areas are characterised by poor sanitation conditions,
indiscriminate dumping of wastes and open urination and defecation. (Peri-urban areas
are the areas surrounding a town between the urban and rural areas. They are often
settled in by migrants from the countryside who suffer from extreme poverty,
overcrowding and a lack of sanitation facilities.) Urban and peri-urban pollution and
overcrowding create significant vulnerabilities for the overall urban population,
particularly the poor. Diarrhoeal disease is one of the leading causes of morbidity
(illness) and mortality (death) in developing countries, especially among children
younger than five years of age. It is estimated that up to 60% of the current disease
burden in Ethiopia is attributable to poor sanitation and 15% of deaths are due to
diarrhoea (MoH, 2005).
Many human infections are spread through contact with human excreta. Bacteria,
viruses, protozoa and parasitic worms cause many diseases that are spread by direct
contact with faeces or indirectly via contaminated food and soil. These different types of
pathogens or infectious agents are described in Box 2.1. Diseases may also be
transmitted through a carrier organism or vector. Vectors are organisms that do not
cause diseases themselves, but carry or transmit disease-causing agents. For example,
mosquitoes carry the protozoa that cause malaria and infect people with the disease
through mosquito bites. Other examples of disease vectors are lice, ticks, fleas and rats.

Box 2.1 Main types of infectious agents

Bacteria are very simple microscopic organisms. Some types of bacteria are essential to
human life, playing a part in the digestive system. Others have other benefits, such as
decomposing wastes. Pathogenic bacteria are responsible for many diseases, including
tuberculosis and pneumonia and several waterborne diseases such as typhoid and
cholera (Figure 2.1).

Viruses are not living organisms themselves but are infectious agents able to invade
cells and cause them to manufacture more virus material. Polio, HIV/AIDS, influenza
and rotavirus are examples of diseases caused by viral infections.

Protozoa are the simplest members of the animal kingdom. They are microscopic,
consist of a single cell and are found in water, soil and the sea. Some types are beneficial
to humans, breaking down pollutants in water, but others are parasitic, causing diseases
including malaria, amoebic dysentery (Figure 2.2) and sleeping sickness.

Parasitic worms live inside the bodies of their human host, usually in the intestines.
There are several different types of parasitic worm including tapeworms, flukes and
roundworms. Roundworms, also known as nematodes, include Ascaris, hookworm and
whipworm (Figures 2.3 and 2.4). Most worm infections are not fatal, but they do cause
long-term debilitating illness. Parasitic worms are sometimes collectively known as
helminths. Note however, that there are many types of worm that are not parasitic or
harmful in any way. For example, earthworms decompose dead plant matter and
improve soil structure and fertility.

Figure 2.1 Vibrio cholerae: the bacteria Figure 2.2 Entamoeba histolytica: the
responsible for cholera (0.5–0.8 µm wide protozoa that causes amoebic dysentery
and 1.4–2.6 µm long). (up to 60 µm in size).

Figure 2.3 Ascaris lumbricoides or Figure 2.4 Trichuris trichiura or

roundworm: these intestinal parasites can whipworm: these can reach 4 cm in length.
be very large – up to 35 cm long.

Table 2.1 lists some of the diseases that are caused by the many different types of
pathogens and are linked to poor sanitation and waste management.

Table 2.1 Health problems associated with poor sanitation and management of wastes.

Disease- Disease Description

causing agent

Bacteria Shigellosis Causes abdominal pains and diarrhoea (see

below).

Typhoid Mild to severe fever lasting from a few days to

several weeks.

Cholera An infection of the intestines that can cause

watery diarrhoea leading to dehydration.
 Diarrhoeal Production of frequent watery faeces that can
diseases lead to dehydration. Can be fatal, particularly
among young children.
(note these can
also be caused Diarrhoea is a symptom of several other
by viruses) diseases in this table.

Viruses Hepatitis A An infection of the liver that can cause pain,

diarrhoea and jaundice.

Polio Can cause temporary or permanent muscle

weakness, and sometimes death.

Protozoa Amoebiasis Infection that can occur up to several years

(also known as after exposure to the protozoa. Can cause
amoebic mild to severe diarrhoea and liver damage.
dysentery)

Giardiasis Infection of the small intestine. It is usually

symptomless but can have a variety of
intestinal symptoms, such as chronic
diarrhoea, abdominal cramps, gas production
and frequent loose, pale and greasy stools.

Parasitic Ascariasis One in four of the world’s population has this

worms (roundworm) infection, which can lead to weight loss,
malnutrition and anaemia. It is very common
in Ethiopia.

Hookworm Two species of nematodes that inhabit the

infection small intestine, from where they suck blood,
leading to anaemia.
 Tapeworm A worm that normally lives in the intestines
infection which can cause anaemia and malnutrition.
This is usually spread through eating
improperly cooked food that contains the
worm or its eggs.

Bilharzia or A disease caused by the Schistosoma worm

schistosomiasis that can cause diarrhoea and blood in the
urine and faeces. In the long term, it can lead
to liver and kidney damage.

Routes for disease transmission

Most infections occur through the faecal-oral route where pathogens enter a person’s
mouth through ingesting (eating or drinking) contaminated food or water, or when
contaminated fingers are placed in the mouth. The different transmission routes are
shown in Figure 2.5, which is known as the ‘F diagram’. Pathogens contained in faeces
enter a new host (a person’s body) through the ‘Fs’ – fluids, fingers, flies or
fields/floors. Effective sanitation, clean water and good hygiene behaviour provide
barriers to this transmission.
Figure 2.5 The F diagram showing how diseases can pass from faeces to a new host. Sanitation
(using a latrine), safe water supply and good hygiene are barriers to disease transmission.

The faeces (on the left of the diagram) comes from an infected person. The new host (on
the right of the diagram) could be any man, woman or child who is not currently
infected with the disease. Infections can be transmitted from faeces to the new host as
follows:
 Infection from fluids usually involves drinking or cooking with water
contaminated with faecal organisms.
 In the fingers pathway, a person ingests the organisms (usually during eating) if
they have come into contact with faeces and have not washed their hands
properly afterwards. This contact can occur from defecation, from cleaning a
child’s bottom, from touching dirty surfaces or eating food prepared in an
unhygienic manner.
 Flies and cockroaches often thrive on excreta. If they land on food they can
transfer faecal matter that can be subsequently ingested by a person.
 Field (or soil) infection can occur by the ingestion of unwashed raw vegetables
and fruit grown in soil contaminated with faeces. Contaminated soil may be
transported by feet or shoes for long distances. Infections can also be transmitted
through dirty floors, perhaps if food is dropped on the floor and then picked up
and eaten.

Name two vectors involved in faecal-oral disease transmission.

Flies and cockroaches are two examples of vectors that can carry pathogens from faeces
on to food that is then eaten.

There are other disease vectors linked to poor sanitation and waste management. For
example, piles of food waste and other garbage not only provide good breeding sites for
flies but they also encourage rats. Rats can contaminate food stores and also carry fleas.
Poor personal hygiene also contributes to disease transmission. Infrequent or
inadequate washing of the body and clothes can encourage external body parasites such
as fleas and lice, which may carry typhus.

An important example of a disease that is closely related to poor sanitation but is not
transmitted by ingestion of contaminated food or water is schistosomiasis, also known
as bilharzia. Schistosomiasis is widely distributed in Ethiopia (Dufera et al., 2014). The
disease is caused by a parasitic worm that has a complicated life cycle. Its primary host
is humans, but its secondary host is a type of freshwater snail. The disease is linked to
poor sanitation because it is caused by the faecal contamination of water. However, the
worm gets into the body not by the faecal-oral route, but by penetrating through the
skin when someone washes, swims or stands in water inhabited by infected snails.

Safeguarding health with good hygiene

In some of the later study sessions we will look at technologies that can reduce the
health impacts of poor sanitation and waste management. This study session
concentrates on simple practices that can be carried out by everyone to reduce these
risks. These practices generally relate to good hygiene, which means any practice that
prevents the spread of disease-causing organisms or substances that cause harm to
humans.

Handwashing

Everyone should wash their hands thoroughly at certain critical times, as listed in Box
2.2. Washing should be done using clean water that has not been used by anyone else
and with soap or a soap substitute such as ash. Ideally, the water should be hot. After
washing, the hands should be dried using a clean cloth or allowed to dry in the air.
 Box 2.2 Critical times for handwashing

The occasions in everyday activity when hands should be washed include:

o after using the latrine or toilet (or disposing of human or animal faeces)
o after cleaning a child’s bottom or changing a baby’s nappy and disposing of the
faeces
o after contact with blood or body fluids (e.g. vomit)
o immediately after touching raw food, especially meat, when preparing meals
o before preparing and handling cooked or ready-to-eat food
o before eating food or feeding children
o after contact with contaminated surfaces (e.g. rubbish bins, cleaning cloths, food-
contaminated surfaces)
o after handling pets and domestic animals
o after wiping or blowing the nose or sneezing into the hands
o after handling soiled tissues (your own or others’, e.g. children).

This list is frequently summarised as five critical times, which are:

o after using the latrine
o after cleaning a child’s bottom
o before preparing food
o before eating
o before feeding a child.

Food hygiene

Many diseases are caused by eating food that has been contaminated with an infectious
agent, usually from faeces. If these diseases lead to diarrhoea or vomiting they are
easily spread further if sanitation provision is poor. Food hygiene refers to practices and
behaviours that can prevent contamination. For example, food and water should be
stored in the home in closed containers to prevent contact with flies, rodents and other
vectors. These containers should not be used for any other purpose and must be kept
clean. Raw and cooked meats should not be stored together, and meat and dairy
produce should be kept in a cool place, ideally in a refrigerator. Food should be
prepared on clean surfaces and cooked at the correct temperature for the required time.
Particular care should be taken over meat, poultry, fish and dairy produce.

Control of vectors

As mentioned above, all food should be stored in a way that it is not accessible to flies,
rodents and other potential vectors. Storing wastes properly is also an important way of
controlling vectors. Food waste should be disposed of immediately or stored in a closed
container before disposal to discourage the presence of flies, etc. Household solid waste
storage containers should be emptied frequently. If the waste is disposed of in a pit it
should be covered with soil immediately.

Waste management can also play a part in controlling mosquitoes. Mosquitoes need
water to breed, but they can also do this successfully in very small temporary puddles
of rainwater. Plastic bags and other plastic waste that is carelessly discarded can hold
enough water to enable mosquitoes to reproduce. Collecting and disposing of plastic
correctly by burial or burning ensures this opportunity for mosquito breeding is
removed.

According to the F diagram (Figure 2.5), which of the three barriers to faecal-oral
disease transmission would be most effective in preventing infection?

The three barriers in the F diagram are sanitation (using a latrine), safe water supply
and good hygiene, specifically handwashing. The first two are effective barriers to some
of the steps in disease transmission, but hygiene cuts across all the lines of transmission.
If the person who is the potential new host washes their hands at all critical times, this
will be the single most effective method of preventing infection.
You have seen how poor sanitation and waste management can contribute to the spread
of many different communicable diseases. The following sections describe how these
negative effects on health can have further impacts on education and the economy.

Impacts on children and education

Diseases linked to poor sanitation and hygiene have a significant impact on children’s
health and education. 38% of Ethiopian school children are infected with parasitic
worms (Mahmud et al. 2015). These infections contribute to malnutrition because the
parasites prevent the child’s body from absorbing nutrients from the food that they eat.
Long-term malnutrition retards children's physical and intellectual development. The
Young Lives survey (2014) reported that around 30% of Ethiopian children are stunted,
which is a sign of long-term malnutrition. (Stunted means that a child’s height is less
than expected for their age.)

Children are frequently ill as a result of parasites and other infections, which leads to
poor school attendance and performance. Furthermore, if the school attended by an
infected child does not have good sanitation and handwashing facilities the infections
are likely to spread to healthy children.

There are also social impacts of poor sanitation provision in schools. An absence of
latrines with separate facilities for girls and boys means that post-pubescent girls are
more likely to stop attending schools, especially when menstruating .When healthy
children attend a school with well segregated sanitation facilities, they are present more
regularly and are better learners. This, in turn, makes them better able to find jobs that
demand higher-level skills on finishing school; an advantage to them, their families and
the community as a whole. This contributes to wider economic benefits, as discussed in
the following section.

Impacts on the economy

A healthy community has many economic advantages over an unhealthy one. If people
are healthy they will spend less money on health care and the loss of work days due to
diarrhoea and other related infections is reduced. Illness can affect both the sick person
and their family, for example when women have to take time off work to care for sick
children.

Improving solid waste management has economic advantages in addition to the health
advantages discussed above. Consider the following example.

It is said that a firm that throws something away pays towards it three times over.
Imagine a firm that uses raw materials and puts them through a manufacturing process
to make a final product. First, the firm has to pay its suppliers for the raw materials.
Secondly, it pays its staff to transform the raw materials into products, and pays for the
water and energy that it uses. Finally, the firm has to pay for disposal of what it throws
away. So a firm that reduces the amount of waste it produces makes savings in all three
areas.

A firm that uses basic materials such as glass or metal faces large energy bills for the
processes required in converting these materials into products. But if they follow the
principles of the 3 Rs (reduce, reuse and recycle) and substitute some of their input raw
material with scrap glass or metal, they can reduce their energy bills and buy less raw
materials. These materials are often imported, so using recycled scrap reduces
Ethiopia’s expenditure abroad, which benefits the national economy as well as
individual firms.

There are further benefits from recycling. The initial stages in the recycling process
(collecting material from households and businesses) is labour-intensive and provides
employment for the poorest people in society. Giving them an income improves their
health, which, in turn, reduces the country’s healthcare expenditure.

A householder in an urban area goes shopping for food. How can they apply the 3 Rs
when it comes to packaging materials?

They can reduce packaging waste by buying loose fruit and vegetables rather than pre-
packaged goods.
The can reuse carrier bags to take the shopping home rather than picking up new bags
each time they shop.

They can recycle by taking any glass or metal food containers to collection points or by
giving them to people who earn their living by collecting recyclable wastes.

Impacts on the environment

What do we mean by ‘the environment’? You may think of it as your immediate

surroundings in the town or kebele where you live or work. However, it can also mean
the wider natural world on a much larger, even global, scale. Poor sanitation and waste
management have direct impacts on the local environment, but human practices can
also have broader consequences.

There are obvious local environmental benefits from improved sanitation. This means
that defecation only takes place in properly constructed latrines, areas of land are not
contaminated with faeces and watercourses no longer act as sewers. This in turn allows
plant life, fish and other aquatic organisms to flourish.

Improving waste management improves the local environment and also benefits the
national and even the global environment. Good waste management means less litter in
the streets and in the neighbourhood of waste disposal sites (Figure 2.6). It also reduces
the smell in the streets from decomposing wastes.
Figure 2.6 Carelessly discarding plastic bags and other solid wastes has a negative visual impact
and is hazardous to grazing animals.

Applying the 3 Rs saves energy because the energy used to recycle metals, paper, glass,
etc. is far less than the energy used in producing these materials from raw materials.
Energy production is a major source of greenhouse gases. Greenhouse gases, such as
carbon dioxide and methane, contribute to human-induced climate change that is
causing the overall warming of the Earth and changing weather and rainfall patterns.
Recycling (and reduction and reuse) reduce the emissions of these gases. Improving the
standards of landfills also reduces greenhouse gas emissions and lowers the risk of
polluting local watercourses and the surrounding land.

Summary

In chapter 2, you have learned that:

 Many health problems are associated with poor sanitation and waste management,
principally caused by contact with human faeces.

 The main types of infectious agent responsible for communicable diseases are
bacteria, viruses, protozoa and parasitic worms.

 The F diagram shows how infectious agents from faeces can be ingested by someone
who then becomes infected.

 Poor sanitation and waste management create conditions that may encourage flies
and other disease vectors.

 Good hygiene behaviour, especially handwashing with soap at critical times, can
significantly reduce health risks.

 Diseases associated with poor sanitation affect children’s physical development and
school attendance. Poor sanitation facilities in schools also affect attendance,
especially for girls.
 Healthy people are more productive, which brings economic benefits to them and to
the wider community.

 In industry, minimising the amount of waste can reduce costs throughout the
manufacturing process.

 Environmental impacts of poor sanitation and waste management at a local level

include pollution of land and watercourses, the visual impact of litter, and bad
odours. At a global level, applying the 3 Rs to solid waste management can reduce
energy use which will reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
 Chapter 3

RAPID ASSESSMENT OF URBAN SANITATION AND WASTE MANAGEMENT

Introduction

In Study chapter 2 you learned about the effects of poor sanitation and waste
management. In this study session you will learn how to make a rapid assessment of
the state of sanitation and waste management in an urban community. This assessment
can then be used to identify the needs for improvements in sanitation and hygiene, and
decide which improvements are the most important. Therefore, making these
assessments is a key part of the urban WASH practitioner’s work. Reliable data is
needed to ensure that interventions properly target populations (especially in slum
areas and among disadvantaged groups), and bring about the desired changes.

What is rapid assessment?

Rapid assessment of urban sanitation and waste management is the process of

collecting information from households and institutions to get a quick overview of the
situation in an urban community. The results can then be used to identify the areas that
need to be improved and suggestions of possible solutions. The assessment involves
observations of the community and discussions and meetings with target households
and other community members. Some examples of the type of question that could be
asked are:

How many households and schools have sanitary facilities (including handwashing
provision) and how are these facilities being used?

How convenient are the facilities? Do they provide the necessary access and privacy
and preserve dignity?
What is the current level of sanitation and waste management knowledge among the
community?

Why do an assessment?

There are a number of reasons why a WASH team may need to carry out an assessment.
Usually this relates to the need to get information on the state of sanitation and waste
management in a particular town or part of a city and have the ‘facts on hand’ to inform
others (particularly political leaders and community members) as they make action
plans for improvements.

The assessment can also be used as a monitoring exercise to provide a quick overview
of how an urban community has been using its sanitation facilities and waste
management system. This could be used to identify the individuals or groups of people
who are at the greatest risk of harm from poor WASH practices.

Assessments are also used to help plan WASH facilities in an emergency situation: after
a mass movement of people to a refugee camp, for example, or while recovering from a
natural disaster. You will learn more about emergency WASH in Study Session 14.

Note that the assessments discussed in this study session are classed as ‘rapid’. This is
because they are intended to provide a quick view of the situation and to identify the
key areas for immediate action. In the longer term, it is important to assess the
effectiveness of any WASH programme. An initial assessment might be done before the
start of the programme to find out the baseline position (the situation before any
improvement programmes are implemented). This would be followed by further
assessments during and at the end of the programme to determine its progress. Finally,
an assessment carried out sometime after the end of the active phase of the programme
would help to determine any long-term benefits achieved. This type of longer-term
assessment is part of the more rigorous process of ‘monitoring and evaluation’, which
you will learn about in Study Session 15.

3.3 The assessment team

These assessments are most effectively carried out by a mixed team of people, rather
than an individual, to make sure that all the necessary skills and experiences are present
(Visscher et al., 2014). This could be the Woreda WASH Team and may also involve
environmental health workers, Health Extension Workers, urban health supervisors
and others. In any event, at least some of the team members should have basic public
health training, experience of rapid assessment surveys and familiarity with best
practices in sanitation and waste management. Teams should include both men and
women because people may not want to discuss sensitive subjects such as latrine use
with a member of the opposite sex.

Why is it better to use a team of people rather than one individual?

A team could undertake an assessment of a larger area and/or complete the task more
quickly than someone alone. Also, a single person will have less experience than an
entire team and may not have the knowledge and skills required. A team including
both men and women who have a variety of experiences and backgrounds will be better
able to cover all aspects of the assessment.

The assessment process

The first part of any assessment is to agree on why the assessment is being carried out
and to identify any specific aspects of WASH that need to be looked at. An assessment
that is carried out as part of a project to determine the need for latrines, for example,
would need very different information than one looking at the possibility of setting up a
waste composting scheme. This first part will normally be done by the team leaders
working with the organisation that requested the survey or provided the funding for
the work. It is important that representatives of the community being assessed should
be part of this process so that they can influence the decisions and remain informed.
The output from this initial stage of the process will be an overall aim, together with a
series of objectives (you can think of objectives as the aims for each smaller piece of the
work).

All assessments should end with the production of a report, and it is important at the
start to consider who this report is for. This will determine what data needs to be
collected and what sort of data analysis is done. This in turn will determine some of the
skills required of the project team and may identify where specialised computer data
processing software is required.

Based on the aim and objectives, the team should prepare a checklist of the information
that needs to be collected. The advantages of using a checklist are that it:
 provides a standardised approach to what is reviewed during assessment
 helps supervisors to cover all issues without forgetting anything
 provides a means of documenting assessment findings in a simple manner that
can be referred to in the future
 provides a record for tracking performance changes over time
 provides a basis for identifying needs for follow-up actions.

The information gathered during the assessment will come from both primary and
secondary sources. Primary sources are the information obtained by the survey team
through observations, questionnaires and other methods, which are discussed in the
next section. Secondary sources consist of the results of work that has already been
done, such as previous surveys in the same area or in other locations that

are similar to the survey area. Reviewing existing documents and reports can also
provide valuable background information for the planned assessment. For example,
demographic data such as the total population of the study area, the number of people
of different age groups and the proportion of men and women will be useful.

Having prepared the plan and agreed the process with community representatives, at
the start of the survey the team should arrive at the community or kebele as scheduled
and on time. The visit should start with introductions to the community (usually done
through a small group of community representatives), including descriptions of each
person’s position and responsibility in the project. The team leader should explain the
objective of the assessment and agree with the community representatives how the
assessment will proceed. The time required for interviews, reviews, discussion and
action planning should be set at this stage.

It is important to make sure that the community is aware that it is not being ‘judged’ in
any way, but that the work is to find the best way of improving WASH in the
community. At this point, the community should be reassured that all discussions with
individuals and questionnaire responses will be treated in the strictest confidence.

Assessment methods

Assessing the key sanitation and hygiene aspects of a community requires the use of a
number of investigation methods. The main methods (Asefa and Tessema, 2000; Feleke
et al., 2003) are listed below:
 Interviews are conversations between the investigator and members of the
community, usually on a one-to-one basis. Depending on the information
required, different types of interviews and questions can be used, as described in
Box 3.1. The interviewer takes notes of the interview or uses a voice recorder.
When conducting interviews it is important to gain the interviewee’s consent
before starting and to make it clear how the information will be used. Generally,
interviewee’s comments should not be used in reports in a way that allows the
person to be identified.
 Observation is often combined with interviews. Observation simply means
recording what you see or are aware of. For example, while visiting households,
interviewers observe the availability and quality of the sanitation and waste
facilities, such as the household latrine, solid waste storage and disposal, and
handwashing provision. In addition, the interviewer will try and gain a picture
of the use of these facilities through observation and discussions. At the same
time, the general condition of the housing, water management and food handling
 can also be observed. There is a risk that the observer will assess the position
against their own personal views (a subjective view), so it is important to have a
set of standards to be used by all observers to make the assessment as objective
(based on things that can be measured or counted and not influenced by
personal opinion) as possible. General observations can be made simply by
walking around the area and noting the condition of the town. A typical
observation sheet to be completed while observing a household is shown in
Table 3.1.
 Discussions with the community can provide valuable information about the
concerns and health situation of community members that can help to confirm
the findings of the interviews and observation (Figure 3.1). For example, one
would expect a high incidence of diarrhoea to be reported if an absence of
latrines and handwashing facilities had been identified.

Table 3.1 Observation sheet to be completed by survey team member.

Kebele: ____________________ Location: ____________________

1. Where is the latrine located?

(a) Inside or attached to dwelling  (c) Outside premises 

(b) Elsewhere on premises  (d) No latrine available 

(Please ignore questions 2–4)

2. How far is the latrine from the living quarters?

(a) Less than 10 m  (c) Over 50 m 

(b) 10 to 50 m  (d) Can’t see 

3. Are there signs that the latrine is in regular use?

(a) Yes  (b) No 

4. Are there obstacles in the path from the house to the latrine?
(a) The path is clear  (d) Dense vegetation 

(b) Waste or debris in the path (e) Mud 



(c) The entrance is blocked  (f) Other observation:

__________________

5. Is the solid waste container covered?

(a) Yes  (c) No container 

(b) No 

6. Is refuse lying on the compound?

(a) Yes  (b) No 

7. Are any of the following within 200 m of the house?

(a) A place to put waste for collection by the kebele? 

(b) An enclosed place to dump waste used by the community? 

(c) An informal uncontrolled dump site? 

Figure 3.1 Community discussions can be useful as part of an assessment process

 Focus groups can also be useful to find out what people think about a specific issue.
A focus group consists of a group of about ten people who represent the
community as a whole in terms of age, gender, employment etc. The group is
coordinated by one of the team whose role is to introduce the subject and pose a
few initial questions. The group then discusses the issue in question while the
observer makes notes so that they can produce a summary of the group’s views and
ideas. The coordinator should take as little part in the discussions as possible and
only intervene if arguments develop or if the discussion strays far from the subject
under discussion. An example of an informal all-male ‘focus group’ is shown in
Figure 3.2.

Figure 3.2 Focus groups discuss specific issues.

 Questionnaires are another possible assessment method. A questionnaire

consists of a set of written questions that is given to a group of people for
them to complete. Questionnaires require less input from the investigators
than interviews, so it is possible to get the views of a larger number of people.
However, there is no opportunity for a ‘conversation’ to develop, so some
useful information may be missed. A typical sample questionnaire for use by
 householders is shown in Table 3.2. The number of questionnaires used is
always a compromise. A very large sample means that the results will be
more likely to represent the entire community, but a smaller sample size will
reduce the costs and the time necessary to deliver, collect and process the
questionnaires. As a rule of thumb, at least 15–20 households should be
surveyed in each kebele. If householders are not able to complete the
questionnaire themselves, it can be used as the basis for structured interviews
(see Box 3.1).

Table 3.2 Household assessment questionnaire.

Kebele: ___________________ Questionnaire number: __________ (to be entered

by survey team)
This questionnaire is about your household’s latrine and how you get rid of
solid waste (kitchen waste, broken items, etc.). The results will be used to help
us to improve the sanitation and waste services in your kebele. We will treat
the results confidentially and will not be able to identify you or your family
from this form.
Please answer all the questions below by placing a tick in the box next to the
answer or by writing a few words.
Questions 1–6 are about the latrine used by members of your household while at home.
1. Does your household have access to a latrine?
(a) Yes  (Please go on to answer questions 2–9)
(b) No  (Please answer questions 7–9)
Table 3.2 Household assessment questionnaire (continued).

2. Who usually uses this latrine facility? (Tick all that apply)

(a) Mother  (e) Only females 

(b) Father  (f) Only males 

(c) All children  (g) Other (please specify):

______________

(d) Older sons and daughters

 

3. When is the latrine facility used?

(a) Day and night  (c) Night-time only 

(b) Daytime only  (d) Don’t know 

4. Which seasons is the latrine facility used in?

(a) Rainy season  (c) Throughout the year 

(b) Dry season  (d) Don’t know 

5. How many households share this latrine facility?

(a) Not shared  (c) Four or more households 

(b) Two to three households (d) Don’t know 



6. For how long has your household used a latrine?

(a) Less than two years  (d) More than ten years 

(b) Two to five years  (e) I can’t remember 

(c) Six to ten years 

Questions 7–9 are about how you deal with solid waste in your household.

7. Where do you get information about household waste management from?

(a) Radio or TV  (e) Place of worship 

(b) Newspapers or magazines (f) Other (please specify):

 _______________

(c) Health professional  (g) Don’t know 

(d) Health Extension Workers



8. Where do you keep your solid waste until you get rid of it?
(a) Stored in a container in the house (c) Take it directly to disposal 


(b) Stored in a container outside (d) Other (please specify):

 _______________

9. What is the main way you use to dispose of your solid waste?

(a) A waste pit in my yard  (e) A waste pit/dump outside my

yard used by other households 
(b) In my yard without using a pit


(c) Burned in my yard  (f) Dumped anywhere outside my

household

(d) Taken to a collection point in the (g) Other (please specify):

street  _______________

Box 3.1 Interviews and questions

Interviews and questionnaires may use closed or open questions. Closed questions offer
a list of possible answers that the respondents must choose from. For example, ‘Does
your household have its own latrine?’ These are very useful for obtaining this type of
information, but the interviewer needs some background information about the area and
the subject to know which questions to ask.

Alternatively, open questions permit free responses that should be recorded in the
respondent’s own words. For example, the interviewer may say, ‘Tell me about your
experiences with the shared latrine’.

A structured interview uses a standardised set of questions. These are usually closed
questions with a limited range of possible answers. Each interviewee is asked the same
set of questions. Structured interviews are used to obtain straightforward factual
information such as the proportion of households in the kebele that have their own
latrine.

In a semi-structured interview, the interviewer has a list of topics for discussion and a
number of set questions (both closed and open) to help start a discussion, but he or she
allows the conversation to progress in ways that are determined by the answers to
previous questions. This allows the interviewee to have some say in the subjects covered
and can often bring out information that the interviewer was unaware of or originally
considered to be unimportant.

An in-depth Interview is a detailed conversation between the interviewer and

interviewee about the subject as a whole. It is designed to allow the respondents to relate
their experiences in their own way, while ensuring that anything that the interviewer
wants to explore is also covered.

After the assessment

It is important to keep proper records during the assessment process. Notes of

interviews and observations should be made in a notebook and not on scraps of loose
paper. These notes should be transcribed onto a computer as soon as possible after
taking them. After the assessment work has been completed, the notes and data can be
analysed and the results prepared and presented in a report.

Analysing the findings

Using more than one method for the assessment will produce more complete
information but it will also generate a lot of data that needs to be summarised. The
standard method is to gather the information together and incorporate it into a set of
tables. This should be done as soon as possible after the end of the survey. Table 3.3
shows an example of a blank table that would be completed for each kebele in a survey
area.

Table 3.3 Kebele data summary sheet.

Kebele name:

Number %

Demographic information

Total population

Male population and percentage of total population

Female population and percentage of total population

Total number of households

Sanitation information

Number of households and the percentage of total

households:

that understand the benefits of having a latrine

that practise open defecation

with a traditional latrine type

with an improved latrine type

with a latrine pit hole cover

with handwashing facilities

where residents wash their hands after using the

latrine

Solid waste information

Number of households and the percentage of total

households:

with a covered waste container

that sort waste at household level (separate

organic and inorganic)

that recycle/reuse waste at household level

with a waste pit in their yard

that use a municipal refuse container

that dispose of waste in open areas

The data can then be analysed and interpreted, and used to make decisions and
recommendations for improvement. For example, suppose the analysis of a survey and
observational results in a kebele showed that latrine use is lower than it should be; the
questionnaire survey indicated that many of the local people were unaware of the
benefits of good sanitation; observations showed that many of the latrines were of poor
construction and, after discussions with community leaders, the survey team learned
that the Health Extension Worker (HEW) had been away from the kebele for an
extended period for training. Table 3.4 shows how the survey team summarised the
problem and identified a number of possible solutions.

Table 3.4 Example of problem analysis for a kebele’s low sanitation coverage.

Main cause Other causes Possible solutions

Lack of awareness History of open Produce better information leaflets

of the benefit of defecation and posters.
sanitation Encourage HEWs and select model
households to promote latrine use.

Low quality of Most of the latrines Investigate possible local sources of

latrine construction do not have pit lining materials.
(the pit walls often linings Look at the options for micro-
collapse during the finance systems to allow households
rainy season) to build better latrines.
The HEW has been Lack of other staff Encourage community members to
away from the to cover for the look after some of the HEW’s work
kebele on training HEW during absences.

Investigate sources of funding to

employ or train more HEWs (longer
term).

Reporting

The findings of the investigation and analysis need to be summarised and incorporated
into a report. The report should always refer explicitly to the aims of the assessment
that were agreed at the beginning and say how well these have been achieved.
Depending on what the aims were, the report may identify the areas where action is
necessary and make recommendations for a programme to implement the action plan
(like the example shown in Table 3.4). The report will often make suggestions about any
additional survey work that may be needed.

It is also useful to produce a brief factsheet that summarises the findings of the survey
and to hold a meeting with the kebele administration at the end of the project and share
the report’s findings with them.

The report will be distributed to the organisation that commissioned the work. They
may ask that the report is also sent to other interested organisations. In any event, the
report should only be sent to other organisations with the specific permission of the
funding organisation.

Case Study 3.1 describes an assessment that was made of a town in Tigray region as
part of a large WASH improvement project. Read the case study and then answer the
question that follows.
Case Study 3.1 Baseline survey of Wukro, Tigray.

In 2014, a baseline survey of the town of Wukro and its surrounding villages was
undertaken. The assessment was reported in the form of a six-page summary made up
of text tables, charts and photographs. Like many good reports, it presented the main
findings as a series of bullet points on the first page. These were that:
o coverage of the town water supply system was high – the majority of users
accessed the piped system through household connections rather than public
standposts
o reliability of water supplies was poor and most town residents used less than 20
litres per person per day
o household coverage with improved sanitation facilities was also reasonably high
o public standposts in the town were under high demand and queues were long,
while poor functionality of water points was a concern in the satellite villages
o the majority of public institutions had improved sanitation facilities.

More detail was then presented on the assessment results in the areas of water services,
sanitation and hygiene and institutional WASH. For example, the section on sanitation
and hygiene included the data shown in Table 3.5.

Table 3.5 Household access to sanitation.

Type of sanitation Total Rural Urban

Improved sanitation Flush toilet to piped sewer system 1% 0% 1%

Ventilated improved pit latrine 4% 0% 6%

Pit latrine with slab 45% 12% 60%

Composting toilet 4% 7% 3%

Unimproved sanitation Public latrine 1% 0% 1%

Other unimproved sanitation facility 1% 2% 0%

Pit latrine without slab 25% 29% 24%

 Bush/open defecation 15% 50% 4%

The report ended with a plan for recommended WASH interventions in the area.

(UNICEF, 2014)

Based on the findings in Table 3.5, compare (a) the use of improved sanitation facilities
and (b) open defecation in urban and rural parts of the Wukro study area.

The answers are as follows:

(a) In urban parts of the study area, the majority of

households (70%) make use of improved sanitation
but in rural areas only 19% have improved facilities.

(b) The proportion of households practising open

defecation is much higher in rural areas (50%) than
urban areas (4%).

Summary

In chapter 3, you have learned that:

 Rapid assessment of sanitation and waste management provides information that

will identify improvements needed and indicate possible solutions. It is also used in
emergency situations where rapid response is needed.

 Assessment is normally carried out by a survey team of people with a range of skills
and experience.

 The process begins with agreeing the scope of the assessment and setting the aims
and objectives. This should involve all interested parties, including the community.
 Assessment methods include interviews, observation, community discussions, focus
groups, and questionnaires. These should be supported by a review of existing
documents and reports.

 The data obtained should be summarised in the form of tables and text as soon as
the survey is completed. The data should then be analysed to determine any
problems, the cause of the problems and possible solutions. This analysis should
then be incorporated into a written report.
 Chapter 4

LIQUID WASTES: SOURCES, TYPES AND CHARACTERISTICS

Introduction

You were introduced to the main types of liquid waste in chapter 1. This study session
is the first of three that builds on that introduction and describes liquid wastes in more
detail. We begin with a closer look at the sources and characteristics of liquid wastes.
Chapter 5 focuses on the different types of latrine available for urban areas in Ethiopia.
In chapter 6 you will learn about the management and treatment of liquid wastes.

The type and composition of liquid waste depends on the source. In urban areas, the
main sources are households, commercial establishments and industries. We need
accurate information on the characteristics of liquid wastes in order to establish proper
waste management processes to deal with them. In this study session you will learn
about the main sources of liquid wastes and about different ways of characterising
them. We also briefly describe some of the laboratory tests used to analyse liquid waste.
The session ends with some specific examples of liquid wastes from industry.

Sources of liquid waste

Liquid waste was defined in Study Session 1 as any waste in liquid form. The
composition of liquid waste, also known as wastewater, is highly varied and depends
principally on its source. In towns and cities, the three main sources are residential,
commercial and industrial areas.

Liquid wastes from residential areas

List three liquid wastes from your daily life.

I’m sure you thought of several. Examples include the wastewaters from washing your
face in the morning, from washing clothes, from taking a shower and from washing
dishes. You may also have mentioned human bodily waste, which is also classified as
liquid waste.

In urban areas, the liquid wastes from residential areas are often referred to as domestic
wastewaters. These wastewaters come from our day-to-day living and include those
from food preparation, washing, bathing and toilet usage. As you read in Study Session
1, different terms are used to describe wastewater from these various domestic sources.

What is the difference between blackwater, greywater and sullage?

Blackwater is wastewater that contains human excreta (faeces and/or urine). Greywater
is wastewater from activities such as washing and food preparation and does not
contain excreta. Sullage is another name for greywater.

Blackwater and greywater are produced from domestic dwellings with access to a
piped water supply and also from business premises and the various institutions, such
as schools and health centres, found in residential areas. The term sewage is used to
describe a combination of all these types of liquid waste, frequently also with surface
run-off.

In many towns and cities in the world, sewage is collected in underground sewers that
carry the effluents to a sewage treatment works (Figure 4.1). (Effluent is another term
for wastewater that flows out from a source.) At the treatment works, the sewage is
cleaned by various physical and biological processes before being discharged into a
river or lake. It may be possible to reuse the treated water, typically for irrigation.
(Sewage treatment is described in chapter 6.)
Figure 4.1 Sewage entering a sewage treatment works.

The quantity and type of liquid waste generated in a residential area depends on
several factors, such as population size, standard of living, rate of water consumption,
habits of the people and the climate. It also depends on the number and type of
institutions such as schools and health centres in the area.

Liquid wastes from commercial areas

The wastewaters from commercial areas (Figure 4.2) – comprising business

establishments, shops, open market places, restaurants and cafes – will mostly resemble
those from households. This is because only human-related activities are undertaken in
such areas, as opposed to other activities such as industrial production. Effluent from
restaurants and cafes may contain high levels of oil from cooking processes but this can
be overcome by using a grease trap (Figure 4.3) in their outlet pipes. A grease trap
consists of a small tank or chamber which slows the speed of effluent flow. In the grease
trap, fats, oils and grease float to the top of the wastewater and form a layer of scum
that is contained within the tank. This can then be removed and disposed of as solid
waste. Relatively clean water exits from the grease trap for disposal.
Figure 4.2 A commercial area of Addis Ababa.

Figure 4.3 Cross-sectional diagram of a grease trap. Effluent flows into the chamber on the left
and fats and oils float to the surface. This example has a second chamber to make the process
more effective.

The quantity of wastewater generated per person in a commercial area will be less than
it would be at home because the only time spent there is during the working day, and
so activities such as bathing are not usually undertaken at these establishments.

Liquid wastes from industrial areas

In industrial areas liquid wastes are generated by processing or manufacturing
industries and service industries, such as car repair shops. The type of industry
determines the composition of the waste. The wastewaters from facilities that make
food products will not be harmful to humans, but those from other industries may
contain a variety of chemical compounds, some of which may be hazardous (and
therefore potentially harmful). Industrial wastewaters which contain hazardous
substances must be treated, and the substances removed before the wastewater is
discharged to the environment. We will consider some specific examples of industrial
wastes.

The presence of hazardous materials is one way in which industrial wastewaters are
often different from domestic wastewaters. Another difference is that the flow rate can
vary dramatically in some industries, for example, where production rates vary with
the season, such as in the processing of certain food crops.

Stormwater

Although not a form of liquid waste in the same way as wastes from residential,
commercial and industrial areas, stormwater is also a form of wastewater. Stormwater
can be contaminated with many different types of pollutant such as faecal matter, soil,
rubber from vehicle tyre wear, litter, and oil from vehicles. Many parts of Ethiopia are
faced with large volumes of stormwater during the rainy season (Figure 4.4). Where
there is a sewerage network (a system of sewers), stormwater may be channelled into
the sewers, or it may flow into open ditches.
Figure 4.4 Stormwater flow during the rainy season in Ethiopia can sometimes exceed the
capacity of the drains.

Characteristics of liquid wastes

Liquid wastes can be described according to their physical, chemical, and biological
characteristics.

Physical characteristics of liquid wastes

Solids

Wastewaters may contain particles of solid material carried along in the flow. These
may be settleable solids or suspended solids. Settleable solids sink to the bottom (settle
out) when the speed of flow is reduced, for example, when the wastewater is stored in a
tank. Suspended solids are small particles that remain in suspension in the water; they
do not dissolve in the wastewater but are carried along in it. The solids content can be
measured by filtering out and weighing the solids in a given volume of water. The
laboratory procedure is to weigh a filter paper, pour a measured volume of water
through the paper, then dry it and weigh again. The difference in mass equals the mass
of solids which can be expressed in terms of milligrams of solid matter per litre of
water, in units of mg l-1.
Temperature

Wastewaters are generally warmer than the ambient temperature. This is because warm
or hot water may be included in the waste stream from domestic activities such as
showering or from industrial processing. The temperature is given in degrees Celsius
(oC).

Odour

Wastewaters can have an odour, usually due to generation of gases as a result of

biodegradation in the wastewater. Biodegradation is the breaking down
(decomposition) of organic substances by bacteria and other micro-organisms. Organic
matter is any substance that is derived from living organisms, such as human and
animal wastes, food waste, paper and agricultural wastes. Detecting odour tends to be a
subjective process but it is possible to measure it in terms of odour units.

Chemical characteristics of liquid wastes

Organic matter

Wastewaters from many different sources contain organic matter, which is a frequent
cause of pollution in surface waters. If organic matter is released into a river or lake,
bacteria and other micro-organisms that are naturally present in fresh water will
degrade the waste and in the process they use dissolved oxygen from the water. If there
is a lot of organic matter, then most or all of the dissolved oxygen may be used up, thus
depriving other life forms in the water of this essential element. The oxygen taken up in
degrading the organic matter is referred to as its oxygen demand. This can be
determined by a measure called the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD). BOD tests are
carried out in a laboratory and involve measuring the amount of oxygen used, usually
over a period of five days, as the organic matter in the wastewater breaks down. The
result is the amount of oxygen used in degrading the organic matter in the wastewater,
which is expressed in milligrams per litre (mg l-1).
There is also a chemical method of determining the quantity of organic matter called the
chemical oxygen demand (COD) test. This test is much quicker than the BOD test,
taking only about two hours to carry out. It depends on chemical oxidation of the
organic matter rather than biological degradation. It involves boiling a sample of
wastewater with a mixture of concentrated acids and a measured quantity of oxidising
agent to oxidise the organic matter. The amount of oxidising agent remaining at the end
of the test is measured. The amount that has been used up is equivalent to the amount
of organic matter in the sample. The result is again expressed in mg l-1. COD tends to
give higher results than BOD because the chemical process can oxidise more material
than the biological process.

Inorganic material

Wastewater also contains inorganic chemicals. This means any substance that has not
come from animals or plants, so it includes a wide range of different chemicals as well
as inert solids like sand and silt. Many inorganic chemicals are dissolved in the water
and although some are harmless, others are pollutants that can damage aquatic life such
as fish and other organisms that live in water. One example is ammonia (NH3) which is
present in human and animal excreta. Like organic matter, ammonia is broken down in
the environment by natural processes. If ammonia is released into a river it is converted
by the action of bacteria to nitrate (NO3), which is less harmful. This natural conversion
of ammonia to nitrate requires oxygen and is limited if there are excessive quantities of
ammonia. Other examples of inorganic chemicals in wastewaters are chloride (from
salt), phosphates (from chemical fertilisers and from human and animal wastes), and
metal compounds (from mining operations or metal-plating plants).

Biological characteristics of liquid wastes

Liquid wastes contain many different types of bacteria and other micro-organisms
originating from human wastes and other sources. Many of these bacteria are beneficial
and are responsible for the biodegradation of organic components of the wastes; others
may be pathogenic. The presence of bacteria in wastewater is normal and expected, but
it becomes a problem if the waste is not kept separate from people or if it contaminates
clean water or food. The safe management and disposal of any waste containing human
excreta is the most critical aspect of sanitation and hygiene and is essential to prevent
the spread of infectious disease.

Industrial wastewaters in Ethiopia

The composition of industrial wastewater will vary depending on the type of industry,
the raw materials used, and the processes undertaken. Three of the most important
producers of industrial wastewater in Ethiopia are the food industry, the textile
industry and tanneries.

The food industry

Food production is a priority in Ethiopia and plays a major part in the economy, with
factories producing bread, beverages, sugar and several other products. Many of the
production processes require large volumes of water and so most of the factories are
located near rivers or boreholes.

Canneries

The volume of clean water required differs between canneries and the products they are
preparing, but ensuring cleanliness is obviously essential. For tomato paste, a popular
food product in Ethiopia, it takes about 220 litres of water to produce 10 kilograms of
tomato paste. Canning factories that produce tomato paste, such as the Merti Processing
Factory in Oromia, generate both solid and liquid waste. The quantity of solid tomato
waste may be as much as 15-30% of the total quantity of product (Faris et al., 2002). The
wastewater from a cannery will contain organic solids, primarily from washing raw
materials such as tomatoes, cleaning equipment, spillage and from floor-washing.

Meat packaging

Wastewaters are generated at animal yards, slaughterhouses and packing houses. The
main sources are animal faeces, urine, blood and water that has been used for washing
floors and surfaces. The pollutants in the wastewaters are organic and can decompose
rapidly, generating unpleasant odours. If discharged to a water body, they will cause
severe environmental pollution. The meat industry utilises thousands of litres of water
per day depending on the size of the facility and the number of animals processed.

What will be the effect of the organic waste from meat packaging if it is discharged into
a river?

The organic waste will exert an oxygen demand as it is broken down by bacteria. This
could deplete the oxygen available for other living organisms in the water such as fish.

Dairy industry

Wastewaters from dairies may come from receiving stations (where milk is delivered
from individual farms), bottling plants, creameries, ice cream plants, cheese production
units and dried milk production plants. The wastewater from spillage, cleaning and
washing usually contains milk which has a very high polluting potential. The polluting
potential is the potential of the wastewaters to cause pollution, i.e. damage to the
condition, health, safety, or welfare of animals, humans, plants or property.

Textile industry

The raw materials for the textile industry are wool, cotton and synthetic fibres. The
processing of wool and cotton involves removing natural impurities, such as dust, and
imparting particular qualities relating to appearance, feel and durability. Water is used
for washing at various stages, producing effluent that is likely to contain suspended
solids and organic material from processing the fibres. It may also contain dyes and
other chemicals, depending on the specific processes used in the factory. The outputs
from these processes are used to make clothing and other textile products (Figure 4.5).
Figure 4.5 Textile factories may be clean and dry but they depend on the previous processing of
raw materials that produces liquid effluents.

Tanneries

Ethiopia has the largest livestock population of all countries in Africa (TAM Consult,
2008) and tanning of animal hides is an important economic activity. There are 26 major
tanneries in Ethiopia (UNIDO, 2012) producing a range of products from sheep, goats
and cows including partly processed hides and finished leather (Figure 4.6).

Figure 4.6 Animal skins drying in a tannery.

Tannery effluent is highly polluting and is often discharged directly to nearby rivers
without adequate treatment. It contains toxic (poisonous) chemicals such as chromium,
sulphides and organic acids, as well as organic matter and solids. Chromium is a
particular problem because it is an example of a heavy metal. Heavy metals are a group
of toxic chemical pollutants that persist in the environment, i.e. they do not get broken
down by natural processes. Tannery wastewaters are produced in large volumes and
are considerably more polluting than wastewaters from most other industries. The
treatment of tannery waste involves removing solids and organic matter from the
effluent. These processes are described in Study Session 6.

Summary

In Chapter you have learned that:

 The composition of liquid waste depends on its source. The three main sources are
residential, commercial, and industrial areas. Stormwater is also a source of liquid
waste.

 Liquid waste from domestic sources can be classified as blackwater, which contains
excreta, and greywater, which does not.

 Liquid waste from commercial areas is broadly similar to wastewater from

residential areas. Fats and oil from restaurants and cafes can be removed using a
grease trap.

 The characteristics of industrial wastewaters depend on the type of industry. Some

industrial wastewaters are hazardous.

 The characteristics of wastewaters can be described in physical, chemical and

biological terms.

 Physical characteristics include the amount of suspended solids, the temperature

and odour. The amount of suspended solids is measured by filtering a known
volume of wastewater and weighing the solids retained on the filter.

 The quantity of organic matter in liquid waste is an important measure of its

polluting potential. If discharged into a river or lake, organic matter exerts an
 oxygen demand which can reduce the availability of oxygen for fish and other
aquatic organisms.

 Organic matter is measured in terms of biochemical oxygen demand or chemical

oxygen demand.

 Three examples of industries in Ethiopia that produce liquid wastes are food, textiles
and tanneries. They each produce polluting liquid wastes that should be treated
before being discharged into the environment.
 Chapter 5

LATRINE TECHNOLOGY OPTIONS FOR URBAN AREAS

Introduction

Ethiopia is one of many countries that has a limited sewerage system and lacks
established facilities to treat sewage. On-site latrines are the most appropriate method
of dealing with human wastes in this situation. This is the main focus of this study
session, which goes into detail on the various latrine technology options that are
available for urban areas.

Trends in latrine use in Ethiopia

Think back to Study Session 1 and explain what you understand by the sanitation
ladder.

The sanitation ladder measures progress towards providing adequate sanitation

facilities for every household. It ranks sanitation provision in increasing order of
desirability, as listed below:

 open defecation (least desirable)

 unimproved facilities

 shared facilities

 improved facilities (most desirable).

Figure 5.1 shows the changes in sanitation coverage in Ethiopia from 1990 to 2012 for
urban and rural populations, and the total for the whole country. The columns in the
diagram show the coverage according to the categories of the sanitation ladder. The
sloping lines between 1990 and 2012 indicate the change over that time.
Figure 5.1 Changing sanitation coverage in Ethiopia. (Data from JMP, 2014)

How has the situation changed with respect to open defecation in urban areas from
1990 to 2012?

40 – 8
The practice of open defecation in urban areas has reduced by × 100 = 80%. This is
40

good news indeed!

Open defecation leads to the spread of disease and environmental pollution, so even the
basic latrine is an improvement. The following sections of this study session describe
the different types of latrine that come above open defecation on the sanitation ladder.

Unimproved latrines

As you know from Study Session 1, unimproved latrines, such as traditional pit latrines,
do not ensure hygienic separation of human excreta from human contact.
Traditional pit latrines

A traditional pit latrine (Figure 5.2) consists of a pit in the ground without any slab. The
pit may be wholly or partially lined to prevent it collapsing. The Central Statistical
Agency (2014) found in a survey that 44.4% of households in urban areas of Ethiopia
use traditional pit latrines. The quality of these latrines is far below acceptable
standards and, consequently, they pose great health risks to users and pollution risks to
the environment. The Ministry of Water and Energy (2011), reported that the quality of
latrines is generally poor, with more than 50% structurally unsafe and 50% unhygienic.
Latrines of this type frequently generate bad smells and are prone to insect infestation.

Figure 5.2 Traditional pit latrine with no slab.

Shared latrines

Shared latrines are household latrines used by two or more households. They can be of
a high standard, but there is always a risk that nobody takes responsibility for keeping
them clean, meaning that they are not looked after properly. Communal latrines and
public latrines (Figure 5.3) are also classed as shared latrines. The Central Statistics
Agency survey (2014) found that about 33.3% of urban residents in Ethiopia use shared
latrines.

Public latrines provide a much-needed service to local people and can be hygienic as
long as they are properly maintained and managed. They also create employment for
cleaners and attendants, who collect money from users. However, the operation and
management of many shared latrines in Ethiopia needs improving.
Figure 5.3 A clean, well-maintained public latrine in Addis Ababa.

Improved latrines

For a latrine to be classed as ‘improved’ (Figure 5.4), it should satisfy the following
requirements:
 it should be safe to use (the pit may need to be lined)
 it should have a structurally sound and cleanable slab floor
 handwashing facilities should be available (Figure 5.5)
 there should be no contamination of groundwater or surface water
 the squat hole should be fitted with a lid so that excreta is not accessible to flies
or other creatures
 it should be free from odours or unsightly conditions
 there should be no need for people to handle the excreta.
Figure 5.4 An improved pit latrine. Figure 5.5 Handwashing facility at a
latrine.

If possible, the latrine should be 6–10 m from the home, and located downwind from
the house. It is best not to build a latrine in areas where groundwater is used as a water
source, but if this has to be done, the base of the pit should be at least 2 m above the
water table. On sloping ground, it should be located below the level of any well or
water source, so that any liquid seeping out of the pit flows away from the water
source. The minimum horizontal distance between the pit and water source varies with
location, soil type and geology. Generally, the pit should be at least 15 m away from a
water source, although some authorities recommend a minimum distance of 30 or 50 m
(Graham and Polizzotto, 2013). In Ethiopia, federal guidelines state that latrines must be
sited at least 30 metres from any water source to be used for human consumption and if
on sloping ground be lower than the source (MoH, 2004).

The latrine should be on a mound so that any water runs away rather than into the pit,
and diversion ditches should be prepared around the latrine. Diversion ditches
intercept surface run-off that may flow towards the pit and channel (divert) it away in
another direction.
If the soil formation is unstable and liable to collapse, the wall of the pit should be lined
for at least the top 0.5 m. The diameter of the pit should be at least 1 m, but should not
exceed 1.5 m because this increases the risk of the pit collapsing.

The lifetime of a pit latrine depends on several factors, such as the depth of the pit, the
number of users, the type of anal cleansing materials used (e.g. water, degradable
material such as paper, leaves or sticks, or non-degradable material such as stones), and
the rate of decomposition of the faecal material in the pit. The pit should be designed
for three to five years of use.

The accumulation rate of sludge on average, is 40–60 litres per person per year (Tilley et
al., 2014). The depth of a pit latrine should be at least 1.5 m, but the figure can be
calculated more precisely using the following formula (Faris et al., 2002):

P×S×N
Depth of pit = + 0.5 m
A

where:

P = average number of users

S = sludge accumulation rate in m3 per person per year

N = minimum useful life required in years

A = cross-sectional area of the pit in m2

Note that in this formula the sludge accumulation rate is required in units of cubic
metres per person per year. The additional 0.5 m is so that the latrine can be covered
with 0.5 m of soil at the end of its life.

Using the above formula, calculate the required pit depth for a 1 m diameter latrine that
has to last five years for a five-person household. Assume the sludge accumulation rate
is 50 litres per person per year. In this case:

P=5

S = 50 litres per person per year = 0.05 m3 per person per year
N = 5 years
2
d 12
A is given by the formula for the area of a circle ( × ) or (3.142 × 4 ) = 0.79 m2
4

5 × 0.05 × 5
So the depth needed is + 0.5 = 2.1 m
0.79

The slab for an improved pit latrine must be firm, secure and well-constructed. Slabs
can be made from locally-available materials such as wooden logs, planks or concrete.

One widely-used type of slab is the sanitation platform or SanPlat (Figure 5.6) which
has the following features (Brandberg, 1997):
 a keyhole-shaped drop hole that is small enough to be child-safe and big enough
to be used comfortably by adults
 elevated footrests correctly placed to help the user to find the right position in
complete darkness
 smooth and sloping surfaces draining towards the hole that are easy to clean and
prevent the formation of puddles of water or urine.

Figure 5.6 SanPlats may be square or circular.

The superstructure of the latrine provides privacy for the users and protection from the
sun and the rain. The materials to be used for the superstructure will depend on what is
available locally and will vary in urban and rural areas. Typically, wood, canvas sacks,
thatch, bamboo, mud blocks, concrete blocks, bricks, stone with concrete, and
corrugated iron sheets have been used (Figure 5.7).
Figure 5.7 Pit latrine superstructures made of different materials.

There are also choices for the type of pit lining material (Figure 5.8).Typical lining
materials include:
 perforated concrete rings
 rot-resistant timber
 bricks
 burnt mud blocks
 rocks or stones
 mortar plastered onto the soil
 other local materials such as bamboo, etc.
Figure 5.8 Pit linings made from stones, bamboo and blocks.

Ventilated improved pit latrine

The ventilated improved pit latrine or VIP latrine differs from a standard improved
latrine due to the addition of a vent pipe (Figure 5.9). The VIP latrine was developed to
overcome the problems of odour and fly breeding commonly found in unvented pit
latrines.

Figure 5.9 A ventilated improved pit (VIP) latrine.

Odour control is achieved by air coming in through the superstructure, entering the
squat hole and pushing the hot, smelly air in the pit upward through the vent pipe. The
pipe is typically 110–150 mm in diameter and reaches more than 300 mm above the
highest point of the superstructure. Wind blowing across the top, open end of the vent
pipe carry the odorous gases away. The thermal effect of the sun heating the vent pipe
also draws odorous gases out of the pit; this effect can be improved by painting the pipe
black, which makes the vent pipe warmer and creates an updraft that pulls air and
odours up and out of the pit. Reducing the continuous air flow by obstructing either the
squat hole or the vent pipe reduces the effectiveness of odour control.

Fly control is achieved by a screen at the top of the pipe. Flies outside the latrine
attracted to the odour emitted by the vent pipe are unable to pass inwards through this
screen. Flies emerging from the pit are attracted to the light at the top of the pipe; they
become trapped under the screen, and eventually die. For effective fly control the inside
of the latrine must be kept dark. The mesh size of the fly screen must be large enough to
prevent clogging with dust and allow air to circulate freely. Aluminium screens with a
hole size of 1.2–1.5 mm have proved to be the most effective (Tilley et al., 2014).

Ecological sanitation

Ecological sanitation, also known as ecosan, describes an approach to human waste

management rather than a single method. In ecosan systems, human excreta is
considered to be a resource, not waste. The principle is to make use of excreta by
transforming it into an end product that can be used as a soil improver and fertiliser for
agriculture. Ecosan systems require more space than conventional latrines, but they
provide a more sustainable approach to waste management than other systems.

In the group of improved sanitation facilities in the sanitation ladder, ecosan systems
are represented by composting toilets. Composting toilets convert human waste into
compost (soil-like material that can be safely used as fertiliser) by the action of aerobic
bacteria. Aerobic means ‘with oxygen’ and is usually applied to microbial
decomposition processes that take place where air is present. Composting toilets are
just one of several latrine technologies that can be classified as ecosan systems.
Arborloo

A simple form of ecological sanitation is the Arborloo (Figure 5.10). Arborloos are
mostly used in rural areas in Ethiopia because of their space requirements. An Arborloo
is a single, unlined shallow pit with a portable ring beam (circular support), slab and
superstructure. It is used like a normal latrine, but with the regular addition of soil,
wood ash and leaves. When it is full, it is covered with leaves and soil and a small tree
is planted on top to grow in the compost. (The tree gives the system its name; ‘arbor’ is
Latin for ‘tree’.) Another pit is dug nearby and the whole structure is relocated over the
new pit. No handling of the waste is required. If a fruit tree or other useful variety is
grown, there is the added benefit of food or income.

Figure 5.10 Arborloo – a simple ecological latrine that helps people to see human excreta as a
resource, rather than as waste.

Urine-diverting latrine

The urine-diverting latrine (Figure 5.11), also known as a urine-diverting dry toilet
(UDDT) is a latrine that separates urine and faeces. Both wastes are treated separately,
without damaging the environment or endangering human health, and then used in
agriculture. The urine and faeces go into different containers at the source (Figure 5.12).
The urine is kept for 24 hours, after which it is mixed with three parts water to be used
as a very effective fertiliser. Soil or ash is added to the latrine after each use and the
faeces are composted. After approximately 12 months, pathogenic micro-organisms will
have died off and the composted faeces can be used as a soil conditioner (helping the
soil to retain moisture) for household gardening or urban agriculture.

Figure 5.11 Basic components of a urine-diverting latrine.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 5.12 (a) Interior of a urine-diverting toilet. The small hole is for urine; the
larger hole is for faeces, which are covered with a scoopful of ash from the bucket
each time. (b) Faeces and ash collect in a container below the latrine that is emptied
regularly. (c) Composting faeces with ash are stored under cover for at least 12
months; they do not smell.

Biogas latrines

In a biogas latrine or bio-latrine (Figure 5.13), the waste enters an airtight tank situated
underground, and undergoes anaerobic digestion, resulting in the production of biogas
and digested sludge. Biogas is a clean and convenient fuel that contains about 60%
methane. Anaerobic digestion is the process whereby bacteria and other micro-
organisms break down (decompose) organic material in the absence of air, yielding
biogas. The digested sludge collects in a separate tank and can be used as a soil
fertiliser.

Figure 5.13 Basic components of a biogas latrine.

Biogas can be used for cooking and lighting, refrigeration, engine operation and
electricity generation. Animal wastes can also be added to the digester. Being a
relatively expensive system, this has been applied in Ethiopia only at public latrines
(Figure 5.14) and institutions such as schools, colleges, universities, hotels and prisons,
where large numbers of people use the latrine.

(a) (b)

Figure 5.14 (a) Public biogas pit latrines in Addis Ababa, constructed by the
Emmanuel Development Association and financed by WaterAid. (b) Biogas is piped
from the anaerobic digester to a nearby cafeteria where is it used for cooking.

Water-flushed systems

All of the latrine technologies described so far are dry systems. These are the most
appropriate systems for places where there is limited water supply. If water is piped
into the premises or is otherwise easily available, then a water-flushed system can be
used. Water-flushed toilets, also known as water carriage or water-borne toilets, can be
connected to a pit, septic tank or sewer. A septic tank is an underground, watertight
tank in which sewage is collected. Faecal solids accumulate in the tank and partially
treated liquid is discharged into the ground.

Pour-flush toilets

The problems of flies and smells in latrines can be overcome by using a toilet pan with a
water seal (Figures 5.15 and 5.16). The shape of the toilet pan is designed with a bend in
the outlet pipe. Water remains in the bend at all times and creates a ‘water seal’. Pour-
flush toilets use this system. After defecation, 1.5–2 litres of water is poured (using a
small container) into the toilet pan to move the wastes along. This system is popular
where people traditionally use water for anal cleansing, and where water is readily
available. Pour-flush toilets can be located inside the house, since the water seal
prevents bad odours and insect nuisance.

Figure 5.15 Basic components of a pour-flush toilet, showing the water seal.
Figure 5.16 A pour-flush toilet. Water is stored in the white bucket and the blue jug is used for
pouring water in after use.

Cistern-flush toilet

The cistern-flush toilet (Figure 5.17) also known as a water closet or WC, is usually
made of ceramic material and consists of two parts: a bowl into which excreta are
deposited and a tank (cistern) with volume of approximately 6-13 litres that supplies
flush water for carrying away excreta. It needs a connection to constant running water
for operation, and a discharge pipe to take the wastewater away to a sewer or septic
tank. WCs are quite common in government offices, schools, hotels and health facilities.
The attractive feature of the flush toilet is that it has a water seal to prevent odours from
coming back up through the plumbing, but it is costly and requires a skilled plumber
for installation.
Figure 5.17 A cistern-flush toilet.

Urinals

Urinals, used by men and boys, are only used for collecting urine. Urinals are either
wall-mounted units or a drainage channel constructed on the floor in connection with
the wall. Most urinals use water to flush. In public places and schools, urinals for men
and boys help to keep toilets cleaner and decrease the demand for toilet seats.

Choice of latrine technology

Several factors have to be considered when choosing the most appropriate latrine
technology. This is a complex technical process so we can only cover some of the main
issues here.

Location

You read earlier about the need to consider groundwater contamination. For any type
of pit latrine, the location of the pit relative to water sources is of prime importance.
Distance from houses and the users also needs to be considered.

The availability of water will determine whether or not a water-flushed system is

possible. If an adequate water supply is available, pour-flush or cistern-flush toilets can
be considered as an option. Otherwise, pit latrines have to be the system of choice. The
space requirements (especially in urban areas) may limit the choice of systems that can
be installed.

Construction materials

The type of construction materials and their availability will often dictate the type of
latrine that is possible in a given area. To keep costs down, and for the latrines to be
sustainable (i.e. to be able to be used for a long time), materials that are readily available
locally should be used for construction. Added to this, a system that is easy to build and
maintain using locally available skills is preferable.

Cost

Latrine systems have to be affordable to the users. The cost is made up of two
components: construction cost and operating cost. The operating cost will include the
cost of pit-emptying (in the case of pit latrines) and the cost of water (for water-flushed
systems). The total cost should be kept low so that most people find it affordable.

Safety and accessibility

The latrines should be safe for both children and adults to use. For instance, the size of
the squat hole should not pose a danger to children using the facility.

Accessibility for elderly people and people with disabilities is another important
consideration. The chosen system should be easily accessible to them without causing
discomfort or inconvenience. As examples of modifications, handrails may need to be
installed to help the infirm and those who are blind, and the door of the latrine should
be wide enough for wheelchair access (Figure 5.18).
Figure 5.18 Consideration should be given to all users, particularly those with mobility
problems.

User preferences

The people who will use the latrines should be consulted on their preference of latrine
systems. There may be cultural and social reasons why some types are preferred over
others. People will only use the system if they are happy with it. They should be given
details of the options possible in their locality (e.g. design features, costs, maintenance
details, etc.), so that they can make an informed choice. Now you have learned about
the various latrine and toilet options, in Study Session 6 we will look at how the waste
that is deposited in these latrines is managed.

Summary

In chapter 5, you have learned that:

 In Ethiopia the trend in latrine use since 1990 is positive, with a significant reduction
in open defecation.

 Traditional pit latrines pose health and environmental risks and are frequently
structurally unsafe.
 Shared latrines are used by two or more households; the term also applies to
communal and public latrines.

 Improved latrines ensure the hygienic separation of human waste from people. They
should be safe to use and easy to maintain.

 Pit latrines must be located and designed with care and constructed using
appropriate techniques and locally available materials.

 The required depth of a proposed pit can be calculated from the number of users,
the sludge accumulation rate, the required lifetime of the pit and the cross-sectional
area of the proposed pit.

 Improved facilities include ventilated improved pit latrines, ecological sanitation

systems such as the Arborloo, urine-diverting latrines and biogas latrines, and pour-
flush or cistern-flush toilets which are appropriate if water is available.

 Selection of latrine technologies depends on location, the availability of materials

and costs. Due consideration must be given to safety and accessibility and the needs
and wishes of users.
 Chapter 6

LIQUID WASTE MANAGEMENT AND TREATMENT

Introduction

Dealing with liquid wastes is one of the biggest challenges of urban sanitation. Liquid
waste management requires capital investment, skilled personnel, coordination
between different government departments and organisations, and awareness of the
issues by the public. Failure to manage liquid wastes, especially human excreta, leads to
health and environmental problems.

In urban Ethiopia the vast majority of people (80%) use pit latrines for human waste
disposal (Central Statistical Agency, 2014). In some parts of Addis Ababa, liquid waste
from waterborne toilet systems is collected via a sewerage system and sent to the
wastewater treatment facility at Kality. There are, however, many houses and
institutions with waterborne toilet systems that are not connected to the sewerage
system. In these places, the sewage is sent to septic tanks. These different sanitation
technologies require different techniques for managing and disposing of the wastes.

This study session looks at what happens to human excreta and other liquid wastes
after they are produced. You will learn about the methods used to remove sludge from
pits and septic tanks and about some of the options for managing and treating liquid
wastes, including human excreta, sullage and stormwater.

Faecal sludge management

When human excreta collects in a pit latrine, the solids settle at the bottom and form a
slurry called faecal sludge. Over time the sludge accumulates and periodically needs to
be removed and disposed of. This process presents several challenges because the
sludge is offensive, a potential danger to human health and highly polluting if dumped
indiscriminately into the environment. Faecal sludge management (FSM) is a set of
processes designed to ensure that people and the environment are protected from these
hazards. It includes the storage, collection, transport, treatment and safe end use or
disposal of faecal sludge (Strande et al., 2014). FSM is a significant problem in towns
and cities in many developing countries. Key issues are who is responsible for collecting
sludge and where and how it is disposed of.

The next section describes some of the methods for removing faecal sludge from pit
latrines. These methods also apply to sludge removal from septic tanks.

Pit emptying

The process of pit emptying is sometimes called desludging. There are manual and
mechanical methods for desludging, but the manual removal of faecal sludge from pit
latrines poses severe risks to those undertaking the task.

What are the risks associated with manual emptying of pit latrines using buckets and
shovels?

Firstly, there is risk of contact with faeces which could contain pathogens and cause
disease. There could also be a danger of the pit collapsing if someone has to get inside
to dig out the sludge.

Whether using manual or mechanical methods, the personal safety of anyone employed
in pit emptying should be of primary importance. Operatives should wear gloves,
masks and protective clothing.

Vacuum trucks

Vacuum trucks are vehicles equipped with a storage tank and pump with a hose that is
lowered into the pit to suck the sludge up and out into the storage tank (Figure 6.1). The
sludge can then be easily transported to a suitable disposal site. Vacuum trucks are
quick, powerful and efficient, but they are large vehicles and so access to the pits can be
a problem. The size of the truck can limit their use in areas where roads are narrow and
twisting. Truck operators will charge a fee for their services, which is another factor that
needs to be considered.
Figure 6.1 Vacuum trucks are used to empty pit latrines and septic tanks.

Vacutug

The Vacutug, shown in Figure 6.2, is basically a smaller version of the vacuum truck. It
was devised by UN-Habitat as a system that could replace manual emptying. The
Vacutug is a mechanical system that can be manufactured locally using readily
available components. It is affordable, easily serviceable, able to operate in narrow
passageways where vacuum trucks cannot go and is capable of sucking out waste
sludge for transportation to a larger tanker vehicle (UN-Habitat, 2003). It can empty pits
down to 2 m deep (They et al., 2009).

Figure 6.2 The Vacutug.

Hand-operated pumps

Even the Vacutug cannot get everywhere. The Sludge Gulper, like the one shown in
Figure 6.3, is an example of a smaller hand-operated pump. These can be taken to pit
latrines that are inaccessible to larger pumps. It is a simple design consisting of a PVC
pipe containing two valves and can be built using locally available materials. The
sludge is pumped up by hand, collected in a container and taken away for disposal.
Care is needed to ensure that the operator and other helpers do not come into contact
with the sludge and that it is not spilled.

Figure 6.3 Hand-operated sludge pump. The pump is located over the pit and the operator
(wearing suitable protective clothing) pumps the handle up and down. Sludge rises up the
vertical pipe and is expelled into the container. (Tilley et al., 2014)

Disposal of the sludge

Several options are available for disposal of the collected sludge (Pickford and Shaw,
2005). It can be put directly onto land and used as a soil conditioner, but this is only
possible if it has been left untouched for at least two years (Brikke and Bredero, 2003).
Fresh, untreated wet sludge poses high risks for human health and so should not be put
on land used to grow crops.
Drying the sludge will kill most pathogens. This can be achieved using drying beds
(Figure 6.4), where sludge is put into shallow tanks to a depth of about 300 mm. The
base of the tank is sloped and covered with a layer of sand (forming a ‘bed’) to allow
liquid to drain out of the sludge. In the warm climate of Ethiopia and without rain, after
about a week the sludge will be dry enough to be lifted by a shovel.

Figure 6.4 Sludge in drying beds.

The sludge can also be composted by mixing it with vegetable matter, or biogas can be
obtained by anaerobic digestion. Whichever method is used, faecal sludge disposal
must be carefully managed and operated in order to ensure that the associated risks to
health and the environment are avoided.

Septic tanks

A septic tank (Figure 6.5) is an underground and watertight tank made of concrete,
fibreglass or PVC in which sewage is collected and partially treated. These are used for
water-flushed systems that are not connected to a sewer. Concrete septic tanks are
commonly used in Ethiopia.

What is sewage?

Sewage is combined wastewater from all sources and includes blackwater (human
excreta), greywater and stormwater.
Figure 6.5 Diagram of a septic tank.

Wastewater enters the tank, remains there for a time, and is displaced out of the tank by
new wastewater coming in. There are no pumps or mechanical parts. The time the
wastewater remains in the tank is called the retention time and should be a minimum
of 24 hours. In this period, the solid matter in the sewage settles to the bottom of the
tank, where it is partially degraded by anaerobic micro-organisms.

The liquid above the sludge is relatively free of solids, but it does contain dissolved
organic and inorganic chemicals that are not treated. Light substances such as oil and
grease form a scum and float to the top. The position of the outlet (seen in Figure 6.5)
ensures that only water from the middle of the tank is displaced outwards. This effluent
is disposed of to a soakaway (also called a soak pit or seepage pit, Figure 6.6) or to a
drainfield (Figure 6.7).
Figure 6.6 Diagram of a soakaway.

The soakaway is a covered, unsealed pit lined with bricks or stone. The wastewater
from the septic tank seeps into the soil through the base of the pit and through the
spaces in the lining material.

A drainfield (Figure 6.7) is a field where the effluent from a septic tank is disposed of. It
can be constructed by laying a network of perforated pipes (pipes with tiny holes) in
excavated soil which has a bed of gravel. Soil is placed over the top of the perforated
pipe, and plants are grown on top of the drainfield. The wastewater is sent into the
perforated pipe and percolates (seeps) through the gravel and goes into the ground,
replenishing the groundwater.
Figure 6.7 Diagram showing the location of a septic tank and a drainfield.

Septic tanks need to be desludged when the sludge depth is approximately two-thirds
the depth of the tank. You can estimate this by putting a graduated stick into the tank.
Depending on usage, this is typically once every 12 months. A vacuum truck is usually
used to suck the sludge out for disposal (Figure 6.8).

Figure 6.8 Diagram of a septic tank being desludged by vacuum truck.

If a sewer network is later installed in an area where there are septic tanks (as often
happens in developing countries), the sewage flow can be connected directly to the
sewer, thus bypassing the septic tank. This allows for better treatment (and possibly
reuse) of the sewage, and of course eliminates the need for a septic tank.

Wastewater treatment options

Septic tanks remove solids from sewage, but treatment is minimal and the effluent
contains high levels of dissolved organic matter and ammonia. Other options for better
treatment are available.

The aim in wastewater treatment is to:

 reduce the amount of biodegradable material and solids
 remove toxic materials
 eliminate pathogenic micro-organisms.

There are several ways of treating sewage and other wastewaters with different costs
and requirements. One that is particularly effective and economical in warm regions of
the world is waste stabilisation ponds.

Waste stabilisation ponds

Waste stabilisation ponds are natural or constructed ponds used for treating sewage or
other wastewaters biologically by harnessing the power of sunlight and wind. They are
ideal for tropical countries like Ethiopia. The sewage collected by the sewerage network
in Addis Ababa goes to waste stabilisation ponds at Kality.

In a typical waste stabilisation pond system, effluent that has passed through a screen is
sent through a series of ponds (Figure 6.9) with a total retention time of between 10 and
50 days. Bacteria in the ponds degrade the organic waste and work symbiotically with
algae, which provide oxygen through photosynthesis. (Symbiotically means in a
relationship where two types of living organism live together for their mutual benefit.)
Oxygenation also occurs through the action of wind and by diffusion from the air. No
mechanical equipment is used in the ponds, so operation and maintenance costs are
very low. Land requirement is, however, high.

Figure 6.9 Layout of a waste stabilisation pond system treating domestic wastewater.

The major part of the biodegradation of the sewage takes place in the facultative ponds.
Facultative ponds are 1–1.5 m deep, with a retention time of between 5 and 30 days. In
these ponds the upper layers are aerobic and the lower layers of water are anaerobic.
Solids settle to the bottom and are anaerobically digested, so sludge removal is rarely
needed.

Maturation ponds are placed after facultative ponds for the purpose of pathogen
reduction (Figure 6.10). These are usually 0.5–1.5 m deep with a retention time of
between 15 and 20 days. These ponds serve to inactivate pathogenic bacteria and
viruses through the action of UV radiation from sunlight and the greater algal activity
in these shallow ponds, which raises the pH above 8.5. (pH is a measure of acidity and
alkalinity. It has a scale from 0–14: pH 7 is neutral, less than 7 is acid and more than 7 is
alkaline.) The long retention time in the maturation ponds also enhances the
sedimentation of the eggs of intestinal parasitic worms.

Figure 6.10 A waste stabilisation pond at Mekelle University – note the green colour of the pond
due to algae.

If the wastewater has a very high level of pollutants, anaerobic ponds can be used
ahead of the facultative ponds. Anaerobic ponds are 2–5 m deep and are nearly devoid
of oxygen. Their retention time is one to seven days. Solids settle to the bottom, forming
a sludge, and anaerobic digestion takes place, producing methane. Up to 60% of the
organic material can be removed in this process (Tilley et al., 2014).

To prevent sewage from leaching away, and to preserve the effluent for reuse later, the
ponds should have a liner. This can be made of clay, asphalt, compacted earth or any
other impermeable material (material that does not let fluid pass through). To prevent
run-off from entering the ponds and to prevent erosion, a protective raised earth barrier
can be constructed around the ponds using the excavated material from their
construction. Finally, a fence is needed to keep people and animals out (Tilley et al.,
2014).
Any scum that builds up on the surface of the facultative and maturation ponds should
be removed to allow sunlight to reach all the algae and also to increase surface aeration.
Large plants that are present in the water should be removed.

Treated sewage can be reused in crop irrigation if safe limits of faecal bacteria and
intestinal parasite eggs are achieved in the treatment process. At the same time as
treating wastewater, pond systems have been used to increase protein production
through the rearing of fish (such as Tilapia) and ducks in maturation ponds.

Reed beds

Reed beds, or artificially constructed wetlands with emergent plants, have been used to
treat sewage in many parts of the world. In Ethiopia, studies have been carried out on
this type of wastewater treatment system for domestic wastewaters in Addis Ababa
(Genet, 2007) and Kombolcha (Sahu and Yimer, 2014), and brewery effluent in Addis
Ababa (Angassa, 2011).

Reed beds are ideal for warm countries where plants grow rapidly. They have low
operational costs but they do require a lot of land.

The plants (usually reed species Phragmites australis or Phragmites communis) are grown
in rows in beds of soil or gravel lined with an impermeable clay or synthetic liner
(Figure 6.11). The effluent requiring treatment is fed into the bed, which typically has a
depth of 600 mm. The base of the reed bed has a slope to enable collection of the
effluent after treatment.
Figure 6.11 The reed bed system. When full-grown, the reeds are between 1.5 and 3.0 m high.

The effluent is distributed through pipes and nozzles onto the reed bed and then
percolates down to the roots and rhizomes (horizontal underground stems) of the reeds.
The root and rhizome system provides a mix of aerobic and anaerobic conditions that
encourage a diversity of microbial species in the soil. As a result, the reed bed system
has potential for treating a wide range of pollutants. For example, although micro-
organisms that are capable of biodegrading many synthetic chemicals (such as some
common pesticides) are found in soil, they not normally present in effluent treatment
plants, so reed beds can be effective for treating effluents that contain these types of
chemicals.

Can you think of an additional advantage that reed beds offer?

Reed beds are very attractive to birds and thus increase the diversity of wildlife where
they are constructed.

Mechanical-biological wastewater treatment

Wastewater treatment can be undertaken using a sequence of processes in a

mechanical-biological system (Figure 6.12). This treatment is faster than using natural
systems such as waste stabilisation ponds or reed beds and requires less space. These
factors make it desirable for sewage treatment in towns with large populations where
there is not enough land for natural systems. However, mechanical-biological systems
are more expensive because of the equipment required and the need for skilled
personnel to operate them.

Figure 6.12 A mechanical-biological wastewater treatment plant.

These systems typically have three main stages: preliminary, primary and secondary
treatment.

Preliminary treatment

In this first stage screens (Figure 6.13) remove large items such as pieces of wood, metal,
rags, paper or plastic that have got into the sewerage system. Removing them protects
the structures and equipment in the wastewater treatment plant. Paper and rags in the
wastewater flow are sometimes shredded by comminutors, which are rotating, slotted
drums equipped with cutting blades. The shredded material can then be returned to the
flow further downstream without causing harm.
Figure 6.13 Screening of wastewater. Solid materials are retained on the screen while the liquid
passes through.

Small stones and grit have to be removed from the flow. Grit is comprised of very small
pieces of sand, stone and possibly also glass and metal. All these materials can increase
the rate of wear of mechanical equipment and can also settle easily in pipes, causing
blockages. The grit settles out in grit channels (Figure 6.14) and can be removed daily
by manual or mechanical means and dumped at a landfill site.

Figure 6.14 A grit channel that slows the rate of flow and allows grit to settle out by gravity.

Primary treatment
In the primary treatment stage, fine solids in the wastewater are removed by settlement
in a sedimentation tank (Figure 6.15). A properly designed and well-operated primary
sedimentation tank will reduce the suspended solids content of the wastewater by
between 50 and 70%, and the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) by between 25 and
40% (Crites and Tchobanoglous, 1998).

Figure 6.15 Diagram of a rectangular sedimentation tank.

Secondary treatment

This is the biological stage of treatment. In secondary treatment the organic matter in
the sewage is biodegraded by micro-organisms using oxygen. Oxygen levels are
increased artificially by various means to ensure removal of organic matter. Also in this
stage, ammonia in the sewage is converted to nitrate. This is followed by a second
sedimentation stage to remove solids produced by the microbial activity. The treated
effluent should be clear, free of pathogens and safe to discharge into a river or possibly
be reused for irrigation.
Sullage management

What is ‘sullage’?

Described in Study Session 4, sullage is water that doesn’t contain any faecal matter or
urine. Typically, it is wastewater that is produced from washing ourselves, washing
clothes and from food preparation.

Many people simply throw sullage onto the ground or into the street. In small
quantities this may be acceptable, but in densely populated urban areas proper
handling and disposal is required. Some of the disadvantages of improper disposal of
sullage include the potential to contaminate the soil, pollute water sources and create
favourable breeding conditions for disease vectors.

Which vectors do you think might be encouraged by sullage collecting on the ground?

Mosquitoes are likely to be attracted, as they use stagnant water as breeding sites. Flies
and rats might also appear, because the sullage would be a source of drinking water for
them.

Sullage can be discharged to sewers or septic tanks in areas where these facilities exist.
Where they do not, it is necessary to construct a pit near the household to dispose of
sullage properly (Figure 6.16). The pit should be filled with gravel or sand. A sullage pit
keeps the wastewater in one place and encourages it to soak quickly into the ground.
Figure 6.16 Pit for disposal of sullage

Stormwater management

In Study Session 4 you learned about the pollutants likely to be present in surface water
run-off. What were they?

Faecal matter, soil, rubber from tyre wear, litter and oil from vehicles.

Stormwater has a polluting potential, as well as being a possible cause of flooding. In

towns and cities, stormwater should be directed into stormwater drains (Figure 6.17).
These should be kept clear of rubbish. Climate change means that many areas are
experiencing heavy and prolonged rainfall, leading to flooding when the stormwater
drains are unable to cope.
Figure 6.17 Stormwater drain designed to prevent flooding in Adama

Sustainable drainage systems (SuDS) are an alternative to large storm drains. These
systems include a range of techniques designed to reduce the speed of surface run-off,
encourage infiltration into the ground and reduce the risk of flooding without the use of
any mechanical equipment. Building ponds or holding areas in the drainage system so
that storm water is temporarily stored and the speed of flow is reduced is one example.
These storage ponds also make the water available for reuse. Another example is to
encourage infiltration by using gravel or stones rather than solid concrete at the sides of
roads (Figure 6.18). This reduces surface run-off and helps to replenish groundwater.
Figure 6.18 Infiltration trench with loose stone that encourages water to soak into the ground.

Summary

In chapter 6 you have learned that:

 Pit latrines are the most common method of disposing of human wastes in Ethiopia.

 Faecal sludge accumulates in pit latrines and septic tanks and must be regularly
removed and disposed of safely.

 The sludge can be removed by various means, including vacuum truck, Vacutug or
by manually operated pumps such as the Sludge Gulper.

 Sludge can be spread on land as a soil conditioner, but only after it has been treated
to minimise health risks, for example by drying, composting or anaerobic digestion.

 Some water-borne toilet systems use septic tanks which hold wastewater for a
minimum of 24 hours so that solids settle out. The effluent is discharged into the soil
via a soakaway or drainfield. Septic tanks need to be desludged when
approximately one-third full.

 The aims of wastewater treatment are to reduce the amount of biodegradable matter
and solids in the effluent, remove toxic materials and eliminate pathogenic micro-
organisms.

 Waste stabilisation ponds and reed beds use natural systems to treat wastewater and
are suitable for warm countries. They do not need mechanical equipment and are
thus low in operational costs but they both require a lot of land.

 Mechanical-biological wastewater treatment systems require less land than natural

systems of wastewater treatment but they require equipment that makes them
expensive to install and operate.

 Sullage should be discharged to sewers or septic tanks. If these are not available, it
should be discharged into a pit filled with gravel or sand.

 Storm water can be managed by sustainable drainage systems.

Assignments

1. Paul, a resident in the outskirts of your town, consults you about building a latrine in
the compound of his house. He is an open-minded man who is keen to improve life for
his family. He has a wife and three young children, and his elderly mother also lives
with them. He doesn’t have a tap in his house and gets water from a nearby well. The
area has heavy soil and the rock below is impermeable.

(a) Which types of latrine are possible choices for him?

(b) Which types of latrine would you recommend, and why?

(c) What other advice would you give him about the location, design and construction
of the latrine?

2. Nancy is a laboratory technician. She is analysing a sample of wastewater collected

from a pipe that discharges effluent into a river. Name two tests Worknesh could
perform to assess the physical characteristics of the effluent.

(b)As part of the analysis she also does a BOD test on the sample and gets an unusually
high result. What does the high BOD tell her about the wastewater? What effect could it
have on the river?

3. What is the purpose of the report of a rapid assessment and who should receive
copies of the report?Explain the contents of Rapid Assessment Report

4. Explain five ways in which urbanisation creates challenges for effective sanitation
and solid waste management.

5. How do good sanitation and waste management practices bring a positive effect to
urban inhabitants? Give examples for effects on:

a) health

b) education
c) economic conditions

d) the environment