UNIT: TWO

Peoples and Cultures in Ethiopia and the Horn

2.1. Human Evolution
 Human evolution is a gradual process of human development from
earliest Ape like ancient human being to modern human being(4.5
million B.P).
Human evolution began with primates (who lived in trees or
arboreal).
Primates branched of placental mammal stream as of 200-170 B.P
and some developed in Pongidea(such as gorilla, chimpanzee,
orangutan, gibbon)and while other evolved into Hominidea(human
ancestor).
We can see Human Evolution based on:
A. Archeological Evacuation of Fossils
Archeological evidence support that Ethiopia and the
horn is a cradle of human beings is found in different areas
is discovered in:
The Lower Omo and Middle Awash River valleys both by
Ethiopian and foreign scholars.
Fossils like:
 FOSSILS Date in million B.P Place of uncover Year of uncover

Chororapit hecus 10 million B.P. Anchar in West Hararghe 2007

Ardipithicus ramidus 5.8-5.2 million years BP Middle Awash

kadabba
Ardipithicus ramidus 4.2 Million B.P Aramis in Afar 1994

Australopithecines 3.6 Million B.P Belohdelie in Middle Awash

Australopithecus afarnesis c. 3.18 million B.P Hadar in Afar 1994

(Lucy/Dinkinesh)

Australopithecus afarensis, 3.3 million B.P Dikika, Mille, Afar 2000

(Selam )

Australopithecus anamensis Lake Turkana 1994

Australopithecus garhi
2.5 Million B.P Bouri, Middle Awash, between 1996 and 1999
(means surprise in Afar
language)
Australopithecus afarnesis (Lucy/Dinkinesh, dated c. 3.18 million years B. P.) with 40%
complete body parts, weight 30kg, height 1.07 meters and pelvis looks like bipedal discovered
at Hadar in Afar in 1974 A. D.

Lucy/Dinkinesh
The Skull of Ramidus
 B. Development of Human Brain
Genus Homo
The development of the human brain was to be the main feature of the
next stage of human evolution, which produced the genus Homo, believed
to have emerged 2-2.5 million years B. P. It classified into:
1. A partial skull of a fossil termed as Homo habilis, which is derived from
Latin terms "Homo" (human being) and "Habilis" (skillful use of hands),
dated 1.9million years B. P. was discovered in the Lower Omo.
2. Homo erectus (walking upright, dated 1. 6 million years B. P.) was
discovered at Melka Kunture, Konso Gardula and Gadeb with 900-1100 cc
brain size.
Discovered fire
3. Skeleton of Homo Sapiens (knowledgeable human being, dated
400, 000 years B.P.) named Bodo with brain size of 1300-1400cc
was discovered in Middle Awash.
• Fossils of Homo Sapiens Sapiens (100, 000years B.P.) were discovered at Porc
Epic near Dire Dawa, and Kibish around Lower Omo (in1967).
• In 2004, Kibish Fossils were re-dated to 195, 000 B. P, the oldest date in the
world for modern Homo sapiens.
• Homo Sapiens Idaltu, found in Middle Awash in 1997, lived about 160, 000
years B.P. Homo Hablis

Homo Habilis
Homo Eractus

Homo
Sapiens
 C. Technology Advancement
It can be conventionally grouped into Stone Age , Bronze Age and Iron Age.
Stone Age- stone tools were divided into three Modes based on features,
ways and period of production.
[Link] I (Olduwan, named after Olduwan George in Tanzania)
Characterized by crude and mono-facial styles
Produced by direct percussion
2. Mode II(Ancheulean named after St. Acheul of France, first reported)
Bifacial, pointed and convex features
Stone tools produced by indirect percussion, using hand axes and hammer
3. Mode III(Sangoon)- stone tools characterized by flexible and fine from
production by the use of Obsidian.
Major sites in the region are: Dakika, Gona, Shangura, Kella(Middle
Awash),Gademotta, Gorgora, Ki’one, Yabello ,Midhidhishi, Gudgud.
Olduwan ,Ancheulean and Obsidian Stone tools
 Periods of Stone Ages
The period usage of stone tools is divided into sub-periods:
1. Paleolithic (Old Stone Age, 3.4 million-11,000 B.P.). It characterized by:
Human being lived in caves
Used stone, bone, wood, furs and skin to prepare food and cloth,
they were hunters and gathers (Male hunter and Female and children were gatherers)
Developed languages,
[Link] (Middle stone Age,11,00-10,000 B.P)
3. Neolithic (New Stone Age,10,00-6000 B.P.)
Neolithic Revolution
Characteristics of Neolithic revolution:
1. The beginning of sedentary life(sedentary Agriculture)
2. Great change from Hunting and gathering into Domestication of Plants and Animals
The 1st Domesticated plants in Ethiopia and the Horn are:
- Teff(Eragotis teff), - Dagussa(Eleusine coracana),
-Nug(Guzotia abyssinica) - Enset(enset ventricosum) etc.
 Sites of Neolithic Revolution
Neolithic Material culture: the discovery of Polished axes, ceramics, grinding stone
,beads, stone figures and animals remains are found at Emba-Fekeda,(Adigrat),
Aqordat and Barentu(Eritrea), Gobodara rock shilter (Aksum),
domestication of animals like Cattle and Cheek peas etc. Are found around Lalibela.
Tools used for cutting of grass and grass like plants as well as rock painting of
domesticated animals have found at Laga Oda rock shelter at chercher, Lake
Basaka(near Metehara), etc.
The Peopling of the region
Languages and Linguistic Process
Ethiopia and the horn in general is marked by ethnic and linguistic diversity.
There are about 90 languages with 200 dialects in Ethiopia and the Horn.
 The languages of Ethiopia and the Horn generally grouped under two Super-
Famalies of Afro- Asiatic and Nilo-Sahara.
Afro-Asiatic- Cushitic ,Semetic and Omotic.
Nilo-Sahara- Anywa, Berta, Gumuz, Kunama, Murle, Mursi…
 Settlement Patterns
Due to long historical process in Northeast Africa, People are distributed into
different landscape of the region(some areas are densely populated and some
others are sparse).
The spatial distribution of people in the region were affected or influenced by:
environmental, socio-economic and political process of the region.
Cushitic and Sematic people had inhabited the area between the Red sea in the
east, Blue Nile in the west from where they dispersed to different directions.
In due course, the Cushite's have evolved to be the largest linguistic group in
Ethiopia and the Horn
have also spread over wide areas from Sudan to Tanzania.
Sematic become the second largest language group in Ethiopia
 spread to north , northcentral, northeastern, southcentral and eastern part of
Ethiopia and the Horn.
All the Omotic languages except Shinasha and Mao in Benishangul and Wallaga ,
majority are inhabited in Omo river basin.
Nilotes are largely settled along Ethio-Sudanese border and Karamoja cluster living
around lake Turkana along Ethio-Kenya border.
Economic Formation
The domestication of plants and animals gave humanity two independent mode of life:
agriculture and Pastoralism. These economic activities become the major economic
formation of the region.
Climatic conditions and topographic features largely influenced economic activities
in Ethiopia and the Horn.
More lowlands areas are mainly engaged in pastoral economic system where as plateaus
and high land parts of the region are agriculturalist.
Religion and Religious Processes
Indigenous Religion
Native to the region and have been followed by the local people since ancient times.
A distinctive mark of indigenous religion is belief in Supreme Being ,but special powers
are attributed to natural phenomena, which are considered sacred.
A distinctive mark of indigenous religion is belief in Supreme Being ,but special
powers are attributed to natural phenomena, which are considered sacred.
Examples:
Waqeffanna of the Oromo- a belief is based on the existence of one Supreme
Being called Waqa.
Waa of Hadiya
 Negita or Aricho Magano (Sky God) of Kambata
 Their religious officials known as Magnancho.
 Mageno of Gedeo
 had thanks giving ceremony called Deraro.
 Waaq/Wakh of Konso.
 Diban (Sky God) of Gojjam Agaw.
 Waq/Goita of Gurage.
 Ha’o (Sky God) of Yem.
The Konta’s spirit-cult was called Docho.
 Tosa of Wolayita.
 Yero of Keficho.
 Iqa of Boro-Shinasha .
The Nuer believe in Kuoth Nhial (God in Heaven).
Judaism
• Judaism is considered as the expression of the covenant that Yahweh/Jehovah
(God) established with the ancient Hebrew community.
• The Bete-Israel practiced Haymanot (religious practices, which are generally
recognized as Israelite religion that differs from Rabbinic Judaism).
• The Jews developed and lived for centuries in northern and northwestern
Ethiopia.
Suggestions on Bete Israel:
Many of the Bete-Israel accounts trace their religion from the very ancient
migration of some portion of the Tribe of Dan to Ethiopia, led it is said by sons
of Moses, perhaps even at the time of the Exodus (1400-1200 B.C.).
Other Bete-Israel take as their basis the account of return to Ethiopia of Menilek I, who is
believed to be the son of King Solomon (r. 974-932 B.C.) of ancient Israel and Makeda,
ancient Queen of Saba (Sheba)., and considered to be the first Solomonic Emperor of
Ethiopia.
Another group of Jews is said to have been arrived in Ethiopia led by Azonos and
Phinhas in 6th century A.D.
There are also other stories that attribute the presence of the Bete-Isreal in Ethiopia to
an intermarriage between Jewsh immigrants with native Agaws.
On the other hand, scholars such as Tadese Tamirat and Kay Shelmay argue that the
Bete-Israel are remnants of old testament followers of orthodox Christianity rather
than Jews who migrated from abroad.
Christianity
Christianity became state religion in 334 A.D. during the reign of King Ezana (r.320-
360),who dropped pre-Christian gods like Ares (Hariman/Maharram/war god), Arwe
(serpentpython god), Bahir (sea god) and Midir (earth god), and embraced
Christianity.
Instrumental in conversion of the king (Ezana) were Syrian brothers, Aedesius and
Frumentius (Fremnatos).
When Fremnatos (Kasate Birhane or Abba Salama) visited Alexandria, Patriarch
Atnatewos (328-373) appointed him as the first Bishop of Ethiopian Orthodox Church
(EOC).
Consecration of bishops from Coptic Church in Egypt continued until 1959,
when Abune Baslios became the first Ethiopian Patriarch. Here are the Saints:
NO Name of the Saints Origin Church/Monastery Location of the Church
1 Abuna Aregawwi Constantinople Debre Damo Eastern Tigray
(Abba Za Mika’el)
2 Abuna Isaq (Abba Constantinople Debre Gerima Medera (East of Adwa )
Gerima)
3 Abba Pentelwon Constantinople Debre Pentelwon Asbo (North East of
Aksum)
4 Abba Afse Ladocia Debre Afse Yeha (Northeast of
Aksum)
5 Abba Alef Qa’esare’a Debre Haleluya Biheza (Northeast of
Aksum)
6 Abba Gubba Cilicia Debre Gubba West of Medera

7 Abba Liqanos Constantinople Debre Qonasel North of Aksum

8 Abba Sehama Antioch Tsedania Southeast of Adwa

9 Abba Yima’ata Qosa’iti Debre Yima’ata Ger’alta

Christianity was further expanded to the mass of the society in the later part the
fifth(5th ) century, during the reign of Ella Amida II (478-86) by the Nine Saints
shown in the table above.
The expansion of Christianity continued in Zagwe period (1150-1270) and chiefly
gained fresh momentum during the early Medieval Period (1270-1527), when
many churches and monasteries were constructed.
These include Rock-hewn churches of Lalibela, Debra-Bizan of Hamasen in
Eritrea; Debra-Hayiq in Wollo, Debre-Dima and Debre-Werq in Gojjam; Debra-
Libanos in Shewa, Birbir Mariam in Gamo and Debre-Asabot on the way to Harar.
From mid-sixteenth to the early seventeenth centuries, the Jesuit missionaries
tried to convert Monophysite EOC (single nature) to Dyophysite (two separate
natures) Catholic.
Bloody conflicts that in turn led to expulsion of the Jesuits. However, the Jesuits
intervention triggered religious controversies within the EOC.
As of 1804, missionaries’ religious expansion also resulted in the conclusion of
treaties between European diplomats and Ethiopian authorities.
The Catholic Giuseppe Sapeto (Lazarist mission founder), Giustino De Jacobis
(Capuchin order founder), Cardinal Massaja, Antoine and Arnauld d'Abbadie
were active.
Protestant missionaries under such leaders as Samuel Gobat, C.W. Isenberg
and J. L. Krapf.
• Systematic approach of trained Protestants enabled them to win confidence of
local people.
• They translated spiritual books into vernaculars. They adopted old names for
Supreme Being like Waqayyo, Tosa etc.
• Schools were open to all children of chiefs and farmers and provided medical
facilities. All these attracted a large number of followers.
 Islam
The founding prophet of Islamic religion is Prophet Mohammed.
He faced opposition from the Quraysh rulers.
Under this circumstance, the Prophet sent some of his early followers to Aksum
including his daughter Rukiya and her husband Uthman as well as the Prophet's future
wives Umm Habiba and Umm Salma to Aksum.
The first refugee was led by Jafar Abu Talib.
In his advice to his followers, the Prophet said of Ethiopia, "…a king
under whom none are persecuted. It is a land of righteousness, where
God will give relief from what you are suffering.”
The then Aksumite king, Armah Ella Seham (Ashama b. Abjar or Ahmed al-Nejash in
Arabic sources), gave them asylum from 615-28.
Leaders of the Quraysh asked Armah to repatriate the refugees, but the king did not
comply(obey). Armah is said to have replied, "If you were to offer me a mountain of
gold I would not give up these people who have taken refugees with me.”
• Subsequently, Islam spread to the Horn of Africa largely through peaceful ways
including trade. The two gates were:
1. Islam was well established in Dahlak (Alalay) Islands on the Red Sea by the
beginning of the eighth century.
• In the early tenth century, the Muslim community on the islands developed a
sultanate. In due course, Muslims settled other places on the Red Sea coast.
• The Dahlak route played a minor role in the introduction of Islam into the interior
as Christianity was strongly entrenched as a state religion in Aksum and later
states of northern Ethiopia and open proselytization of Islam was prohibited.
2. The port of Zeila on western coast of the Gulf of Aden served as an important
gateway for the introduction of Islam mainly into the present day Shewa, Wollo and
Hararghe. Islam firmly established itself in the coastal areas by the eighth and ninth
centuries.
• Sheikh Hussein of Bale, a Muslim saint (Waliy) of medieval period, played very
important role in the expansion of Islam into Bale, Arsi and other southeastern
parts of Ethiopia and the Horn. Another Islamic center in this region is Sof Umar
cave.
• Islam was introduced into Somali territories in the eigth century A. D. through
Benadir coasts of Moqadishu, Brava and Merca. Abu Bakr Ibn Fukura al Din Sahil
set up Moqadishu Minirate c.1269.