Unit-2

Wave Optics
Objective

Light has a dual nature and there are some phenomena which can only be explained if the
light is considered to have a wave nature, e.g. polarization, interference and diffraction.
These phenomena of optics are generally grouped in the form of wave optics. In lasers wave
optics has fundamental importance, therefore, this unit describes the basic principles and
physical understanding of these fundamental aspect.

2.1 Polarization
In the previous unit we have learned that light is a transverse electromagnetic wave. The
electric field vector, E, oscillates in magnitude as well as in direction but always remains
perpendicular to the propagation direction. In any real beam, light comprises many individual
waves and in general the planes of vibrations of their electric field will be randomly
orientated. Such a beam of light is unpolarized and the resultant electric field vector changes
orientation randomly in time. It is possible, however, to have light beams characterized by
highly orientated electric fields and such light is referred to as being polarized. The simplest
form of polarization is linearly polarized light in which electric field vector oscillates only
along a straight line.

2.1.1 Linear Polarization

Let us consider two harmonics, linearly polarized light waves of the same frequency, and
moving in the same direction. If the electric field vectors are collinear, the superimposing
Unit-2

disturbances will simply combine to form a resultant linearly polarized wave. We can
represent the two orthogonal optical disturbances in the form

Ex(z,t) = i Eox cos(kz – t) (2.1)

and

Ey(z,t) = j Eoy cos(kz – t + ) (2.2)

where is the relative phase difference between the waves, both of which are travelling in
the z-direction. Since the phase is in the form (kz – t), the addition of a positive means
that the cosine function in equation (2.2) will not attain the same value as the cosine in
Equation (2.1) until a latter time ( ). Accordingly, Ey lags Ex by >0. If is a negative
quantity, Ey leads Ex by <0. The resultant optical disturbance is the vector sum of these two
perpendicular waves:

E(z,t) = Ex(z,t) + Ey(z,t). (2.3)

If is zero or an integral multiple of 2 , the waves are said to be in phase. In that particular
case Equation (2.3) becomes

E(z,t) = (i Eox + j Eoy ).cos(kz – t) (2.4)

The resultant wave therefore has a fixed amplitude equal to (i Eox + j Eoy ); in other words the
resultant wave is also linearly polarized as shown in Figure 2.1. The waves advance toward a
plane of observation where the fields are to be measured. There one sees a single resultant E
oscillating, along a tilted line, co-sinusoidally in time. The E-field progresses through one
complete oscillatory cycle as the wave advances along the z-axis through one wavelength.
This process of addition can be carried out equally well in reverse; that is we can resolve any
plane-polarized wave into two orthogonal components. If is an odd integer multiple of ,
the two waves are said to be 180o out of phase, and

E(z,t) = (i Eox – j Eoy ) cos(kz – t) (2.5)

2.2
 Wave Optics

Figure 2.1 Linear Light

The wave is again linearly polarized, but the plane of vibration has been rotated from that of
the previous condition, as indicated in Figure 2.2.

Figure 2.2 Linear Light

2.3
Unit-2

2.1.2 Circular Polarization

An interesting situation arises when the amplitudes of the two superimposing beam are equal
(i.e., Eox = Eoy = Eo), and in addition, their relative phase difference = – /2 2m , where
m is an integer. In other words, = – /2 or any value increased or decreased by from – /2 by
a whole number multiples of 2 . Accordingly

Ex(z,t) = i Eo cos(kz – t) (2.6a)

and

Ey(z,t) = j Eo sin(kz – t). (2.6b)

The consequent wave is given by

E(z,t) = Eo [i cos(kz – t) + j sin(kz – t)] (2.7)

and is shown in Figure 2.3. In equation (2.7) the scalar amplitude of E, that is, (E.E)1/2 = Eo,
is constant. The direction of E is time varying and it is not restricted to a single plane. Figure
2.4 shows what is happening at some arbitrary point zo on the axis. At t = 0, E lies along the
reference axis in Figure 2.4, and so

Ex(z,t) = i Eo cos(kzo) (2.8a)

Ey E

Ex

Figure 2.3 Right-circularly polarized light.

and

Ey(z,t) = j Eo sin(kzo). (2.8b)

2.4
 Wave Optics

The rotation rate is  and kz=/4.

At a latter time, t = kzo/ , Ex = i Eo, Ey = 0, and E is along the x-axis. The resultant electric

Ey E

ence
Refer
axis
t
[Link]
Ex x

Eo

Figure 2.4 Rotation of electric vector in a right-circular wave.

field vector E is rotating clockwise at an angular frequency of , as seen by an observer

toward whom the wave is moving (i.e., looking back at the source). Such a wave is said to be
right-circularly polarized, and one generally simply refers to it as right-circular light. The E-
vector makes one complete rotation as the wave advances through one wavelength. In
comparison, if = /2, 5 /2, 9 /2, and so on (i.e., = /2 2m for m to be an integer),
then

E(z,t) = Eo [i cos(kz – t) – j sin(kz – t)]. (2.9)

The amplitude is unaffected, but E in this case rotates counter-clockwise, and the wave is
referred to as left-circularly polarized.

A linearly polarized wave can be raised from two oppositely polarized circular waves of
equal amplitude. In particular, if we add the right-circular wave of equation (2.7) and to the
left-circular wave of equation (2.9), we get

E(z,t) = 2 Eo i cos(kz – t), (2.10)

which has a constant amplitude vector of 2Eoi and is therefore linearly polarized.

2.5
Unit-2

2.1.3 Elliptical Polarization

As for as the mathematical description is concerned, both linear and circular polarization
light may be considered to be special cases of elliptically polarized light. This means that, in
general, the resultant electric field vector E will rotate and change its magnitude as well. In
such cases the endpoint of E will trace out an ellipse, in a fixed space perpendicular to k. We
can see this better by actually writing an expression for the curve traced by the tip of E. We
can recall he equations (2.1) and (2.2) as

Ex = Eox cos(kz – t) (2.11)

and

Ey = Eoy cos(kz – t + ). (2.12)

The above equations can be rearranged to get rid of the (kz – t) dependence. Expand the
expression for Ey into

Ey/Eoy = cos(kz – t).cos – sin(kz – t).sin (2.13)

and combine it with Ex/Eox to have

Ey Ex
cos sin(kz t ).sin . (2.14)
E oy E ox

From equation (2.11) we have

sin (kz – t) = [1– (Ex/Eox)2]1/2 , (2.15)

therefore equation (2.14) becomes

2 2
Ey Ex Ex
cos 1 . sin 2 . (2.16)
E oy E ox E ox

On rearranging terms, we have

2 2
Ey Ex Ex Ey
2 . . cos sin 2 . (2.17)
E oy E ox E ox E oy

2.6
 Wave Optics

This is an equation of an ellipse making an angle with the (Ex, Ey) coordinate system
(Figure 2.5) such that

2.E ox .E oy . cos
tan 2 2 2
. (2.18)
E ox E oy

Ey
Eoy
E

Eox
Ex

Figure 2.5 Elliptically polarized light.

Equation (2.17) will look like a simple equation of ellipse if the principle axes of the ellipse
were aligned with the coordinate axes, that is = 0 or equivalently = /2, 3 /2,
5 /2, …, in which case we have the familiar form

2 2
Ey Ex
0. (2.19)
E oy E ox

Furthermore, if Eoy = Eox = Eo, this equation can be reduced to

E 2y E 2x E o2 , (2.20)

which is the equation of a circle, and is in complete agreement with our previous result. If
is an even multiple of , equation (2.17) results in

2.7
Unit-2

E oy
Ey Ex (2.21)
E ox

and similarly for odd multiples of , we have

E oy
Ey Ex. (2.22)
E ox

Both the equation (2.21) and (2.22) are equations of straight lines having slopes of Eoy/Eox;
in other words we have linearly polarized light.

Figure 2.6 diagrammatically summarize most of these conclusions. This important diagram is
labeled across the bottom “Ex leads Ey by: 0, /4, /2, 3 /4,...”, where these are the positive
values of to be used in equation (2.2). The same set of curves will occur if “E y leads Ex by:
2 , 7 /4, 3 /2, 5 /4, ...”, and that happens when equals –2 , –7 /4, –3 /2, –5 /4, and so
on. Figure 2.7 illustrates how Ex leading Ey by /2 is equivalent to Ey leading Ex by 3 /2
(where sum of these two angles equals to 2 ).

Ey leads Ex by: 2 7 3 5 3

Ey

Ex

Ex leads Ey by: 3 5 3 7 2

Figure 2.6 Various polarization configurations. The light would be circular with
= /2 or 3 if Eox = Eoy, but here for the sake of generality oy
E was
taken to be larger than Eox.

Ey

t
Ex

Figure 2.7 Phases of the electric field vector whenx leads

E Ey (or Ey lags Ex) by /2,
or alternatively, Ey leads Ex (or Ex lags Ey) by 3 /2.
2.8
 Wave Optics

2.1.4 Polarizers

An optical device whose input is natural light and whose output is some form of
polarized light is known as polarizer. An instrument that separates the two components of
electric field, discarding one and passing on the other, is known as linear polarizer.
Depending on the form of the output, we could also have circular or elliptical polarizers. All
these devices vary in effectiveness down to what might be called leaky or partial polarizer.

Polarizers come in many different configurations, but all of them are based on one of the
following fundamental physical mechanisms.

[Link] Dichroism

Dichroism refers to the selective absorption of one of the two orthogonal electric field
components of an incident beam. The dichroic polarizer itself is physically anisotropic,
producing a strong asymmetric or preferential absorption of one field component while being
essentially transparent to the other.

Birefringence: In some crystalline substances (i.e., solids whose atoms are arranged in some
sort of regular repetitive array) the optical properties are not the same in all direction. They
have different refractive indices in different directions. A material of this kind, which
displays different indices of refraction, is said to be birefringent. A crystal so illuminated will
be strongly absorbing for one polarization direction and transparent for the other. Thus a
birefringent material in fact is dichroic.

[Link] Reflection

If a beam of white light is incident at one certain angle on the polished surface of ordinary
glass, it is found upon reflection to be plane polarized. This is perhaps the simplest method of
polarizing light and was discovered by Malus in 1808.

[Link] Scattering

The orientation of the electric field of the scattered radiation follows the dipole pattern. The
vibrations induced in the atom are parallel to the E-field of the incoming light wave and so

2.9
Unit-2

are perpendicular to the propagation direction. An oscillating dipole does not radiate in the
direction of its axis. If the incident wave is unpolarized, the scattered light in the forward
direction is completely unpolarized. It becoming increasingly more polarized as the angle
increases. When the direction of observation is normal to the primary beam, the light is
completely polarized.

2.1.5 Law of Malus

This law tells us how the intensity transmitted by the analyzer varies with the angle that its
plane of transmission makes with that of polarizer. If natural light is incident on an ideal
linear polarizer, as in Figure 2.8, only plane polarized light will be transmitted. The polarized
light will have an orientation parallel to a specific direction, which may call the transmission
axis of the polarizer. In other words, only the component of the optical field parallel to the
transmission axis will pass through the polarizer unaffected.
y
z

x
Detector
E

Polarizer

Natural light
Figure 2.8. A linear polarizer.

Now introduce a second identical ideal polarizer, as analyzer, whose transmission axis is
vertical. If the amplitude of the electric field transmitted by the polarizer is Eo, only its
component, [Link] , parallel to the transmission axis of the analyzer will be passed on to the
detector (Figure 2.9). The irradiance reaching to the detector is given by

I( ) = E o2 cos 2 . (2.23)

2.10
 Wave Optics

y
z
Ecos
x
Ecos
Detector

E
Analyzer

Polarizer
Natural light
Figure 2.9 A linear polarizer and analyzer- Malus's law.

The maximum irradiance, Io, will occur when the angle between the transmission axis of
the analyzer and polarizer is zero. The above equation can be rewritten as

I( ) = Io.cos2 2.

This is known as Malus‟s law. It is clear from equation (2.24) that for is equal to 90o, the
output intensity after the analyzer will be zero. This is due to the fact that the electric field
that has passed through the polarizer is perpendicular to the transmission axis of the analyzer.
The electric field is therefore parallel to the extinction axis of the analyzer and therefore, no
component is along the transmission axis. We can use this setup along with Malus‟s law to
determine the linear polarization of an optical beam.

2.1.6 Optical Activity

The phenomenon of optical activity was first observed by French scientist D.F.J. Arago in
1811. He discovered that the plane of vibration of a beam of linear light underwent a
continuous rotation as it propagate along the optic axis of a quartz crystal (Figure 2.10).
Latter the same effect was observed in vapors and liquid forms of various natural substances.
Thus a material that causes the E-field of an incident linear plane wave to appear to rotate is
said to be optically active. Moreover, there are some right-handed and left-handed rotations.
If we look in the direction of the source and the plane of vibration appears to have revolved

2.11
Unit-2

clockwise, the substance is referred to as dextroratory, d-rotatory (dextro meaning right). If

E-field appears to rotate counterclockwise, the material is said to be l-rotatory.

Optic
axis

d-rotatory
Quartz

Figure 2.10 Optical activity displayed by quartz.

In 1825, Fresnel proposed a simple phenomenological description of optical activity. Since
the incident light wave can be represented as a superposition of right and left circular light,
he suggested that these two forms of circular light propagates at different speeds. Such
material possesses two indices of refraction, one for right circular light (n R) and one for left
circular light (nL). In traversing an optically active specimen, the two circular waves would
get out of phase, and the resultant linear wave would appear to have rotated. Eqs. (2.7) and
(2.9) described right and left circular light propagating in the z-direction. We can rewrite
these equations as

ER = Eo [i cos(kRz – t) + j sin(kRz – t)] (2.25a)

and

EL = Eo [i cos(kLz – t) – j sin(kLz – t)] (2.25b)

where kR = konR, and kL = konL. The resultant disturbance is given by E = ER + EL, therefore
we have

EL = [Link]. cos((kR+kL).z/2 – t) [i cos(kR-kL)z/2) – j sin(kR-kL)z/2)] (2.26a)

At the position where the wave enters the medium (i.e., z = 0) it is linearly polarized along
the x-axis, that is,

E = [Link].i. cos t. (2.27)

2.12
 Wave Optics

At any point along the path, the two components have the same time dependence and are
therefore in phase. This just means that anywhere along the z-axis the resultant is linearly
polarized (Figure 2.11), although its orientation is a function of z. Moreover, if n R>nL (or
kR>kL), E will rotate counterclockwise, whereas if kL>kR, rotation is clockwise.

ER

EL
E

Figure 2.11 The superposition of a Right- and Left- circular light for
L
>k
k R.

2.2 Interference

In the previous chapter we know that two beams of light can be made to cross each other
without either one producing any effect on the other after it passes beyond the region of
crossing. In this sense the two beams do not interfere with each other. However, in the region
of crossing, where both beams are acting at once, we observe that resultant amplitude and
intensity is very different from the sum of the two beams acting separately. This modification
of intensity obtained by the superposition of two or more beams of light we call interference.
If the resultant intensity is zero or in general less than we expect from the separate intensities,
we have destructive interference. While if the resultant is greater, we have constructive
interference. After the dominating century of corpuscular theory of light, Thomas Young, in
1801, performed the historical experiment of the interference of light.

We have derived the expressions of the superposition of two scalar waves, and in many
respects those results will again be applicable. But light is a vector phenomenon; the electric
and magnetic fields are vector fields. In accordance with the principle of superposition, the

2.13
Unit-2

electric field intensity E, at a point in space, arising from the separate fields E1, E2, … of
various contributing sources is given by

E = E1 + E2 + …

The light field E varies in time at a very rapid rate (roughly ~5x1014 Hz) making the actual
field an impractical quantity to detect. But the irradiance „I‟ can be measured directly with a
wide variety of sensors (e.g., photocells, photographic emulsions, eye, etc.). Therefore, we
can study the interference by measuring the irradiance.

To study interference, consider two point sources, S1 and S2, emitting monochromatic waves
of the same frequency in a homogeneous medium. Furthermore, let their separation „a’ be
much greater that . Locate the point of observation P far enough away from the sources so
that at P the wavefronts will be planes (Figure 2.12). For the moment, we will consider only

S1

a P

S2

a>>
Figure 2.12 Waves from two point sources overlapping in space.

linearly polarized waves of the form

E1(r,t) = Eo1 cos(k1.r – t + 1) (2.28a)

and

E2(r,t) = Eo2 cos(k2.r – t + 2). (2.28b)

The irradiance at P is given by

2.14
 Wave Optics

I <E2> (2.29a)

Since we will be concerned only with relative irradiance within the same medium, we simply
neglect the constant of proportionality and set

I = <E2> (2.29b)

The <E2> is the time average of the magnitude of the electric field intensity squared, or
<E.E>. Accordingly

E2 = E.E = (E1 + E2) . (E1 + E2) (2.30a)

and thus

E2 = E12 E 22 + 2 E1 . E2 (2.30b)

Taking the time average on both sides, we find the irradiance becomes

I = I1 + I2 + I12, (2.31)

provided that

I1 = E 12 , I2 = E 22 , and I12 = 2 < E1 . E2 >. (2.32)

The last term is known as the interference term. From equation (28) we can evaluate the last
term as

E1 . E2 = Eo1 . Eo2 cos(k1.r – t + 1) x cos(k2.r – t + 2) (2.33a)

or equivalently

E1 . E2 = Eo1 . Eo2 [cos(k1.r + 1). cos t + sin(k1.r + 1). sin t]

x [cos(k2.r + 2). cos t + sin(k2.r + 2). sin t] (2.33b)

1 1
Using the time average values of <coswt> = 2 , <sinwt> = 2 , and <coswt. Sinwt> = 0, and
simplifying the equation (2.30b), we have

1– k2.r –
1
E1 . E2 = 2 Eo1 . Eo2 cos(k1.r + 2). (2.34a)

The interference term is then

I12 = Eo1 . Eo2 cos , (2.34b)

2.15
Unit-2

where = (k1.r + 1– k2.r – 2), is the phase difference arising from a combined path-length
and initial phase angle difference. It is important to note that if Eo1 and Eo2 are perpendicular,
then their dot product will be zero, i.e., I12 = 0 and I = I1 + I2. Two such orthogonal waves not
interfere but yield some other polarized states.

The most common situation corresponds to Eo1 parallel to Eo2. In that case, the irradiance
reduces to the value found in the scalar treatment of superposition of waves. Under those
conditions

I12 = Eo1. Eo2. cos . (2.35)

Again by taking the time average, we can write

I1 = E 12 = 1
2
E o21 , and I2 = E 22 = 1
2
E o2 2 . (2.36)

The interference term becomes

I12 = 2 I1 I 2 cos , (2.37)

and the total irradiance is

I = I1 + I2 + 2 I1 I 2 cos . (2.38)

Equation (2.38) shows that, at various points in space the resultant irradiance can be greater,
less than, or equal to I1 + I2, depending on the value of I12 or in other words . A maximum in
the irradiance is obtained when cos = 1, so that

Imax = I1 + I2 + 2 I1 I 2 (2.39)

when

= 0, 2 , 4 ,…

In this case the path difference between the two waves is an integer multiple of 2 , and the
disturbances are said to be in phase. This can also be called as total constructive interference.
When 0 < cos < 1 the waves are out of phase, I1 + I2 < I < Imax, and the result is known as
constructive interference. At = /2, cos = 0, the optical disturbances are said to be 90o out
of phase, and I = I1 + I2. For 0 > cos > –1, we have the condition of destructive interference,

2.16
 Wave Optics

I1 + I2 > I > Imin. The minimum of the irradiance results when the waves are 180o out of phase,
troughs overlap crests, i.e., cos = –1 and

Imin. = I1 + I2 – 2 I1 I 2 (2.40)

This occurs when = , 3 , 5 , … and it is referred as total destructive interference.

When amplitudes of both the waves reaching at P are equal (i.e., Eo1 = Eo2), the irradiance
from both sources are then be equal. Let I1 = I2 = Io, then equation (2.35) can be written as

I = [Link] (1 + cos ) = [Link]. cos2( /2) (2.41)

Equation (2.41) clearly shows that irradiance maxima occur (i.e., Imax. = 4Io) when

= 2 m, for m = 0, 1, 2,… (2.42a)

Similarly minima, for which Imin. = 0, arises when

= m', for m ' = 1, 3, 5, … (2.42b)

The above equations equally holds for spherical waves emitted by S1 and S2. Such waves can
be expressed as

E1(r1,t) = Eo1(r1) exp[i(k.r1 – t + 1)] (2.43a)

and

E2(r2,t) = Eo2(r1) cos[i(k.r2 – t + 2)]. (2.43b)

The terms r1 and r2 are the radii of the spherical wavefronts overlapping at P; in other words
they specify the distances from the sources to P. In this case

= k(r1 – r2) + ( 1 – 2) (2.44)

Using equation (44) and (42), the expression for maximum and minimum irradiance can be
rewritten as

(r1 – r2) = [2 m + ( 2 – 1)]/k for maximum irradiance (2.45a)

and

(r1 – r2) = [ m ' + ( 2 – 1)]/k for minimum irradiance (2.45b)

2.17
Unit-2

If the waves are in phase at the source, i.e., ( 2 – 1) = 0, the equation (2.45) can be
simplified as

(r1 – r2) = 2 m/k = m (2.46a)

and

(r1 – r2) = m ' /k = 1

2 m' (2.46b)

for maximum and minimum irradiance, respectively .

From the above discussion we can find the condition for interference of the two linearly
polarized waves as

1. Two orthogonal coherent linearly polarized waves cannot interfere in the sense that
I12 = 0 and no fringes result.

2. Two parallel, coherent linearly polarized waves will interfere in the same way as of
natural light.

2.2.1 Wavefront-Splitting Interferometers

Interference apparatus may be divided into two main classes, (a) based on the division of
wavefront and (b) based on the division of amplitude. The former class is the one, which was
experimented first, in which the wavefront is divided laterally into segments by mirrors or
diaphragms. It is also possible to divide a wave by partial reflection, the two resulting
wavefronts maintaining the original width but having reduced amplitudes. Young‟s
Experiment originally performed nearly two hundred years ago is one of the representative
examples of the wavefront-splitting interferometer.

[Link] Young’s Experiment

The original experiment performed by Young is shown schematically in Figure 2.13.

Sunlight was first allowed to pass through a pinhole S and then, at a considerable distance
away, through two pinholes S1 and S2. The two sets of spherical waves emerging from the
two holes interfered with each other in such a way as to form a symmetrical pattern of
varying intensity on the screen AC. If the circular lines represent crests of waves, the

2.18
 Wave Optics

intersections of any two lines represent the arrival at those points of two waves with the same
phase or with phases differing by a multiple of 2 . Such points are therefore those of
maximum disturbance or brightness. A close examination of the light on the screen will
reveal evenly spaced light and dark bands or fringes, similar to those as shown in Figure
2.14.

S2
S
B
S1

Figure 2.13 Experimental arrangement for Young,s double slit experiment.

Figure 2.14 Interference pattern.

The equation (2.46a) gives the condition for maximum irradiance as

(r1 – r2) = m (2.46a)

Since the wavelength for light is very small, a large number of surfaces corresponding to
the lower values of m will exist close to, and on either side of, the plane m = 0. A number of
fairly straight parallel fringes will therefore appear on the screen in the vicinity of m = 0, and
for this case the approximation r1 ~ r2 will hold.

Consider a hypothetical monochromatic plane wave illuminating a long narrow slit. From
that primary slit a cylindrical wave will emerge. Suppose that this wave falls on two parallel,
narrow, closely spaced slits, S1 and S2 (as shown in Figure 2.15). The segments of the
primary wavefront arriving at the two slits will be exactly in phase, and the slits will
constitute two coherent secondary sources. We expect that wherever the two waves coming

2.19
Unit-2

from S1 and S2 overlap, interference will occur (provided that the optical path difference is
less than the coherence length).

P
r2

r1 ym
S2
a m m
S
O
m
S1 B

Figure 2.15. The geometry of Young's experiment.

In Figure 2.15 the distance between the two slits and the screen would be very large in
comparison with the distance a between the two slits (e.g. several thousand times), and all the
fringes would be very close to the center O of the screen. The paths difference between the
rays along S 1 P and S 2 P can be determined by dropping a perpendicular from S2 onto S 1 P .
This path difference is given by

S1 B = S 1 P – S 2 P (2.47a)

or

S1 B = (r1 – r2). (2.47b)

We can express the path difference as

(r1 – r2) = [Link] , (2.48)

Since ~ sin for small angles, we can write

= y/s (2.49)

or

(r1 – r2) = (a/s)y. (2.50)

Combining equations (2.46a) and (2.50) we obtained

ym = (s/a).m (2.51)

2.20
 Wave Optics

This gives the position of the mth bright fringe on the screen, if we count the maximum at O
as the zeroth fringe. The angular position of the fringe is obtained by substituting the
equation (2.51) into equation (2.49) we get

m = m /a. (2.52)

The spacing of the fringes on the screen can be obtained from equation (2.51). The difference
in the positions of two consecutive maxima is

ym-1 – ym = (s/a).(m+1) – (s/a).m (2.50a)

y = (s/a). (2.50b)

This pattern is equivalent to that obtained for two overlapping spherical waves (in the region
r1 ~ r2). We can apply equation (41) using the phase difference = k.(r1 – r2) and get

I = [Link]. cos2( /2) = [Link]. cos2[k.(r1 – r2)/2], (2.51)

Provided that the two beams are coherent and have equal amplitudes Io. Since

r1 – r2 = (a/s)y (2.52)

the resultant irradiance becomes

ya
I = [Link]. cos2 s (2.53)

Figure 2.16 shows the idealized intensity pattern, which should be observed at the screen, the
consecutive maxima are separated by the y given in equation (2.50b). The actual pattern
drops off with distance on either side of O because of diffraction.

There are a few more interferometer, which are based on the principle of wavefront-division,
e.g., Fresnel‟s double mirror, Fresnel‟s biprism, Lloyd‟s mirror, etc. Details of these
interferometers may be found in several textbooks, e.g. Optics by E. Hecht.

2.2.2 Amplitude-Splitting Interferometers

The second category of the interference apparatus is based on the division of amplitude of the
wave. There are a good number of amplitude-splitting interferometers that utilize

2.21
Unit-2

arrangements of mirrors and beam-splitters. The best known and historically the most
prominent of these is the Michelson Interferometer.

ya
I 4. Io .cos2
s

[Link]

3 s s s 0 s s 3 s y
2a a 2a 2a a 2a

Figure 2.16. Idealized irradiance verses distance curve.

Other amplitude-division interferometers are Mach-Zehnder interferometer, Sagnac

Interferometer for rotation measurements, etc. Details of these can be found in Optics by E.
Hecht and Fundamentals of Optics by Jenkins and White.

[Link] Michelson Interferometer

Michelson interferometer is a device, based on the principle of interference of light, which
can be used to measure lengths or change in length with great accuracy. We will describe the
form originally built by A. A. Michelson in 1881.

The configuration of Michelson interferometer is illustrated in Figure 2.17. An extended light

M1

Lens Beam splitter

Source

M2

Screen

Figure 2.17 Experimental arrangement for Michelson interferometer.

2.22
 Wave Optics

sources emits a wave which travels to the right. The beam-splitter at O divides the wave into
two, one segment traveling to the right and one upward. The two waves are reflected by
mirrors M1 and M2 and return to the beam-splitter. Part of the wave coming from M2 passes
through the beam-splitter going downward and part of the wave coming from M1 is deflected
by the beam-splitter downward to the screen. Thus the two waves are united, and interference
can be observed.

If mirror M2 is moved backward or forward, the effect is to change the thickness of the
equivalent air film. Suppose that the center of the circular fringe pattern appears bright and
that M2 is moved just enough to cause the first bright circular fringe to move to the center of
the pattern. The path of the light beam striking M2 has changed by one wavelength. This
means (because the light passes twice through the equivalent air film) that the mirror must
have moved one-half a wavelength.

The interferometer is used to measure changes in length by counting the number of

interference fringes that pass the field of view as mirror M2 is moved. In 1961, an atomic
standard of length was adopted by international agreement, which described the standard as
the wavelength of the orange-red light of the krypton-86 has replaced the platinum iridium
bar as standard of length. Now the meter is defined as a multiple (1,650,763.73) of the
wavelength of the light emitted from krypton-86.

2.3 Diffraction
When a beam of light passes through a narrow slit, it spreads out to a certain extent into the
region of the geometrical shadow. This is one of the simplest examples of diffraction, i.e., of
the failure of light to travel in straight lines. It can be explained only by assuming a wave
character of light. In this section we shall investigate quantitatively the diffraction pattern, or
distribution of intensity of the light behind the aperture, using the principles of wave motion.

2.3.1 Fresnel and Fraunhofer Diffraction

Consider an opaque shield, A, containing a single small aperture, which is being illuminated
by plane waves from a distant point source S, as shown if Figure 2.18. The plane of
observation, B, is a screen parallel with, and very close to A. Under these conditions an

2.23
Unit-2

image of the aperture is projected onto the screen, which is clearly recognizable despite some
slight fringing around its periphery. If the plane of observation is moved further away from
A, the image of the aperture becomes increasingly more structured as the fringes become
more prominent. This phenomenon is known as Fresnel or near-field diffraction. If the plane
of observation is slowly moved out still farther, a continuous change in fringes results. At a
very great distance from A, the projected pattern will have spread out considerably, bearing
little or no resemblance to the actual aperture. Further moving B essentially changes only the
size of the pattern and not its shape. This is Fraunhofer or far-field diffraction. If the point
source was now move toward A, spherical waves falls on the aperture, and a Fresnel pattern
would exist, even on a distant plane of observation.

L1 L2 B
Figure 2.18. Fraunhoffer diffraction
In other words when the source of light and the screen on which the pattern is observed are
effectively at infinite distance from the aperture causing the diffraction is called Fraunhofer
diffraction.

On the other hand, when S or P or both are near to the diffracting aperture A, thus the
curvature of the incoming and outgoing waves are not negligible, then Fresnel diffraction is
dominant.

As a practical rule of thumb, Fraunhofer diffraction will occur at an aperture (or obstacle) of
width a when

R > a2/ 2.

2.24
 Wave Optics

where R is the smaller of the two distances from S to A and A to P. An increase in the
wavelength clearly shifts the phenomenon toward the Fraunhofer extreme.

A practical realization of the Fraunhofer condition, where both S and P are effectively at
infinity, is achieved by using an arrangement equivalent to that of Figure 2.18. The point
source S is located at F1, the principal focus of lens L1, and the plane of observation is the
second focal plane of L2. The image at B would be a Fraunhofer diffraction pattern.

Although the Fraunhofer diffraction is a special case of the Fresnel diffraction but because of
its simplicity, wide applications and limitations of the length of a Unit we will discuss the
Fraunhofer diffraction only.

2.3.2 The Single Slit Fraunhofer Diffraction

A typical arrangement for single slit Fraunhofer diffraction is shown in Figure 2.19. A single
slit has a width of several hundred and a length of a few centimeters. Diffraction pattern
only appears due to small width, the long length, i.e., a few cm, does not play any significant
role, therefore, the length of the coherent line source actually corresponds to the width of the
slit. The irradiance resulting from an idealized coherent line source (of width b and
wavelength ) in the Fraunhofer approximation is given by*

2
sin
I( ) I(0)
(2.58)

where = ( b/ )sin and is measured from the x-axis in the z direction. Figure 2.20 shows
the graph of the intensity pattern. This pattern will be seen to have the form required by the
experimental result in Figure 2.21. The maximum intensity of the strong central band comes
at the point P0 (Figure 2.22), where evidently all the secondary wavelets arrive in phase
because the path difference is zero. For this point = 0, and although the quotient sin /
becomes indeterminate but sin approaches for small angles and is equal to it when
vanishes. Hence sin / = 1 for 0.

*
See Optics by E. Hecht for derivation of the expression.

2.25
Unit-2

y
z
b

x
l

Source Lens Screen

Lens
Single Slit
Figure 2.19 Experimental arrangement for obtaining the diffraction pattern of a single
slit Fraunhofer diffraction.

1.0

0.5
2
I( ) sin
I(0)
0.2
5

3 2 2 3
0
b b b b b b

Figure 2.20 Intensity pattern for Fraunhofer diffraction of a single slit showing
positions of maxima and minima.

In equation (2.58), the line source (slit width b) is short, is not large, and the irradiance falls
off very rapidly but the higher order maxima are observable. The extrema of I( ) occur at
values of that causes dI/d to be zero, that is,

2.26
 Wave Optics

dI 2. sin .( cos sin )

I(0). 3
0. (2.59)
d

Figure 2.21 Single slit diffraction pattern.

b
O Po
s
ds

Figure 2.22 Geometrical construction for investigating the intensity in the single
slit diffraction pattern.

After the principal maxima at = 0, the irradiance has minima, equal to zero, when

sin = 0, for = , 2 3 (2.60)

The secondary maxima do not fall halfway between these points, but are displaced towards
the center of the pattern. This can be obtained from the above equation (2.59) as

.cos – sin = 0 tan = . (2.61)

The values of satisfying this relation can be found graphically as the intersection of the
curve f1( ) = tan and the straight-line f2( ) = . Only one maxima exists between adjacent
minima, so that I( ) has subsidiary maxima at the values of ( 1.43 2.46 3.47

2.27
Unit-2

For physical understanding of the phenomenon of the diffraction through single slit consider
the light from the slit of Figure 2.23 coming to the point P1 on the screen. The point P1 is just

P3

P2
P1

O Po
'
b

Figure 2.23 Angle of the first minimum of the single-slit diffraction pattern.

one wavelength farther from the upper edge of the slit than the lower edge. The secondary
wavelet from the point in the slit adjacent to the upper edge will travel approximately /2
more than that from the point at the center, and so these two will produce vibrations with a
phase difference of and will give a resultant displacement of zero at P1. Similarly the
wavelet from the next point below the upper edge will cancel that from the next point below
the center, and we can continue this pairing off to include all points in the wavefronts, so that
the resultant effect at P1 is zero. At P3 the path difference is 2 , and if we divide the slit into
four parts, the pairing of points again gives zero resultant, since the parts cancel in pairs. For
the point P2, the path difference is 3 /2, and we divide the slit into three, two of which will
cancel, leaving on third to account for the intensity at this point. The resultant amplitude at P2
is for less than one-third that at P0 due to some other reasons.

2.28
 Wave Optics

The above treatment is not very good if the screen is at a finite distance from the slit. As
Figure 2.23 is drawn, the dotted line is drawn to cut off equal distances on the rays to P 1. It
will be seen from this that the path difference to P1 between the light coming from the upper
edge and that from the center is slightly greater than /2 and that between the center and the
lower edge slightly less than /2. Hence the resultant intensity will not be zero at P1 and P3,
but it will be more nearly to it for greater the distance between slit and screen or for narrower
slits. This corresponds to the transition from Fresnel diffraction to Fraunhofer diffraction.
'
When the screen is at infinity, the relations become simpler. The two angles 1 and 1 in
Figure 2.23 become exactly equal, i.e., the two dotted lines are perpendicular to each other,
and = [Link] 1 for the first minimum corresponding to = . In practice 1 is usually very
small angle, so we may put the sine equal to the angle, then

1 = /b (2.62)
The width of the pattern increases in proportion to the wavelength, so that for red light it is
roughly twice as wide as for violet light. The angular width of the pattern for a given
wavelength is inversely proportional to the slit width b, so that as b is made large, the pattern
shrinks rapidly to a smaller scale. When width of the aperture is comparable to a wavelength
the diffraction is significant. Sound waves will be diffracted through large angles in passing
through an aperture of ordinary size, such as an open window.

2.3.3 The Double Slit Fraunhofer Diffraction

The interference of light from two narrow slits close together has already been discussed as a
simple example of the interference of two beams of light. In double slit diffraction, the slits
are assumed to have widths not much greater than a wavelength of light.

The intensity from the double slit diffraction is*

sin 2
I( ) 4I 0 . 2
. cos2 (2.63)

where is the same as defined for the single slit, = ( d/ )sin and d is the spacing
between the two slits. The factor (sin2 / 2) in this equation is just the same for the single slit
of width b, in the previous section. The second factor cos2 is characteristic of the

2.29
Unit-2

interference pattern produced by the two beams of equal intensity and the phase difference
as shown in the discussion of Young‟s experiment. There the resultant intensity was found to
be proportional to cos2( /2), so that the expressions correspond if we put = /2. The
resultant intensity will be zero when either of the two factors is zero. For the first factor this
will occur when = , 2 3 and for the second factor when =
3 5 The two variable and are not independent.
In equation (2.63), for = 0 direction (i.e., when = = 0), Io is the flux-density
contribution from either slit, and I(0) = 4Io is the total flux density. The factor of 4 comes
from the fact that the amplitude of the electric field is twice what would be at that point with
one slit covered. In the same equation, if d = 0, i.e., the two slits combines into one ( = 0)
and the equation (2.63) becomes I( ) = [Link].(sin2 / 2). This is the equivalent equation for
single slit diffraction with the source strength doubled. We might expect the total expression
as being generated by a cos2 interference term modulated by a (sin2 / 2) diffraction term. If
the slits are finite in width but very narrow, the diffraction pattern from either slit will be
uniform over a broad central region and the bands resembling the idealized Young‟s fringes
will appear within that region (Figure 2.24). In fact the intensity distribution in the double slit

diffraction pattern is a combination of the interference and diffraction simultaneously, sharp

maxima and minima is due to interference and the broader modulation is due to diffraction.

2.3.4 Diffraction Grating

An arrangement that is equivalent in its action to a number of parallel equidistant slits of the
same width is called a diffraction grating. In the previous section we have discussed double
slit diffraction, which may be considered as an elementary grating of only two slits.

The procedure for obtaining the irradiance function for a monochromatic wave diffracted by
many slits is essentially the same as that used when considering two slits. In the case of N
long parallel, narrow slits, each of width b and center to center distance d, the irradiance at an
is given by*

*
See again Optics by E. Hecht.

2.30
 Wave Optics

2 2
sin sin N
I( ) I 0 . . (2.64)
sin

where and is the same as defined for the two slit case.

Figure 2.24 Double slit diffraction pattern.

The most striking modification in the pattern as the number of slits is increased consists of
narrowing of the interference maxima as shown in Figure 2.25. For two slits these are
diffuse, having intensity, which vary essentially as the square of the cosine. With more slits
the sharpness of these principal maxima increases rapidly and for large N, they have become
narrow lines.

In equation (2.64) the new factor (sin2 N /sin2 ) may be said to represent the interference
term for N slits. It possesses maximum values equal to N2 for = 0, ,
2 3 Although the quotient becomes indeterminate at these values, this result can
be obtained by noting that

sin N N. cos N
lim lim N (2.65)
m sin m cos

These maxima correspond in position to those of the double slit. For the above values of ,
we have

2.31
Unit-2

[Link] = 0, , 2 ,…= m . (2.66)

These maxima are more intense, however, in the ratio of the square of the number of slits.
The relative intensities of the different orders, m, are in all cases governed by the single-slit
diffraction envelope (sin2 / 2). Hence the relation between and in terms of slit width and
slit separation remains unchanged.

Figure 2.25 Multiple slit diffraction patterns.

2.32
 Wave Optics

Problems
2.1 Describe completely the state of polarization of each of the following waves:

(a) E = i [Link](kz – t) – j [Link](kz – t)

(b) E = i [Link](kz – t) + j [Link](kz – t)

(c) E = i [Link]( t - kz) + j [Link]( t – kz + /2)

(d) E = i Eo. sin(kz – t) - j [Link](kz – t)

2.2 Write an expression for a linearly polarized light wave of angular frequency and
o
amplitude Eo propagating along the x-axis with its plane of vibration at angle of 30 to the
xy-plane. The disturbance is zero at t = 0 and x = 0.

2.3 Suppose that an ideal polarizer is rotated at a rate w between a similar pair of rotational
crossed polarizers. Show that the emergent flux density will be modulated at four times the
rotational frequency. In other words, show that

I = (I1/8) (1 - cos4 t)

where I1 is the flux density emerging from the first polarizer and I is the final flux density.

2.4 Is Young‟s experiment an interference experiment or a diffraction experiment, or both?

2.5 Design a double slit arrangement that will produce interference fringes 1 o apart on a
distant screen. Assuming wavelength of light as 632.8 nm.

2.6 What changes occur in the pattern of interference fringes if the apparatus of the Young‟s
experiment is placed under water?

2.7 In double slit experiment the distance between slits is 4.0 mm and the slits are 1 meter
from the screen. Two interference patterns can be seen on the screen, one due to light of 480
nm and the other 632.8 nm. What is the separation on the screen between the third-order
interference fringes of the two different patterns?

2.8 In a double slit arrangement the slits are separated by a distance equal to 100 times the
wavelength of the light passing through the slits. (a) What is the angular separation between

2.33
Unit-2

the first and second maxima? (b) What is the linear distance between the first and second
maxima if the screen is at a distance of 1 meter from the slits?

2.9 A Michelson interferometer is illuminated with monochromatic light. One of its mirrors
is then moved, and 1500 fringe-pairs shift past the hairline in a viewing telescope during the
process. If the device is illuminated with 632.8 nm light, how far was the mirror moved.

2.10 A collimated beam of microwaves impinges on a screen that contains a long horizontal
slit that is 25 cm wide. A detector moving parallel to the screen in the far field regions
locates the first minimum of irradiance at an angle of 30o above the central axis. Determine
the wavelength of the radiation.

Books for further reading

F. A. Jenkins and H. E. White, Fundamentals of Optics, 4th ed. (McGraw-Hill, New York,
1985)

E. Hecht, Optics, 2nd ed. (Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass., 1990).

R. Guenther, Modern Optics, (John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1990).

M. Born and E. Wolf, Principles of Optics, 6th ed. (Pergamon, Oxford, 1986).

2.34