Chapter 19

Growth and development

Slo: 19.1.1
Differentiate between growth and development and
embryo and larva.

Growth Development
Refers to an increase in Refers to the overall process of change in
size, mass, or volume of an organism, including structural and
an organism or its parts. functional changes.
Involves physical Involves differentiation of cells, tissues,
changes, such as an and organs leading to maturity.
increase in height or
weight.
Growth is typically Development is both quantitative and
quantitative (measured qualitative (involves the transformation
by size, weight, or of cells and tissues).
volume).
Example: A tree Example: The formation of flowers,
increasing in height and fruits, and seeds from a tree.
girth.
Embryo vs. Larva:
Embryo Larva
The early stage of The immature form of an organism
development of an organism, that undergoes metamorphosis to
typically found inside the become an adult.
egg, seed, or mother’s womb.
Found in animals (like Commonly found in animals like
humans) and plants. insects, amphibians, and some
marine species.
Does not feed and grows Feeds actively and grows by
through cell division within (molting) before becoming an adult.
the protective environment
(egg, womb).
Example: A developing Example: A caterpillar (larva of a
human baby in the womb. butterfly) or a tadpole (larva of a
frog).

Slo: 19.2.1

Define growth and meristem in plants.

Growth in Plants:
Growth in plants refers to the irreversible increase in size and
mass due to cell division and cell enlargement. It involves
several processes, including: Cell Division, Cell
Enlargement, Differentiation.
Meristem:
Meristem is a type of plant tissue consisting of
undifferentiated cells capable of continuous division.
Meristems are responsible for the growth of plants and can be
classified into two main types:
1. Apical Meristem: Located at the tips of roots and
shoots, responsible for primary growth, which increases
the length of the plant. This type of growth is what
allows plants to grow taller and roots to extend deeper
into the soil.
 2. Lateral Meristem: Found along the sides of stems and
roots, responsible for secondary growth, which increases
the girth of the plant. Lateral meristems include the
vascular cambium (which produces xylem and phloem)
and the cork cambium (which produces protective bark).
Meristems plays important role in the overall growth and
development of plants, enabling them to adapt to their
environment and maximize their access to light, water, and
nutrients.
Slo: 19.2.2

Describe the types of meristem in plants.

Types of Meristem in Plants:
1. Apical Meristem:
Location: Found at the tips of roots and shoots.
Function: Responsible for primary growth, which
increases the length of the plant. This growth allows
roots to extend deeper into the soil and shoots to grow
taller.
 Cell Structure: Composed of small, undifferentiated
cells (meristematic cells) that can divide and
differentiate into various types of tissues.
Examples: The shoot apical meristem (SAM) and root
apical meristem (RAM) are important for forming new
leaves, flowers, and roots.
2. Lateral Meristem:
Location: Found along the sides of stems and roots.
Function: Responsible for secondary growth, which
increases the girth of the plant. This type of growth
is essential for the formation of wood and bark in
trees and shrubs.
Types:
 Vascular Cambium: Produces secondary
xylem (wood) and secondary phloem (bark),
contributing to the plant's structural support
and nutrient transport.
 Cork Cambium: Produces cork cells, which

form the outer protective layer of stems and

roots (bark).
3. Intercalary Meristem:
Location: Found at the base of leaves or internodes
(the spaces between nodes) in monocots (e.g.,
grasses).
Function: Allows for regrowth of leaves and stems
after cutting or grazing. This meristem enables the
plant to recover quickly from damage and continue
growing.
 Characteristics: Composed of meristematic cells
that can differentiate into various tissue types,
similar to apical meristem but located in specific
areas that support rapid growth.
Slo: 19.2.3
State the role of meristem in the development of plant.

Slo: 19.3.1
Explain primary and secondary growth in plants.

Slo: 19.3.1

Describe phasis of growth in plants.

1. Meristematic Phase (Zone of Cell Division)
 This phase occurs in regions of active cell division,
primarily in the apical meristems of roots and shoots.
 Cells here are small, have thin walls, and possess a dense
cytoplasm with prominent nuclei.
 These meristematic cells are constantly dividing, leading
to an increase in the number of cells.
2. Elongation Phase (Zone of Elongation)
 After cells are formed in the meristematic region, they
enter the elongation phase.
 Cells increase in size, mainly due to the uptake of water
in their vacuoles, and the cell wall loosens to
accommodate this growth.
  This phase leads to a significant increase in the length of
the plant structure, such as stems and roots.
3. Maturation Phase (Zone of Maturation)
 In this phase, the cells stop elongating and begin to
mature, differentiating into specialized cell types (e.g.,
xylem, phloem, epidermis).
 Cells develop thick cell walls and take on specific roles
depending on their location and function within the plant.
 The zone of maturation helps the plant carry out
physiological processes such as transport, support, and
protection.
These phases work together to ensure the continuous growth
and development of plants.

Slo: 19.3.2
Describe the internal and external factors affecting the
growth rate in plants.
Internal Factors Affecting Growth Rate
1. Genetic Factors
The genetic makeup of a plant plays a crucial role in
determining its growth potential, including its size,
shape, and metabolic processes.
Different species and varieties have unique growth
patterns encoded in their DNA.
 For example, dwarf plants genetically grow shorter,
while some varieties grow taller based on their genetic
information.
2. Hormones (Plant Growth Regulators)
 Auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins, abscisic acid,
and ethylene are key plant hormones that regulate
growth and development.
 Auxins promote cell elongation, especially in the
shoot.
 Gibberellins are involved in stem elongation and
seed germination.
 Cytokinins promote cell division, especially in
roots and shoots.
 Abscisic acid induces dormancy and inhibits
growth under stress conditions.
 Ethylene regulates fruit ripening and leaf
abscission.
3. Nutrient Availability
 Nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium,
magnesium, and sulfur are essential for plant
growth.
 Nitrogen is crucial for protein synthesis,
magnesium for chlorophyll production, and
phosphorus for energy transfer (ATP).
 A deficiency in these nutrients can slow growth or
lead to abnormal development.
External Factors Affecting Growth Rate
1. Light (Photoperiodism)
 Light is necessary for photosynthesis, which
provides energy for plant growth.
The duration, intensity, and wavelength of light
affect growth. For example, blue light promotes
leaf growth, while red light influences flowering.
Photoperiodism, or the plant’s response to the
length of day and night, regulates flowering and
seasonal growth patterns. Plants can be short-day,
long-day, or day-neutral based on their light
requirements.
2. Water
 Water is vital for all physiological processes,
including photosynthesis, nutrient transport, and cell
turgidity.
 Water stress (drought) leads to reduced growth,
wilting, and even death, whereas an optimal supply
supports normal growth.
 Water is also essential for cell expansion during the
elongation phase.
3. Temperature
Temperature influences enzymatic activities and
metabolic rates.
Optimal temperatures (generally between 25–
35°C for most plants) promote growth, while
extreme temperatures can slow metabolism, inhibit
growth, or cause damage.
Low temperatures may cause dormancy, whereas
very high temperatures can lead to heat stress.
4. Soil Conditions
The texture, structure, and pH of the soil affect
root growth and nutrient absorption.
Well-drained soil supports root aeration and nutrient
uptake, while compacted or waterlogged soil
hinders root expansion and limits oxygen supply.
Soil pH affects nutrient availability, with most
plants thriving in a slightly acidic to neutral pH
(around 6-7).
5. Gaseous Exchange (Carbon Dioxide and Oxygen)
Carbon dioxide (CO₂) is necessary for
photosynthesis, and its availability in the
atmosphere directly affects the rate of
photosynthesis and growth.
Oxygen is needed for respiration in plant cells,
particularly in the roots.
6. Gravity (Geotropism)
Plants respond to gravity, with roots growing
downward (positive geotropism) and shoots
growing upward (negative geotropism).
This response ensures proper orientation for water
and nutrient absorption (roots) and light capture
(shoots).
7. Environmental Stress (Pollution, Wind, etc.)
Air pollution, wind, salinity, and toxic substances
can negatively impact plant growth.
 Strong winds may cause mechanical damage, while
air pollutants like sulfur dioxide can interfere with
photosynthesis.
Explain growth correlation effects in plants.
Growth correlation effects refer to how different parts of a
plant influence each other's growth. This concept is closely
linked with plant hormones, especially auxins, cytokinins,
and gibberellins, which regulate the growth of specific
regions.
1. Apical dominance: This is when the main shoot of a
plant grows more actively than the side branches, due to
the action of auxins produced at the shoot tip. These
auxins suppress the growth of lateral buds, allowing the
plant to grow taller. If the apical bud is removed, lateral
buds are released from inhibition and start growing.
2. Root-shoot balance: The growth of roots and shoots is
often coordinated. Roots depend on the carbohydrates
produced by the shoot during photosynthesis, while the
shoot depends on water and nutrients absorbed by the
roots. Hormonal signals like cytokinins, which promote
shoot growth, and auxins, which promote root growth,
help maintain this balance.
3. Tropic movements: Plant parts can affect each other's
growth direction in response to environmental stimuli
like light (phototropism) or gravity (gravitropism). For
example, the shoot tends to grow towards light due to
differential auxin distribution, while roots grow
downward.
4. Senescence and leaf abscission: Growth correlation
effects also influence leaf aging and shedding. Hormonal
 changes, such as reduced auxin and increased ethylene,
signal when leaves should age and fall off.

Describe process of development in vertebrates.

The process of development in vertebrates involves a series
of stages that begin with a fertilized egg (zygote) and lead to a
fully formed organism. This process can be broken down into
several key stages, each characterized by distinct biological
events.
1. Fertilization
Fertilization occurs when a sperm cell fuses with an egg cell
to form a zygote. This fusion restores the diploid chromosome
number and activates the egg’s metabolic machinery,
initiating development. The zygote is totipotent, meaning it
has the potential to form all cell types.
2. Cleavage
After fertilization, the zygote undergoes rapid mitotic
divisions, known as cleavage, without significant growth in
size. These divisions produce smaller cells called
blastomeres. The end result of cleavage is the formation of a
blastula, a hollow ball of cells surrounding a fluid-filled
cavity known as the blastocoel.
 2. Gastrulation

Gastrulation is a phase where the cells of the blastula

rearrange themselves to form three germ layers:
 Ectoderm (outer layer): Forms the skin, nervous system,
and sensory organs.
 Mesoderm (middle layer): Develops into muscles,
bones, blood vessels, and internal organs.
 Endoderm (inner layer): Forms the lining of the
digestive tract, lungs, and other internal organs.
During this stage, the primitive gut or archenteron begins to
form, and the body plan of the organism starts to take shape.
=

3. Neurulation

Neurulation involves the formation of the neural tube, which

eventually becomes the brain and spinal cord. This is an
important step in the development of the central nervous
system. The notochord, a rod-like structure formed from
mesoderm, helps guide the development of the neural tube.
5. Organogenesis
Organogenesis is the process by which the three germ layers
differentiate into various organs and tissues. For example:
 The ectoderm gives rise to the skin and the nervous
system.
 The mesoderm forms muscles, the skeletal system, and
the circulatory system.
 The endoderm forms the digestive and respiratory
systems.
During this stage, the somites (blocks of mesodermal cells)
give rise to muscles, vertebrae, and the dermis of the skin.
6. Morphogenesis and Growth
Morphogenesis is the process by which cells and tissues are
organized into the characteristic shapes and structures of the
organism. Cell migration, differentiation, and apoptosis
(programmed cell death) all play roles in shaping the
developing vertebrate.
As development progresses, growth continues, involving both
cell division and enlargement, until the embryo reaches its
final form.
8. Hatching or Birth

SLO: 19.5.1
Differentiate between animal and vegetal pole of avian
(Hen) Egg.
In the avian egg (such as a hen’s egg), the animal pole and
the vegetal pole are two distinct regions that differ in terms of
their position, composition, and function.
1. Animal Pole
 Location: The animal pole is located at the top of the
egg where the nucleus is present. In the avian egg, this
region is where the small blastodisc (embryo-forming
area) resides.
 Composition: It consists of less yolk and is primarily
made up of cytoplasm. This is where most of the
cleavage and cell division occur during early embryonic
development.
 Function: The animal pole is the region from which the
embryo will develop. In avian eggs, the blastodisc
(germinal disc) is found here and is important for
embryogenesis. The cells here divide more actively than
those in the vegetal pole.
2. Vegetal Pole
 Location: The vegetal pole is situated opposite to the
animal pole, at the bottom of the egg.
 Composition: It contains a large amount of yolk, which
serves as a nutrient reservoir for the developing embryo.
The yolk is dense and heavy, so it settles at the bottom of
the egg.
 Function: The primary role of the vegetal pole is to
provide nourishment to the embryo as it develops. Cell
division in this region is much slower due to the high
yolk content.
 Characteristic Animal Pole Vegetal Pole
Location Upper part of the egg Lower part of the
egg
Yolk Content Low yolk content High yolk content
Cytoplasm Contains more Contains less
cytoplasm cytoplasm
Role in Site of active cell Provides nutrients
Development division and embryo for the embryo
formation
Cleavage More rapid cleavage Cleavage is
(cell division) occurs slower due to yolk
density

SLO: 19.5.2
Describe the cleavage pattern of avian (hen) Egg.
In avian eggs, such as a hen's egg, the cleavage pattern is
meroblastic discoidal cleavage. This type of cleavage occurs
due to the large amount of yolk in the egg, which impedes
complete cleavage throughout the egg.
Cleavage Pattern of Avian (Hen) Egg
1. Meroblastic Cleavage:

The cleavage in avian eggs is meroblastic, meaning

that only a small part of the egg undergoes cleavage,
while the rest (the yolk) remains uncleaved. This
happens because the egg has a large amount of yolk,
which prevents the cleavage from penetrating
through the entire egg.
 Only the small cytoplasmic region (blastodisc or
germinal disc) located at the animal pole undergoes
cell division.
2. Discoidal Cleavage:
The cleavage is discoidal, meaning it occurs in a
small disc-like area on top of the yolk (the
blastodisc). The embryo develops from this
blastodisc, which is located at the animal pole of the
egg.
The blastodisc, a small cap of cytoplasm, sits atop
the massive yolk, and the cleavage planes are
restricted to this region.

3. Initial Cleavages:
The first few cleavages are vertical, dividing the
blastodisc into two, four, and then eight cells. These
cleavages do not extend into the yolk but are
confined to the cytoplasmic layer on top of the yolk.
The subsequent cleavages are horizontal, forming a
layered structure. The uppermost cells divide faster
and begin to form a multi-layered structure called
the blastoderm.
 4. Formation of the Blastoderm:
After several rounds of cleavage, a structure called
the blastoderm is formed. It sits on top of the yolk
and consists of a thin layer of cells. The blastoderm
eventually gives rise to the embryo.
The blastoderm divides into two layers:
The epiblast: The outer layer, which will form
the embryo.
 The hypoblast: A lower layer that contributes

to the formation of supportive structures like

the yolk sac.
5. Formation of Subgerminal Cavity:
As cleavage progresses, a fluid-filled space called
the subgerminal cavity forms between the
blastoderm and the yolk. This cavity plays a role in
further embryonic development.

SLO: 19.5.3
Describe development of chick upto three germinal layer.
The development of a chick up to the formation of the three
germinal layers is a key part of embryology. This process
involves several stages, starting from fertilization to the
formation of the blastoderm and eventually the three germinal
layers: ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm.
1. Fertilization
  Location: Fertilization occurs in the oviduct of the hen,
where the sperm meets the ovum (egg) and forms a
zygote.
 Result: The zygote begins to divide (cleavage) as it
moves down the oviduct.
2. Cleavage and Formation of Blastoderm
 Cleavage: The fertilized egg undergoes a process of
meroblastic cleavage, which is incomplete due to the
large amount of yolk.
The cleavage occurs in the small, yolk-free
cytoplasmic region at the animal pole.
 Blastoderm: As a result of cleavage, a blastoderm (a
disc-shaped mass of cells) is formed. This blastoderm
lies on top of the yolk and eventually separates into two
layers:
1. Epiblast (upper layer)
2. Hypoblast (lower layer)
These two layers form the early embryonic structure
called the blastodisc.
 3. Gastrulation

 Process: Gastrulation is the crucial stage where the

epiblast gives rise to all three germinal layers. This
process occurs through a structure called the primitive
streak, which forms in the epiblast.
 Primitive Streak Formation: Cells in the middle of the
epiblast move inward and down, forming the primitive
streak. The formation of the streak marks the beginning
of gastrulation and is the site where cells move in to
create new layers.

4. Formation of Germinal Layers

During gastrulation, the three primary germ layers are
established:
1. Ectoderm:
 Cells that remain in the outer epiblast layer form the
ectoderm, which gives rise to structures such as the
skin, nervous system, and eyes.
2. Mesoderm:
Cells that migrate inward through the primitive
streak and settle between the ectoderm and
endoderm form the mesoderm. The mesoderm
forms muscles, bones, blood vessels, the heart, and
other internal organs.
3. Endoderm:
Cells that move further inward to replace the
hypoblast form the endoderm, which will develop
into the digestive tract, lungs, liver, and other
internal organs.