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 Urban Tree Risk Management:

A Community Guide to Program Design and Implementation

e
Shin

EN
T NE
O
R SO
E TA
V
T
U

DEC 0 5 2003 E
FOR FOREST SERVIC USDA Forest Service
EST
FOR AY 1992 Folwell Ave.
LIB USS Northeastern Area
RAY TIMENTOFAGRO St. Paul, MN 55108
Quarto State and Private Forestry
SB
436
NA - TP -03-03
.U737
2003
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA ) prohibits discrimination in all its programs
and activities on the basis of race ,color,nationalorigin , sex, religion , age, disability ,political
beliefs, sexual orientation , or marital or family status. (Not all prohibited bases apply to all
programs.) Persons with disabilities who require alternative means for communication of
program information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact L'SDA'S TARGET
Centerat (202) 720-2600 (voice and TDD ).
Urban Tree Risk Management:

A Community Guide to Program

Design and Implementation

Coordinating Author

Jill D. Pokorny
Plant Pathologist

USDA Forest Service

Northeastern Area
State and Private Forestry

1992 Folwell Ave.

St. Paul, MN 55108

NA -TP -03-03
 Acknowledgments

Illustrator Kathy Widin Tom T. Dunlap Beth Petroske

Julie Martinez President President Graphic Designer (former)
Minneapolis,MN Plant Health Associates Canopy Tree Care Minnesota Department of
Stillwater, MN Minneapolis, MN Natural Resources
Production Editor
Barbara McGuinness John Schwandt Tom Eiber Olin Phillips
USDA Forest Service, USDA Forest Service Information Specialist Fire Section Manager
Northeastern Research Coer d'Alene, ID Minnesota Department of Minnesota Department of
Station Natural Resources Natural Resources
Drew Todd
State Urban Forestry Ed Hayes Mark Platta
Reviewers: Coordinator Plant Health Specialist Plant Health Specialist
Ohio Department of Minnesota Department of Minnesota Department of
The following people
generously provided Natural Resources Natural Resources Natural Resources
suggestions and reviewed
drafts of the manuscript. Jim Hermann Gary R. Johnson Jill D. Pokorny
Minneapolis Park and Associate Professor Plant Pathologist
Dick Rideout Recreation Board Department of Forest USDA Forest Service
State Urban Forestry Minneapolis, MN Resources State & Private Forestry,
Coordinator University ofMinnesota Northeastern Area
Wisconsin Department of James Burks
Natural Resources City Forester Alan Jones Dwight Scarbrough
City of Robbinsdalel Forest Management Entomologist
William Vander Weit Crystal,MN Supervisor USDA Forest Service
City Forester Minnesota Department of State & Private Forestry,
Kelly Fleissner Natural Resources Northeastern Area
City of Champaign , IL
City Forester
Steve Pregler Duluth ,MN Richard J. Hauer Todd Volgelgesang
City Forester Plant Health Specialist Excess Property Technician
City of Dubuque , IA Minnesota Department of Minnesota Department of
Contributors of Agriculture Natural Resources
Lee Huss Photographic Images:
City Forester Martin MacKenzie Peter J. Schulz
Jana S. Albers Forest Pathologist Photographer
City of Bloomington , IN
USDA Forest Service City of Chicago
Forest Health Specialist
Ralph Zentz State & Private Forestry, Chicago , IL
Minnesota Department of
Assistant City Forester Natural Resource Northeastern Area
City of Fort Collins, CO
Mike Albers Gary Miller
Dwight Pierce Principal Research
Forest Health Specialist
City Forester Minnesota Department of Silviculturist
USDA Forest Service
City of Decatur, IN Natural Resource
Northeastern Research
Ed Hayes Station
Peter Bedker
Forest Health Specialist Information Management
Minnesota Department of Specialist Thomas Nicholls
Natural Resources USDA Forest Service Wildlife Biologist & Forest
State & Private Forestry , Pathologist
Northeastern Area Nature Education Center
Cindy Casey
Regional Urban and Fifield ,WI
Community Forestry Don Breneman
Coordinator Joseph G. O'Brien
Associate Professor
Plant Pathologist
Wisconsin Department of Community Education
Natural Resources USDA Forest Service
Technical Services
State & Private Forestry ,
University ofMinnesota
Extension Service Northeastern Area

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Preface

Urban Tree Risk Management: A Community Guide to Program Design and Implementation
is a fully illustrated , easy to read training manualwritten for community leaders,
administrators, city foresters , parks and public works staff, and private tree care
practitioners. Themanual is designed to assist communities design , adoptand implement
tree risk management programs, and train field staff to detect, assess, and correct
hazardous defects in urban trees.

A team of experts in urban forestry, plant pathology and forest health collaborated
to produce this manual. Consulting arborists , city foresters , and educators provided
extensive review to ensure the information applies to communities of varying sizes and
budgets. Examples of tree defects, risk rating systems, and species selection were chosen
to depict tree species and conditions that occur in the Northeastern U.S.

The manual is presented in a three- ring binder format to allow readers to add or update
information , or to remove entire sections for use in the field. The authors sincerely hope
that readers will find this manual to be a useful resource to improve public safety and

protect tree health by assisting them in the design and implementation of community
tree risk management programs.

iii
 Contents

1
Introduction .....
Content Synopsis......... 2
Author......... 3
Literature Cited .......... 3

CHAPTER 1 - Tree Risk Management

Introduction ...... 5
Management of Tree Risk , 7
Liability and Risk 7
Developing a Tree Risk Management Plan 8
Reasonable Care and Safety 9
Summary . 10
Authors 10
Literature Cited ............ 10

CHAPTER 2 - Community Tree Risk Management:

Program Planning and Design

Introduction ..... 11
Historical Perspective ..... 11
Lessons Learned .......... 13
Tree Risk Management Program Planning and Design : A Ten Step Approach 15
What Do You Have ? ........... 15
Step 1. Assess the Tree Resource 15
Step 2. Review Current Tree Management Practices 18
Step 3. Assess Fiscal and Human Resources Available to Manage the Tree Resource 18
What Do You Want? ................ 19
Step 4. Identify Program Goals ........ 19
How Do You Get What You Want? 21
Step 5. Formulate a Tree Risk Management Strategy ... 21
Step 6. Prioritize Inspection and Corrective Action Needs 21
Step 7. Select a Tree Risk Rating System 30
Step 8. Write a Comprehensive Tree Risk Management Program Policy 32
Step 9. Implement a Tree Risk Management Strategy . 34
Are You Getting What You Want?.. 36
Step 10. Evaluate Program Effectiveness 36
Authors ........ 37
Literature Cited 37
General Reference . .......... 39

CHAPTER 3 - How to Detect and Assess Hazardous Defects in Trees

Defects and Their Risk of Failure...... 41
The Seven Defect Categories . 46
Decayed Wood.......... 47
Cracks............ 59
Root Problems. 65

iv
 Weak Branch Unions...... 75
Cankers ..... 79
Poor Architecture ..... 81
Dead Tree, Top or Branch ............. 87
Tree Risk Inspections and Use of Specialized Diagnostic Tools........... 89
Root Collar and Stem Girdling Roots Assessments 89
Decay Detection Assessments 90
Examples of Decay Detection Devices Commonly Used in the United States, 90
Metal Rod 90
RubberMallet ...... 90
Increment Borer 91
Penetrometers .. 91

Electrical Conductivity Meters (Shigometer /Vitalometer) .. 93

Sonic and Ultrasonic Detectors...... 94
Fractometer 95
A Final Word About Decay Detection Devices 95

Formulating Tree Risk Ratings..... 97

A 7 -Step Process Using the Minnesota DNR system .. 97
Step 1. Locate and Identify Trees to be Inspected ........ 97
Step 2. Inspect Individual Trees and Assess Their Defect(s) 97
Step 3. Estimate the Risk Rating for Each Tree 98
Step 4. Prioritize Highly Defective Trees for Treatment.. 98
Step 5. Conduct a Public Review Before Implementing Corrective Actions 99

Step 6. Take Corrective Action as Soon as Possible on the Highest Risk Trees ....... 99
Step 7. Document the Process: Inspection Results, Actions Recommended and Actions Taken .. 100
A 7-Step Process Using the USDA Forest Service Community Tree Risk Rating System ........ 101
Step 1. Locate and Identify Trees to be Inspected ............. 101
Step 2. Inspect Individual Trees and Assess their Defect(s) 101
Step 3. Estimate the Risk Rating for Each Tree 101
Step 4. Prioritize Defective Trees for Treatment.... 104

Step 5. Conduct a Public Review Before Implementing Corrective Actions 104

Step 6. Take Corrective Action as Soon as Possible on the Highest Risk Trees 104
Step 7. Document the Process: Inspection Results, Actions Recommended and Actions Taken .. 104
Authors ........ 107
Literature Cited 107
Forms Section ....... 109

CHAPTER 4 - Prevention of Hazardous Tree Defects

Introduction ...... ...... 117
Designing a Species-Diverse , Uneven -Aged Urban Forest 117
Matching Tree Species to Site Conditions........ 117
Site Characteristics That Affect Tree Species Selection 118
SoilpH ............... 118
Soil Compaction ......... 118
Soil Drainage... 118
Low Light Situations 119
Exposure to Sun and Wind ... 119
Susceptibility to Ice , Snow , and Wind Damage....... 119

V
 De-icing Salt Damage .. 120
Human Use of the Area .. 120
Space Limitations 121
Urbanization of Woodlands 123
Purchasing High Quality Nursery Stock ......... 124
What Determines Tree Quality ? 124
Inspect Nursery Stock to Verify Quality 125
Proper Tree Planting Techniques 128

Basic Planting Guidelines for All Tree Types ......... 128

Planting Guidelines For Special Situations: 131

Proper Tree Pruning Techniques 132

Pruning Schedules ...... 132
Pruning Young Trees ..... 133
Basic PruningMethods 133
Wound Dressings......... 134
Timing of Pruning ..... 134
Protection of Trees From Construction Damage . 134

Protect Healthy, Structurally Sound Trees – “ Save the Best - Chip the Rest”. 134
Protect Trees from Direct Injury 135
Protect the Structural Integrity of Trees......... 136
Protect the Overall Health of Trees Throughout Construction 136
Street Trees and Construction Damage 138
Authors 140
Acknowledgements.... 140
Literature Cited ..... 140
General Reference ..... 141

CHAPTER 5 - Correction ofHazardous Defects in Trees

Introduction ....... 143
Strategies for Corrective Action 143
Moving the Target... 144
Correcting the Tree. 145
Pruning .... 145

Cabling and Bracing. 147

Converting Hazardous Trees Into Wildlife Trees 153
How Trees Benefit Wildlife... 153
Wildlife Cycle of a Tree........ 154
Criteria for Selecting Wildlife Trees..... 155
When to Consider Converting a Defective Tree into a Wildlife Tree ........ 155
Closing the Area 156
Removing the Tree........... ............ 158
Implementing Corrective Actions ... 160
Authors 161
Literature Cited 161

APPENDICES
APPENDIX 1 - Summary of Survey Responses. 163
APPENDIX 2 - California Tree Failure Report Form ...... 166
vi
APPENDIX 3 - HOW to Prune Trees......... .... 169
Introduction ......... 171
Reasons For Pruning...... 171
Pruning Approaches 172
The most common types of pruning are : 173
1. Crown Thinning (Fig. 2 ) 173
2. Crown Raising (Fig . 4 ). 174
3. Crown Reduction (Fig. 5) . 174
Pruning Cuts..... 175
1. Pruning living branches (Fig . 6 )........... 175

2. Pruning dead branches (Fig. 6 ) ......... 176

3. Drop Crotch Cuts ( Fig. 6D ) ... 176
Pruning Practices That Harm Trees.... 177
When to Prune......... 177
Pruning Tools 178
Treating Wounds... 179
Pruning Guidelines......... 180
Glossary 181
Authors 182
References 182
Northeastern Area State and Private Forestry Offices 183
Glossary 185
Index ....... 189

List of Tables

Table 2.1. Tree risk zone categories; color codes; examples of roadways, public buildings and use areas;
and tree characteristics that pertain to each tree risk zone. 24

Table 2.2. Suggested minimum guidelines for inspection methods and inspection
schedules within a community tree risk management program ...... ........... 30
Table 3.1. Tree defects by species ..... 44

Table 3.2. Shell thickness requirements for closed shell 53

Table 3.3. Shell thickness requirements for open shell 54
Table 3.4 . Tree characteristics ..... 68

Table 3.5 . Branch and tree failures caused by poor architecture 84

Table 3.6 . Ranking highly defective trees for treatment priority 99

Table 4.1 The ice storm susceptibility of tree species commonly planted in urban areas. ............... 120
Table 4.2 Minimum distance (feet) from the tree's stem that soil augering/ tunneling
should occur, based on tree diameter. ........ 138

List of Forms

Form 3.1. Defective trees: Risk Assessment Guidelines (See Forms Section for a full
size copy of the form ) .......... 43

Form 3.2: Hazard Tree Inspection Form (See FormsSection for a full-size copy of the form ) ...... 100
Form3.3: USDA Community Tree Risk Evaluation Form (See Forms Section for full size form ).. 105
........... 106
Form 3.4 : Guide to Codes for USDA Community Tree Risk Evaluation Form ....

vii
vili
Introduction
By Joseph G. O'Brien

Individual trees may appear to be permanent fixtures of our environment. However, all
trees,no matter how long -lived , will eventually collapse and decompose, leaving no trace
that they ever existed . Trees die from myriad causes including disease, insect attack , drought,
uprooting, and catastrophic stem failure in high winds, or from combinations of factors
working together. Some trees die and later collapse as their stems and branches decay, and
some begin to break up while they are still green . While any large tree poses a risk of failure

in high winds, in situations where people and trees must live together in close proximity it is
important to identify where a tree has become an unacceptable risk .

Many different kinds of professionals are interested in managing tree risk in communities.
Community leaders and administrators ; Forestry, Parks, or Public Works staff; and
private tree care practitioners need reliable information concerning the identification and

management of hazard trees. Until now , no single reference has been developed that provides
sound , practical reference information for these professionals , and can also serve as a guide
for training new staff in identification and management ofhazard trees.

Thismanualwas designed to preserve public safety and improve the health of urban
forests by assisting communities in the design , adoption , and implementation of a tree risk
management program , and also to aid in training field staff to detect, assess, and correct
hazardous defects in urban trees.

To begin a discussion of tree risk management, some definitions are offered to provide a basis
for discussion .

Hazard Tree: A tree that has structural defects in the roots, stem , or branches thatmay cause
the tree or tree part to fail,where such failure may cause property damage or personal injury.

Tree Defects: Tree defects can be of two kinds: Injury or disease that seriously weakens the
stems, roots, or branches of trees, predisposing them to fail or structural problems arising
from poor tree architecture, including V -shaped crotches in stemsand branches that lead to
weak unions, shallow rooting habits , inherently brittle wood , etc.

The concept of tree risk management as a necessary community endeavor has evolved slowly

since the early 1960s. The earliest publications concerning the problemsof tree failure
causing personal injury or property damage addressed the problems of recreation sites,where
people camping in our nation's campgroundswere exposed to the risk of sleeping under
a canopy of trees with little protection should a branch or tree stem fail and land on their
campsite. Willis Wagener, a U.S. Forest Service plant pathologist, at the end of his 40 -year
career wrote the first manual that comprehensively addressed the problem of tree hazards
in recreation sites in 1963 (Wagener 1963). Wagener’s publication was followed by others
that expanded and improved on this seminalwork, including Accident Hazard : Evaluation
and Control Decisions on Forested Recreation Sites (Paine 1971), Tree Hazards: Recognition and

Introduction - 1
 Reduction in Recreation Areas (Johnson and James 1978 and revised Johnson 1981), Detection
and Correction of Hazard Trees in Washington's Recreation Areas (Mills and Russell 1981), and
How to Assess and Correct Hazard Trees in Recreational Areas (Albers and Hayes 1993 ).
While these publications provided a sound base of knowledge for tree risk management
in recreation areas, it was not 1991 and the publication of A Photographic Guide to the
Evaluation of Hazard Trees in Urban Areas (Matheny and Clark 1991) that a comprehensive
manualwas available for evaluating trees in an urban [Link] and Clark's
manual, now in its second edition (Matheny and Clark 1994), provides the professional
arborist with a very sound and complete knowledge of hazard tree identification and
mitigation . Themanual provides a tree evaluation form that is comprehensive, but time
consuming, and is most suitable for the evaluation by professional arborists of individual
trees that may be hazards.

The educational and reference materials available for hazard tree management deal mainly

with the identification of defective trees, and although they can provide valuable insight
and information regarding the biology ofhazard trees, they do not provide a great deal of
information on how or why to set up a tree risk management program . The Matheny and

Clark publication is a resource valued by arborists for the inspection and documentation
of small numbers of trees that may be hazardous, but the time involved in the inspection
procedures would be prohibitively long for communities that need to track thousands of trees
for risk .

Missing from the currently available manuals and bookson tree risk management and hazard
tree identification is a resource that ishelpful for communities interested in establishing or
improving an existing tree risk management program , and providing ameans for rapid and
efficient assessment of tree risks. This manual attempts to address such needs by providing
information concerning the requirements of a community tree risk management program ,
a stepwise process to establish a program , and tools and information for assessing trees for
hazard .

Most street and park tree management plans ormaster street plans state the need to remove
high risk or hazardous trees (standing dead or nearly dead trees) as a top priority, but stop
there. This manual picks up where these plans leave off, and provides communities with a
process to systematically detect, assess, prevent, and correct hazardous tree defects.

Tree risk management should be a prominently positioned component of a community

forestry program . Tree risk management plans should complement a community's overall
street and park tree management program goals, and should be fully integrated with the tree
planting , tree pruning and maintenance, and emergency response programs.

Content synopsis:

Chapter 1 of this manual introduces the concept of tree risk management including a
discussion of the levels of risk posed by trees with various defects. This chapteralso explains
the importance ofhaving a tree risk management plan , including the need for a formal
process for addressing tree risk management at the community level, and the need for a
policy that addresses the risks posed by street trees.

2 - Introduction
In Chapter 2 , the key steps to planning and designing a tree risk management program are
outlined , including a comprehensive guide to customizing a program to address the specific

needs of a unique community , establishing the goals of the program , formulating and
implementing tree risk management strategies, and evaluating the program's effectiveness.

Chapter 3 begins a series of chapters that provide details on how to assess, prevent, and
correct trees that may be hazardous. Chapter 3 provides a detailed examination of tree defects
that can create hazards, and themethods used for assessing trees for hazard potential. The
chapter also provides information on tools that can be used to assist staff workers responsible
for tree risk assessment, and provides examples of two evaluation forms and systems that can
be used to document tree inspections. Examples of tree defects and risk forms and systems
were selected to depict tree species and conditions that occur in the Northeastern U.S.

In Chapter 4 , sound practices are described that will help to prevent the development of
hazard trees and thus avoid the need to remove large numbers of trees because they become
hazards. Themethods described include designing a species-diverse, uneven -aged urban
forest ,matching tree species to site conditions, purchasing high quality nursery stock ,
implementing proper tree planting and pruning techniques, and protecting of trees from
construction damage.

Chapter 5 provides details on the corrective options available once a tree is determined to
be an unacceptable hazard . The information provided will help communities to develop
strategies to correct trees that becomehazardous, and also provides information on how to
convert dead and dying trees into desirable wildlife habitat, under certain circumstances.

This manual is provided in a three-ring binder format specifically to allow users to add or
update information , or to remove entire sections for use in the field . In particular, chapter 3
is designed to be used in the field to identify and assess hazardous tree defects.

Author
Joseph G.O'Brien
Plant Pathologist
USDA Forest Service
State & Private Forestry, Northeastern Area

Literature Cited

Albers, J .; Hayes, E., principal authors. [Link] to assess and correct hazard trees in
recreational areas. St. Paul: Minnesota Department of Natural Resources.63 p .

Johnson , D .; James, R. 1978. Tree hazards: Recognition and reduction in recreation

sites. Tech . Rep. R2-1. Lakewood , CO : U. S. Department of Agriculture , Forest
Service, Rocky Mountain Region . 18p.

Introduction - 3
 Johnson , D. 1981. Tree hazards: Recognition and reduction in recreation sites. Tech .
Rep . R2-1. Lakewood , CO : U. S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky
Mountain Region . 17p.

Matheny, N. P.; Clark, J. R. 1991. A photographic guide to the evaluation of hazard

trees in urban areas. Urbana, IL : International Society of Arboriculture. 72 p .

Matheny, N.P.; Clark, J. R. 1994. A photographic guide to the evaluation of hazard

trees in urban areas, 2nd edition . Urbana, IL : International Society of Arboriculture.
85 p .

Mills , L .; Russell , K. 1981. Detection and correction of hazard trees in Washington's

recreation areas. Report 42. Olympia , WA :Washington Department of Natural
Resources . 37 p .

Paine, L. 1971. Accident hazard : Evaluation and control decisions on forested

recreation sites. Res. Pap . PSW -68. Berkeley, CA: U. S. Department of Agriculture,
Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station . 10 p .

Wagener, W. W. 1963. Judging hazard from native trees in California recreational

areas: a guide for professional foresters. Res. Pap . PSW -P1. Berkeley, CA: U. S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southwest Forest and Range Experiment
Station . 29 p .

4 - Introduction
 CHAPTER 1

Tree Risk Management

By Richard J. Hauer and Gary R. Johnson

Introduction

Risk management is a well-established concept

in the management ofpublic spaces. Acceptable Trees contribute to
levels of risk have been recognized or defined
increased quality of life in
formost basic infrastructure elements such as
many communities .
sidewalks, curbs, streets, playgrounds, and utilities.
In many communities, these elements are assessed
Some of the benefits of urban
and managed according to acceptable levels of
trees include (Roloff nd .):
risk that are specified within written policies or
enacted through management practices. Although 0 Energy savings from solar
not all pot-holes can be immediately filled in ,
shading and barriers to wind,
not all heaving sidewalks immediately repaired ,
notall burned -out street light bulbs immediately • Rainfall interception and
replaced , a successful risk management program tempered release into surface
provides a community with a systematic approach waters ,
to implement corrective actions within a reasonable
Increased usable life of those
time frame.
asphalt streets that are shaded,

An urban community consists of both the gray • Reduced air pollution through
infrastructure (buildings, streets, utilities) and the leaf uptake of pollutants ,
green infrastructure — the urban forest. Although
gray infrastructure has long been assessed and • Increased property values ,

monitored for acceptable levels of risks, green

• Positive effects on the
infrastructure has for the most part not received
psychologicalhealth of people,
the same subjective evaluations. The concept of
considering or evaluating risks in the context of • Less crime in treed areas, and
location and condition is less applied with the
green infrastructure . Trees are labeled either as • Wildlife shelter and food
“ hazardous” or not. “Weeds” are acceptable or not. (habitat).

The urban forest is an integral part of a community's infrastructure , and trees often dominate
the landscape or at least are the most visible part of it. Urban trees contribute to increased
quality of life formany communities and their residents. Most people prefer to live, recreate,
and work in communities of healthy and well-maintained urban forests (Dwyer et al. 1989,
Schroeder 1990 , Dwyer et al. 1991). Considerable research documents that people not
only prefer to recreate in well -maintained parks with trees, but are willing to pay extra for
the privilege (Dwyer et al. 1989). Safety, or at least the perception of safety, is paramount if
urban forests are to be used and enjoyed (Schroeder 1990 ).

Healthy trees and urban forests contribute to the overall value of property . Asmuch as 10 to
30 percent of residential property values can be assigned to the entire landscape that includes
trees (CTLA 2000). There is also a significant difference between the appraised value of
wooded parcels and divided lots that
typically sell formore than undeveloped D.
properties without trees . Homeowners
regularly invest a significant amount of
money in the maintenance of their own
landscapes . Businesses and homebuyers
are drawn to areas with healthy, well
maintained urban forests, commonly
describing those areas as more desirable to
live in because they feel these areas appear
more affluent, safer, and communicate a
Figure 1.1 - Much of the catastrophic damage and tree
higher quality of life. loss that results from natural loading eventsisinevitable
when structures and trees are placed in close proximity.

Trees also are one component of an urban infrastructure that appreciates in value. As
trees grow , their monetary value increases and their ecological benefits (e.g., storm water
management, shade and energy conservation , air pollution amelioration ) increase . For
example, in Chicago it was determined that it takes 9 to 18 years before a discounted
benefit -cost ratio approaches 1 (McPherson 1994 ). When the benefit-cost ratio equals 1 ,
the accumulated value that trees produce is equal to the costs of planting, establishment,
and care. Thirty -year-old trees near homes were predicted through mathematical models
to produce 3 times greater value than all costs involved over 30 years. That meansif it cost
$ 1,000 to plant and care for a tree over 30
years, the gross value or benefit to society
would be $ 3,000 .

The value people place on their urban forest

can be demonstrated following storms such
as hurricanes, ice storms, and wind storms
where significant tree damage and loss
occurs . Residents often mention tree loss as

one of the greatest impacts from storms. In

fact, over 30 percent of residents indicated
this following Hurricane Hugo in 1989
Figure 1.2 - Many conditions make trees susceptible to
(Dwyer et al. 1991). storm failures, including decay,

Trees may also have negative impacts , for

instance,messy fruits, allergenic properties,
and infrastructure damage ( e.g., damage to
sidewalks). Trees or tree parts can fail and
cause damage or personal injury, particularly
during natural loading events such as wind ,
ice, and snow storms( Fig 1.1). The failure
of limbs or entire trees, however, is often

predictable, detectable, and preventable (Fig

1.2-1.4 ).
Figure 1.3 - codominant leaders.
Management of Tree Risk

Community managers have the

responsibility to create and maintain
a safe and useful urban forest for their
constituents. Urban foresters need the
training and expertise to recognize varying
levels of risk , and to manage the forest at
an acceptable level of risk . There have been

significant advances in decay -detection

equipment, and formulas and guidelines
for assessing hazardous trees. Modern Figure 1.4 - and root system dysfunctions.
techniques and procedures can be used to
minimize the risk of damage to property and personal injury associated with tree failure.

Tree risk managementinvolves the process of inspecting and assessing trees for their potential
to injure people or damage property. Traditionally the term “hazard ” (or hazardous) has been
used in the context of evaluating trees for their failure potential. To many people, “hazard ”
suggests trees at immediate risk for failure. In this guide, “ hazard ” trees are defined as trees
with structural defects thatmay cause the tree or tree part to fail , where such a failure may
cause property damage or personal injury. Trees will vary , ranging from low-to high - risk for
failure and may require attention immediately or in the near future. The threshold of risk
acceptable to liable parties is dependent upon their policies and objectives. Trees that surpass
the level of acceptable risk are hazards from a programatic viewpoint. An understanding of
tree and forest biology is also an integral component ofany tree risk management program .

The perception of safety or acceptable levels of risk is equally or sometimes more powerful
than the reality of the condition of a tree and the situation that it is growing in . Community
leaders, employees, and residents that do not have forestry backgrounds often make forestry
decisions that are based on local politics, emotions, and perceptions of safety. In order to
make objective, science-based decisions on the safety of trees and the urban forest, individual
trees and site conditions need to be evaluated for the level of risk that they do — or do not
— present.

Liability and Risk

Community leaders and decision -makers must consider the perceived public liability for
tree damage and injury claims. In the extreme, trees are excluded from public rights-of-way
to minimize public exposure. In the risk management field this is called risk avoidance. In
these cases the public benefits that trees provide,which usually outweigh the perceived costs,
are not delivered to the community . Other communities postulate that tree populations can
be managed to have zero risk . The leaders of communities in this case do understand the
benefits that trees provide and reduce the overall potential urban forest value through their
attempts to attain zero risk (which may not be possible). Attempts to attain zero risk often
become costly over time, due to premature tree removals,more frequent tree replacements,
and loss of benefits thatmature trees provide.
 Low- to high -risk scenarios only arise when damage or injury can occur. People or property

in proximity to a tree at risk for failure are targets . A target must be present for risk of injury
or property damage to occur. The tree that loses a limb at a location where no property
damage or personal injury could occur poses zero risk . In developed areas, the chance that
there are zero - risk situations is low , due to common interactions among people , property,
and trees. However, human interactions and the probability and level of risk potential vary
greatly across the urban landscape. Areas with frequent human activity and higher-valued
property present a greater risk potential than the center of a wooded area in a park. Strategies
to reduce the risks trees pose to public safety include:

• Moving the target

• Correcting the tree (pruning or cabling and bracing the defect)

• Converting the tree to a wildlife tree

• Closing the site

• Removing the tree

Communities that choose to manage tree risk through the development of a tree risk
management plan can expect many benefits, including:

• Lower frequency and severity of accidents, damage, and injury

• Fewer expenditures for claims, and legal expenses

• Healthier, longer-lived trees

• Overtime, fewer tree removals annually.

Developing a Tree Risk Management Plan

Managing tree risks involves the incorporation of a tree risk management plan into the
overall urban forestmanagement master program . The tree risk management plan should be
fully integrated with tree planting and tree pruning programs, and share a common goal of
promoting healthy and structurally sound trees. The plan should focus on the prevention and
correction of high - risk tree defects, and provide a written , systematic procedure for inspecting
and evaluating potentially hazardous trees, and implementing corrective treatments. Chapter
2 provides comprehensive information on designing a tree risk management program .

The cost of the program should be weighed against the potential loss. Cost-benefit analysis
can be used as a tool to evaluate the cost effectiveness of programs in relation to program

costs and current and future benefits from healthier trees less prone to failure and costs
associated with cleanup , repair, and reforestation .

The process of developing, implementing, and maintaining a tree risk management program

is often a political process that is ideally designed to do what's best for the community. The
political process results from the interaction among the
tree management professionals,
citizens, and decision -makers such as city managers , city council, mayor, city attorney, and
others. All of these stakeholders should be involved in the tree risk management program

development. A mutually-developed policy encourages learning, understanding, and

acceptance.

8 Tree Risk Management

 The policy needs to clearly articulate who does what,what methods will be used , and what
resources are available ( e.g., people, equipment, and dollars). The responsible agency needs
to sign and support the policy. Personnelwho administer the tree risk management program
need to be supported in their assessments of trees and recommendations. Resources and
training of personnel are vital. Conflicts with individuals affected by hazardous trees should
be handled fairly. If necessary, procedures should be in place to allow the input of affected
citizens.

Reasonable Care and Safety

Communities have differing opinions and policies about who is responsible for the care of
trees on and abutting public property. Some communities have left the care of public trees
to the property owners whose land abuts the tree lawn. Trees within a parkway in front of a

house are an example. The responsibility of care passed onto these property owners through
either ordinance, policy, or inaction, under most cases probably does not absolve the public
entity associated with the trees from liability if damage or injury occurs. Courts have upheld
that the absence of a program to maintain trees does not absolve the responsibility to provide
safety to others.

The concept of reasonable care of trees to provide public safety is often cited as a standard to
follow with trees. Further, the scientific understanding of trees and how they grow and fail

has increased dramatically in recent times, and thus the professional level of expected care
has increased . Defining reasonable care, however, varies among towns and states and is often
defined by lawyers and courts rather than those who understand trees. A proactive stance
for a community would be to define what is reasonable, rather than letting it be defined by
default, possibly by someone or a group that is not knowledgeable in the subject.

An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure. Healthy, sound , and sustainable tree
populations require expenditures of resources. The paybacks, however, are healthier,
longer-lived trees , fewer significant insect and disease problems, and minimized risks from
failing trees. A tree risk management program , therefore, should be considered an integral
component within a comprehensive, urban forest management program .

Developing a written policy is the beginning of defining reasonable care. Regularly scheduled
tree inspections to assess potential and real problems (e.g., species , structural defects,
size, location ) within the tree population , and evaluation ofmanagement resources (e.g.,
personnel, seasonal activities, monetary resources) are the next steps. Given the current
tree population and available resources, what can be done to reduce trees at risk for failure?
Management strategies should be established that address high -risk trees on a priority basis,
through either tree removal or corrective pruning of defective parts. Plans that meet these
goals should be implemented through use of current resources, or the allocation of additional
resources.
Summary

All trees have a varying level of risk for failure . On the extremes, trees rated as low in their
risk for failure can fail during extreme windstorms, while highly defective trees and tree parts
can fail during calm days. Trees vary in their level of risk for failure and trained people can
best determine these risk ratings. The overall goal of a community tree risk management
program is to reduce the risk for injury and damage to people and property to levels that are
considered acceptable in accordance to city policies and practices. The remaining chapters
will discus how to develop a tree risk management program , criteria important for assessing
tree risks,ways to prevent and minimize future tree risks, and acceptable methods for
correcting defects in trees. Initiating a tree risk managementprogram is an important step
in developing effective tree management programs, and community tree populations that
maximize public benefits and minimize community liability.

Authors

Richard J. Hauer
Plant Health Specialist
Minnesota Department of Agriculture

Gary R. Johnson
Professor
Department of Forest Resources
University of Minnesota

Literature Cited

Council of Tree and Landscape Appraisers (CTLA). 2000. Guide to plant appraisal (9th
Edition ). Champaign , IL: International Society of Arboriculture. 143 p .

Dwyer, J. F., Schroeder , H. W., Louviere, J. J., and Anderson , D.H. 1989. Urbanite's
willingness to pay for trees and forests in recreation areas. Journal of Arboriculture.
15 ( 10 ): 247-252.

Dwyer, J. F., Schroeder, H.W., and Gobster, P.H. 1991. The significance of urban trees
and forests : toward a deeper understanding of values. Journal of Arboriculture.
17 (10) : 276-284 .

McPherson , E. G. 1994. Benefits and costs of tree planting and care in Chicago . In :
Chicago's Urban Forest Ecosystem : Results of the Chicago Urban Forest Climate
Project. Edited by: [Link], D. J. Nowak , and R. A. Rowntree. Radnor,
PA : USDA Forest Service, Northeastern Research Station ,Gen. Tech . Rep .NE- 186 .

Roloff, G. nd . Twenty -nine reasons forplanting trees. [Link]

reasons.

Schroeder, H.W. 1990. Perceptions and preferences of urban forest users. Journal of
Arboriculture. 16 ( 3 ) : 58-61.
 CHAPTER 2

Community Tree Risk Management:

Program Planning and Design

By Jill D. Pokorny and Jana S. Albers

Introduction
Most of ushave witnessed the destruction
Urban Community Forestry Program
a tree can cause when it falls and strikes
a physical structure. We have all heard

about cases of personal injury and Tree Risk Management

Program
death caused by a falling tree or branch .
Without question , trees can become
hazardous over time and come to pose

significant risks to personal safety and

Tree Pruning & Tree Planting
property. A key issue facing communities Maintenance
Program Program
is how to manage the urban forest,
both from an ecological standpoint of
promoting resource health , and from
a public safety standpoint of ensuring
Emergency Response
reasonable care is being taken to manage Program
the public safety risks associated with
hazardous trees. The best way for a
Figure 2.1 - Tree risk managementshould be fully
community to confront this issue is
integrated with the tree planting, tree pruning and
to develop a tree risk management maintenance , and emergency response programs.
program . The program should focus on

the prevention and correction of hazardous tree defects, and provide a written , systematic
procedure for inspecting and evaluating potentially hazardous trees . Tree risk management
programs should be designed to complement a community's overall street and park tree
management program goals, and should be fully integrated with the planting, tree care
maintenance, and emergency response programs (Fig 2.1).

Historical Perspective

Gaining an historical perspective of how and when trees fail can provide key insights into the
successful design of a tree risk management program . History documents that most trees fail
during storm events, and every year countless storms rage through the United States. These
storms and associated tree failures cause deaths and billions of dollars in property damage

annually . Severe storms can also cripple community public service and emergency response
systems. As destructive as these storms are , valuable lessons can be learned from them . Post
storm surveys of damaged trees provide forensic evidence about tree failure patterns and
structural defects that are commonly associated with tree failures. By knowing more about
how and when trees fail ,we can more accurately assess the degree of risk associated with
specific tree defects , and make well founded tree risk managementdecisions.

Post-storm surveys strongly demonstrate the value of investing community resources to

prevent the formation of structural defects through proper tree planting and pruning
Figure 2.2 - Planting trees too deeply is a primary cause
of lower stem decay and subsequent failure. Note there is
no root collar flare visible at the base of the trunk. Properly
planting this tree so the root collar was level with the soil
surface could have prevented this stem failure.

practices, and to inspect trees on a regular basis to Figure 2.3 - Weak branch unions and the
presence of included bark (darkened stem
detect, assess, and correct hazardous tree defects before
tissue where the old branch union existed )
they cause tree failures. Aerial and ground examination are leading causes of branch failures. Early
of trees damaged by Hurricane Andrew (Florida 1992 ) formative pruning could have prevented
this branch failure.
revealed that inappropriate species composition and
improper planting and maintenance practices in
urban and suburban areas resulted in extensive and

unnecessary tree losses and associated property damage

(Dempsey 1994 ). Field observations following the
January 1998 ice storms that struck northern New
England ,New York, and eastern Canada noted that
branch breakage and overall tree damage was much less
on trees that were well pruned and well maintained .
Johnson and co -workers (1999 ) found that 84 percent
of the trees damaged during high wind storm events
had pre-existing defects that resulted in tree and branch
failures. They found that most of the pre-existing
defects that contributed to tree or branch failure could
have been prevented through proper tree planting
(Fig 2.2 ) and pruning practices (Fig 2.3 ), and could
have been detected and corrected if the trees had been

inspected for the presence of hazardous defects ( Fig

2.4 ) .
Figure 2.4 - Regularly scheduled tree risk
inspections are a valuable tool to detect,
Although stormsare commonplace , and the risks assess, and correct hazardous defects, before
the tree fails.
trees pose to public safety are often high , many
communities operate under a mode of crisis managementwhen it comes to tree care
maintenance and correcting/removing trees with hazardous defects. Information from many
U.S. cities showsthat the cost per unit ofmaintenance is generally twice as high with crisis
 management than it is when
maintenance is performed on a
scheduled or programmed basis
(World Forestry Center 1993 ).
Few communities are adequately
prepared to deal with the prospects
of removing and storing tons of
tree debris , surveying remaining
trees for hazardous defects, and
implementing corrective tree care
treatments . In addition to higher
maintenance costs, relying on
crisis managementmay lead to Figure 2.5 - This vehicle was injured by the fallen tree in the
background . Note the presence of included bark on the tree's stem
injuries or deaths caused by falling (darkened stem tissuewhere the old branch union existed) that led
hazardous trees or branches , and to the branch failure.
result in huge litigation costs.

Lessons Learned

History teaches us that properly

maintained trees develop fewer
hazardous defects and pose less

risk to public safety . Communities

can avoid crisis management and
establish tree risk management

plans thatare designed to prevent

and correct structural tree defects ,
before they become hazardous.
This management approach
requires community leaders and Figure 2.6 - After major storm events , many trees must be
removed, replacement trees planted , and extensive sidewalk
residents to recognize that tree risk reconstruction is often necessary .
management is an issue critical
to public safety, and similar in
importance to other essential
public services such as traffic light
maintenance , roadway construction
and repairs , sewage disposal, and
clean and abundant drinking
water. It requires communities
to view tree risk management as
an investment that can literally
save lives (Fig 2.5 ), and reduce
the catastrophic impacts of future
stormson community budgets (Fig
2.6 ) and the health of the urban Figure 2.7 -Major stem or limb failures cause large wounds that
result in poor tree architecture and predispose trees to wood decay.
forest (Fig 2.7 ).
Most street and park tree management plans ormaster street plans state the need to remove
high-risk or hazardous trees (standing dead ornearly dead trees) as a top priority , but fail to
identify a process to systematically detect, assess, and correct hazardous defects in trees. A
tree risk management program fills this information gap and provides the community with a
systematic approach to accurately identifymoderate to high -risk trees, and initiate the timely
removal or corrective treatment of hazardous trees. A tree risk management plan integrating

sound tree planting and tree caremaintenance practices, regularly scheduled tree inspections,
and the timely implementation of corrective maintenance actions will prevent or correct
many structural defects, before the trees become hazardous to public safety.

A tree risk management plan fills this information gap and provides the
community with a systematic approach to accu
curately identify moderate to high
risk trees, and initiate the timely removal or corrective treatment of hazardous trees

A tree risk management program should complement a community's emergency response

plan by increasing the community's level of storm preparedness and its ability to respond
rapidly to a naturaldisaster. Most communities have some sort of plan for responding to
emergencies and for taking immediate action to address life -threatening situations and to
clear away debris and downed trees that block emergency access routes
and medical facilities.
However, few communities are prepared to conduct post-storm surveys to assess the extent
of damage to the remaining tree population , and to effectively manage the public safety risks
associated with highly hazardous trees in need of immediate removal or corrective pruning.
Post-storm tree damage surveys should be a top priority after a major storm , and should
be conducted by staff or contractors trained in tree damage assessment and risk evaluation
methods. Authors of various crisis management texts stress the paramount importance
of having emergency response teams in place and trained before a crisis hits. If a tree risk
management program exists, the community will have a tree risk evaluation system in place,
and a ready source of trained staff or contractors to conduct post - storm tree damage and risk
surveys .

This chapter will outline a process that communities can use to design a comprehensive
tree risk management program for trees located on public property. We
will discuss how to
customize the program to address specific needs and fiscal resources within the community ,
establish program goals, formulate and implement tree risk management strategies, and

evaluate program effectiveness . Wewill follow the basic format of a planningmodel

suggested by the International Society of Arboriculture (ISA), with proven success in the
development of effective urban forest management plans and programs. This planning model

poses four core questions and identifieskey steps to address the core [Link]
themodel by adding three steps that are specific to the subject area of tree risk management.
The modified planning model is as follows:
Tree Risk Management Program Planning and Design :

A Ten Step Approach

What Do You Have ?

Step 1. Assess the tree resource

Step 2. Review current tree management practices

Step 3. Assess fiscal and human resources available to manage the tree resource
What Do You Want?

Step 4. Identify program goals

How Do You Get What You Want?

Step 5. Formulate a tree risk management strategy

Step 6. Prioritize inspection and corrective action needs

Step 7. Select a tree risk rating system

Step [Link] a comprehensive tree risk management program policy

Step 9. Implement a tree risk management strategy

Are You Getting What You Want?

Step 10. Evaluate and revise

What Do You Have?

Step 1. Assess the Tree Resource

Recently collected tree resource data is essential for the development of a realistic
and useful tree risk management plan . Baseline information on general tree location ,
species, size class, and condition (percent canopy dieback );maintenance needs; and
available planting sites is needed to provide a snapshot of the current condition of
the tree population and to identify key public safety issues and treemaintenance
needs. This information supplies a framework for developing a successful tree risk
management strategy that is tailored to the specific resource needs of the community,
and provides a basis for estimating program costs and developing budget requests.

A complete tree inventory provides themost accurate data. However, a complete

tree inventory is not necessary to collect the baseline data needed for this step , and
the high cost of conducting one can be avoided . A partial inventory that surveys a
representative sample of the total tree population can quickly and accurately provide
an estimate of the total number of trees, species composition , and size and condition
classes of an urban street population (Jaenson et al. 1992 ). A partial inventory offers
communities with limited budgets a practical and cost-effectivemethod to assess tree
resources.

Identify tree maintenance needs and costs . Compiling and analyzing tree
inventory data provides a mechanism to identify tree maintenance needs such as
tree removals, pruning, and replanting , and to determine costs associated with
implementing needed tree maintenance practices. Corrective tree maintenance needs
can be estimated from tree inventory data based on the percentage of trees in need
of removal or pruning, and the number of available planting sites. The total cost for
the community tree population can be projected by establishing an average cost per
tree for each maintenance action , and multiplying that cost by the number of trees
needing each maintenance action .

Obtaining accurate cost estimates can be difficult because the average unit cost for
each maintenance practice can vary significantly within a geographic region , due
to local differences in the cost ofmaterials, labor and equipment, staff training,
and overhead administrative expenses. Also, individual tree and site characteristics
must be factored into the cost of planting, pruning , or removing trees. For example,
proximity to electric wires, buildings, and sidewalks;moderate to high traffic
volumes that require additional workers ; and the presence ofmajor decay within
the tree are all factors that make pruning or felling operationsmore difficult, time
consuming, and expensive.

The best way to estimate program costs is to use cost figures that are representative
for your specific locality and program . If your community has a tree planting and
maintenance program in place ,break down program costs into major program areas
such as planting, pruning, and removals, and look at the average cost per tree for
each maintenance task over an extended period of time. If a community lacks the
ability to track tree maintenance costs, does not have a tree planting or maintenance
program in place, or is considering the option to subcontract tree maintenance work ,
the best guide willbe to solicit bid prices from at least three local contractors for each
maintenance task , and use the median bid price. Contactingnearby communities
that have tree care programsand similar population size may also provide valuable
information on tree planting and
maintenance costs that are representative
for your local area .

Identify tree removal and disposal

costs. The percentage of total trees
surveyed with extensive or total canopy
dieback provides an estimate of the
number of very high - risk trees that need
to be removed (Fig 2.8 ). Tree removal
is typically themost expensive tree
maintenance operation on a per tree
basis. Costs are based on tree diameter
and size, tree density, accessibility factors
such as proximity to overhead utility
wires, sidewalks, and buildings, and high
roadway traffic volumelevels. Factor
costs associated with stump removal and
wood waste disposal into the budget.
Explore opportunities to sell the wood to
offset removal and clean -up costs. Recent
publications provide useful information
on successful community wood waste
disposal programs ( Bratkovich 2001), and
guidelines for marketing sawlogs from Figure 2.8 . This tree has extensive crown
street tree removal and municipalities dieback, with decayed and broken major limbs.
(Cesa et al. 1994). It is a high -risk tree that should be removed .
Managers can identify high risk , problematic tree species by reviewing the percentage
oftotal trees surveyed with extensive or total canopy dieback, broken down by tree
species and diameter. Identify high -risk problem species within the tree population ,
and conduct more frequent risk inspections in areas of the community where
problem species occur in high densities.

Identify pruning needs and costs. Tree inventory data that includes recommended
maintenance actions provide an estimate of the number of trees in need of corrective
pruning . Pruning costs are based on tree age and size, tree density, and accessibility
factors such as proximity to overhead wires, sidewalks, buildings, and high roadway
traffic volume levels. A comprehensive tree risk management plan includes an
assessment ofpruning needs, including therapeutic pruning to correct existing
structural defects and maintenance pruning to prevent the formation of structural
defects. Estimated pruning costs can be viewed as a shared cost between a tree risk
management program and a tree planting and pruning program .

Identify planting needs and costs . The number and location of trees to be
planted within the community can be determined from the tree inventory data, if
information on vacant planting sites was collected. Include planting sites that will
become available as other trees are removed . The average purchase cost per tree is
dependant on species, caliper, and nursery stock type (balled -and-burlapped, bare
root, or container-grown), and on an average planting cost (dependent on materials,
equipment and labor costs). When estimating total planting costs, it is common
practice to multiply the nursery purchase cost by a factor of three (Petitjean 1997).

Generating quantitative data on tree maintenance needs will lend credibility to budget
requests and garner public support. For example, if you know there are 40 trees
within the community that are high -risk trees in need of immediate removal, there is
compelling evidence that a tree risk management program should be established to
increase public safety and potentially save lives. Stressing the public safety aspects oftree
risk management can help elevate its importance to the level of other essential public
health services such as such as traffic lightmaintenance , roadway construction and
repairs, sewage disposal, and clean and abundant drinking water.

Determine the value of the urban forest resource. Knowing the economic value of
the urban forest can be useful as a leveraging tool to obtain funding for programsand
departments responsible for community tree [Link] forestry programscompete
for fundingwith community services such law enforcementand fire protection , and the
development and maintenance of roads, sewers, and street lights. Most communities
document the monetary value of these public services, and elected officials are kept
aware of what it costs to maintain the value of these services and improvements. In a
similar fashion , the forestry department should document the monetary value of the
urban forest , and inform the public and elected officials about the costs required to
maintain its value and benefits. For example, when tree maintenance costs, including
periodic inspections oftrees to detecthazardous defects,are shown as a percentage of the
monetary value of the urban forest, the cost of tree maintenance will compare favorably
with other public safety costs such asmaintaining emergency access routes and roadways,
traffic lights , and sewage systems. Over time, properly maintained trees grow in value,
while most other urban assets decline in value.
 The most widely used method to assess the value of individual trees is a system
developed by the Council of Tree and Landscape Appraisers (CTLA), described in
their handbook entitled Guide for Plant Appraisal (CTLA 2000). Copies of this
handbook may be obtained by contacting the International Society of Arboriculture,
PO Box 3129, Champaign , IL 61826-3129 . The CTLA appraisal method involves
the establishment of a base value for a landscape tree, as determined by local tree
replacement cost figures. The base value is a maximum value and is modified by
multiplying by percentage factors for tree species, condition , and location. This
system relies on the following formula to compute tree values as follows:

Tree Value = Base Value x Species Classification (% ) x Condition (% ) x Location ( % )

This method can be used to establish the value ofmore than one tree, making
it useful for determining the collective value of a community's urban forest. For
collective value, the value of the average tree within the community tree population
is calculated rather than the value of every individual tree. Based on tree inventory
data and the total number trees surveyed , the average size (d.b.h.) replacement tree
is determined , and an average rating value for tree species, condition , and location is
calculated . These average values are then plugged into the formula above to calculate
the average tree value. The value of the average tree is multiplied by the totalnumber
of trees inventoried , resulting in a total value for the urban forest (Petijean 1997).

Step 2. Review Current Tree Management Practices

The next step is to review current tree planting, pruning, and removal practices, and any
formal documents that affect tree care such as street and park tree management plans,
emergency response plans, or tree ordinances. Identify common goals that exist between
programs, plans, or ordinances, particularly as they relate to promoting tree health and
increasing public safety . Explore ways to integrate efforts, strengthen effectiveness , and
leverage community support and funding. Eliminate duplication of efforts between
municipal departments, public utilities, and private contractors whenever possible.
This coordinated approach to tree risk management can eliminate duplication of
efforts between community tree planting and pruning programs. For example , as
part of regularly scheduled, systematic tree risk inspections, tree inventory data can
be collected along with tree risk data , and the need to conduct separate, periodic
tree inventory assessments can be eliminated . A small crew of individuals can
be trained to conduct tree risk inspections and collect tree inventory data. Data
relating to tree removals, pruning needs, and available planting sites can be shared
with the tree planting and pruning programs to direct and schedule the activities
of the tree planting and pruning work crews. Empower pruning crews to report
the location ofall high -risk trees detected in the course of performing their daily
work to the tree risk management program .Give these “ high - risk tree reports ” high
priority, and implement corrective actions promptly . This integrated approach to
tree risk management provides the community with a way to continuously update
tree inventory data, eliminate the need to conduct separate, periodic tree inventory
assessments as part of the tree planting or pruning programs, and share tree resource
information between the tree planting, pruning, and risk management programs to
facilitate more effective scheduling of work crews.

Step 3. Assess Fiscal and Human Resources Available to Manage the Tree Resource
After the tree resource is assessed and corrective tree maintenance costs are estimated ,
review the community tree care budget to see how these costs compare with the fiscal
and human resources currently available to manage the tree resource. Compare the
 number of trees that are removed , pruned , and planted annually to the estimated
number of trees that need to be removed , pruned , or planted as identified in the tree
inventory [Link] the difference on an annual basis .Calculate cost projections
for the maintenance work needed , but not currently completed , based on the average
cost per tree for removal, pruning, and planting asdiscussed in Step 1. These costs reflect
“ new ” or additional funding that is needed to implement corrective tree maintenance
treatments, and should be included in budget requests.

In addition to estimating the cost of implementing corrective tree maintenance

treatments , factor in the cost of conducting regularly scheduled tree risk inspections. The
amountof time required to conduct tree risk inspectionswilldepend on which tree risk
rating system the community selects to [Link] 7 summarizes information on
the amountof timeneeded to conduct individual tree risk assessments for tree risk rating
systems that are designed foruse in urban areas and currently published in the United
States. A small crew can be trained to conduct tree risk inspections. Many communities
opt to cross-train existing tree pruning or tree planting staff, and share costs between
programs. This can be a very effective way to reduce program costs and fully utilize the
skills of existing staff.

For most communities , limited budgets and personnel will require that the tree risk
inspections and maintenance tasks be implemented or phased in over a period of
years . Prioritize treemaintenance needs, identifying those that are most critical and
those that can be delayed with minimal impact on the public safety and tree health .
A process to prioritize tree maintenance needs and develop cyclic tree inspection and
implementation schedules is discussed in Step 6 .

What Do You Want?

Step 4. Identify Program Goals

Establish a broad -based municipal working group to develop a community tree
risk management plan . The working group should be in place and active during
the entire program design process. It should bring to the table all groups that are
currently involved and those that should be involved with themanagement of the
community's urban forest, public safety, and emergency services. Be inclusive rather
than exclusive as you establish the membership list for this working group. A tree risk
management working group will typically consist of:

• City Forester or tree warden

• Representatives from municipal departments such as public works, parks

and recreation , transportation , fire police/emergency services, planning and
zoning, engineering, and the county attorney's office, county commissioner's
office, and the mayor's office

• Tree service providers

• Public utility providers

• Private citizens

• Media contact
Local non-profit organizations, non-governmental organizations, and other public
agencies may also be involved , depending on the infrastructure of a particular
community

Theworking group should define what a tree risk management program will
accomplish within their community . Establish program goals that address identified
community needs and identify management strategies that will producemeasurable
results. Program goals are the tangible ends that the management strategy seeks to
achieve, and provide the basis for formulating, implementing, and evaluating the
management strategy.

There is little point in establishing a goal if there is no practical way of determining

whether progress is being made towards achieving that goal. For example, while it
is most admirable to seek to “ protect the health and welfare of the community” or
to " improve the health of the urban forest,” such goals are very general and tangible
results are difficult to measure. However , establishing the goal of “reducing risk to
public safety and personal property by mitigating hazardous tree defects,” would
address a key public safety need. Tangible actions(e.g., establishing tree inspection
guidelines) can be taken , and progress can be measured by documenting the dates
when risk inspections are conducted and corrective actions are implemented .

Guiding principles and fundamental goals . Although a community tree risk

management program can have many goals, two guiding principles provide the
overarching context of most successful programs: Increase public safety by reducing
risksassociated with trees that possess hazardousdefects or visually obstruct traffic signs,
intersections, or street lighting, and manage the community tree resource to promote
tree health and sustainability

The two guiding principles of tree risk management programsare:

• Increase public safety
• Promote tree health and sustainability

Both guiding principles can be achieved through a two-tiered program that focuses
on the fundamental goals of 1) preventing hazardous tree defects through the
implementation of proper arboricultural practices that promote tree health and

structurally sound trees, and 2 ) correcting hazardous tree defects through the use of
a systematic process to accurately detect and assess hazardous defects , and implement
corrective actions within a reasonable time.

Other possible goals :

Goals and specific management strategies will vary by individual communities. They
should address specific needs that exist within the community such as identified tree
resource needs, staff and fiscal resources needed to implement a tree risk management
program , and the need to educate the public .
Other program goals that might be considered include:

• Hiring a full- time City Forester and /or other tree care staff needed to
implement a tree risk management program

• Promoting professional development of tree care staff through continuing

education programs
 • Developing educational outreach programs and demonstration projects to
increase public awareness of the need for and benefits of a community tree
risk management program

• Increasing awareness of tree risk management among municipal staff through

presentations and training sessions ( This is NOT just for forestry staff ;
everyone needs to be aware of the program .)

• Coordinating with public utilities to promote proper pruning and the

selection of smaller stature tree and shrub species for planting under utility
lines

• Establishing a comprehensive wood waste utilization management plan that

focuses on implementing efficient and ecologically sustainable methods

How Do You Get What You Want?

Step 5. Formulate a Tree Risk Management Strategy

A tree risk managementplan enables a community to prevent,detect, assess, and correct
structuraldefects in trees, before they endanger public safety or tree resource health .
Just as nothing in life is risk -free, every landscape and tree situation involves risk . The
goal of a tree risk management program should notbe to strive for zero risk , since this is
[Link], the goal should be to reduce the risks trees pose to public safety to
a levelthatmeets professionalstandards and demonstrates reasonable [Link]
strategies should address program principles and fundamental goals, implement actions
that address specific needs, and producemeasurable results.

Consider actions to prevent hazardous defects . Sound arboricultural practices are

the best defense against development of hazardous defects. Choose species that are
suitable for the available planting sites, and implement proper planting techniques.
Chapter 4 (Prevention of Hazardous Defects ) discusses criteria for selecting nursery
stock , species selection , and proper planting and pruning techniques . Once a tree is
planted , a program of early and regular tree pruning will prevent the development
of many structural defects, and reduce subsequent pruning , tree removal, and
replanting costs.

Consider actions to correct hazardous defects. A tree risk management plan

must provide the community with a systematic process to detect, assess, and correct
hazardous defects before they cause tree failures. Procedures to correct hazardous
defects in trees range from simply pruning out defective branches to the ultimate step
of removing the tree. Chapter 5 (Correction of Hazardous Tree Defects) discusses
specific corrective actions. Early detection and correction of tree defects will reduce
the number of trees that becomehazardous and reduce subsequent tree pruning, tree
removal , and replanting costs.

Step 6. Prioritize Inspection and Corrective Action Needs

In all likelihood, a community cannot handle 100 percent of its forestry workload
each year. Limited budgets and personnel will require that tree inspections and
corrective actions be implemented or phased in over a period ofyears . The
community must carefully evaluate the condition of the community forest and
visitor usage patterns within public areas, and target the use of limited community
resources where they are needed themost — in the areas with the greatest risk to
public safety . Communities should prioritize inspection and corrective action needs,
identifying those that require immediate attention and those thatmay be delayed
with minimal impact on public safety and tree health .

Identify specific areas or situations that will be excluded from the program . For
example, trees located on private property are often excluded from the jurisdiction
of a community tree risk management program . The community must decide to
include or exclude borderline trees or trees abutting public property as part of the
program . Wooded areas located away from structures or trails, undeveloped green
belts or corridors, wetlands, or low use trails might be designated as “ natural areas
that will be excluded from the program and will not receive risk inspections. Some
tree risk management plans havemade it a policy to inspect only trees that are greater
than 6 inches in diameter, since most documented tree failures occur in trees greater
than 6 inches in diameter.

We will discuss how to prioritize tree inspection and corrective action needs, based
on a process that 1) divides the community into tree risk zones, 2) establishes
tree risk inspection methods and schedules, according to tree risk zones, and 3)
implements corrective actions in a reasonable and timely manner. Both large and
small communities can effectively implement this process.

Divide the community into tree risk zones. To assist communities as they
prioritize inspection and corrective action needs, the community can be divided
into tree risk zones, ranging from zones where trees pose a very high level of risk to
public safety to zones associated with low public safety risks. Each zone is managed
and inspected on a defined schedule, based on the level of risk posed to public
safety. For example, high -risk zones are scheduled to receive more frequent, in -depth
inspections, and tree maintenance work is performed on an expedited basis. A color
coded map of risk zones, ranging from very high to low risk , can be developed for
use as a management tool for forestry staff, and as a visual aid for educating the
public about the levels of risk that trees can pose to public safety.

Determine the level of risk posed to public safety based on risk criteria that assess
roadway characteristics (type, traffic volume, and congestion patterns); public use
and occupancy patterns (high , moderate, and low ) within public areas; and tree
resource characteristics including tree condition (risk rating , age, and density), and
location factors such as branch interference with pedestrian traffic or utility lines,
and root interference with sidewalks. For example , high -use parks and playgrounds
should always be considered high -risk zones based on high public use patterns and
the presence of relatively large tree populations. Inspect these areas frequently and
implement corrective actions on an expedited basis. Similarly, consider trees or tree
branches that obstruct pedestrian and /or vehicular traffic very high risk, and dispatch
maintenance crewsimmediately to perform clearance pruning as soon as the problem
is identified .

Analysis of tree inventory data can be an effective tool in identifying high -risk
zones within the community tree population . For example, if high winds caused
tree damage within the community, analyzing tree inventory data that includes tree
condition and general location variables can identify storm -damaged areas. Designate
storm -damaged areas as high -risk zones, and directmaintenance crews to conduct
post-storm tree risk inspections as a top priority. Similarly, a neighborhood with a
large number of mature or over mature trees might be red - flagged as a high -risk zone

'lanning and
in need ofmore frequent risk inspections and more extensive corrective pruning. If
the community has compiled a list of “ problem ” tree species (species with the highest
rates of tree failures, storm damage, structural decay, repetitive crown dieback ,
or a short life-span ), target neighborhoods or areas that contain a high density of
“problem ” species to receive more frequent risk inspections.

Identify criteria to define tree risk zones. Below are criteria that can be used to
establish and map risk zones within a community .

Criteria to Establish Tree Risk Zones (See Table 2.1 )

• Roadway characteristics: Prioritize according to key public safety issues such

as emergency accessibility, and traffic volumeand congestion factors. Top
priority areas include:

Emergency access routes

Congested intersections

Major detour routes

Roadways or intersectionswhere tree branches obstruct visibility of
traffic signs or stop lights, or physically obstruct pedestrian or vehicular
traffic
.
Streets that have had major reconstruction or underground utility work
• Main thoroughfares

• Public use and occupancy patterns: Prioritize according to importance

to public safety (fulfilling emergency and medical needs) and occupancy
patterns. Top priority areas include:

Emergency and medical facilities, handicap access areas

Extensively used public areas and buildings
Neighborhoods with high population densities

• Tree resource characteristics: Prioritize by tree condition factors such as

high average risk rating, areas with older or dense tree populations; and tree
location factors such as branch interference with pedestrian or vehicular
traffic, utility lines, or root interference with sidewalks. Top priority areas
include:

• Areas with a high proportion of high to very high tree risk ratings,
as determined by the preliminary inventory survey data, tree risk
inspections, or “hazard ” reports submitted by the public of city staff
• Areas severely damaged by storms
• Areas with old growth trees

• Areas with high a density of “ problem ” tree species

• Areas with root injury caused by sidewalk or road construction

• Areas where tree roots interfere with sidewalks and cause buckling
Table 2.1 provides an example of a color code system and includes examples of
roadways, public buildings and use areas, and tree resource characteristics within
each tree risk zone category. Very high - risk areas (color coded in red ) include
emergency access routes,medical and emergency facilities and shelters, school
playgrounds,permanent structures, and drive- in campsites within high -use parks.
High -risk areas are color coded in orange;moderate risk areas in yellow , and low risk
areas in green .

Table 2.1. Tree risk zone categories; color codes; and examples of roadways, public buildings and use
areas, and tree characteristics that pertain to each tree risk zone.

Hazard Zone Color Examples

Categories Codes

1. Emergency access routes

2. Medical and emergency facilities and shelters ,
handicap access areas
3. School playgrounds
4. In high -use parks /public areas : permanent structures
and drive -in campsites
Very High 5. Individual trees or neighborhoods with very high -risk
Red
Hazard tree characteristics such as :
• standing dead trees or those with very poor
condition class ratings
• severely storm -damaged trees
trees that visually obstruct traffic signs, stop
lights , or security lights
tree roots causing severe sidewalk buckling

1. Main thoroughfares : congested intersections and

visually obstructed traffic signs and stoplights
2. High-use parks, playgrounds, and picnic areas
3. Golf courses
4. Parking lots adjacent to high -use public areas
High 5. Bus stops along high -use thoroughfares
Hazard 6. Individual trees or neighborhoods with high -risk tree
Orange
characteristics such as:
• old growth trees
• high density of large diameter,mature , or
“ problem ” tree species
• root injury caused by sidewalk or road
construction
storm -damaged trees

1. Secondary roadways: congested intersections and

visually obstructed traffic signs and stoplights
Moderate 2. Neighborhoods with a moderate density oflarge
Yellow
Hazard diameter,mature or “problem ” tree species
3. Moderate -use parks, playgrounds and picnic areas
4. Parking lots adjacent to moderate -use areas
1. Low -use roads and public areas with dispersed
recreation
Low 2. Open areas, woods, riparian zones, and peripheral
Green
Hazard areas with limited use or access
3. Neighborhoods with a low density oflarge diameter,
mature , or “problem ” tree species
Map tree risk zones. The next step is to develop a color- coded map of the
community that highlights designated tree risk zone categories. Thismap will
serve as a handy visual reference of tree risk zones within the community, and will
be useful in establishing inspection schedules and tree risk assessmentmethods.
Start by constructing a map of the community that contains the roadway system ,
public buildings, and public use [Link] city departments have developed
computerized data layer or Geographic Information System (GIS) files that
contain the information needed to map tree risk zones within the community .
For example, the transportation or public works department often has maps or

Risk Zone Map of

Grand Rapids
Minnesota

County Campground
School fairgrounds
Hicking/Ski
Trail

Park School Park

Park School Senior School
citizen
School homes
Park
County
police
City Library
police/
fire DNR
Park complex
Park
Hospital

Park
Park
F School

Golf
Course

Park

Very high hazard zone Park

High hazard zone
Senior
oderate hazard zone citizen
homes
Low hazard zone

Figure 2.9 . Color-coded risk zone map of Grand Rapids, Minnesota. Very high -risk areas
(color coded red ), and high - risk areas (color coded orange) represent areas that should receive
frequent risk inspections, using in -depth inspection methods, and where corrective actions
should be implemented on an expedited basis.
 data layer files of the roadway system and traffic volume and congestion levels.
The departmentin charge of planning and zoning will have information on the
location of public buildings such as hospitals, fire, police, and other emergency
medical facilities; schools ; libraries; city administration buildings and community
centers; and public use areas such as golf courses, city parks, and swimming areas.
The parks and recreation department will have information on the location and
usage patterns of public parks and other recreational areas. If computerized data
files are not available to construct a community map , work from a standard city
map of the roadways,manually identify public buildings and high use public use
areas, and color-code these features on the map , using a different color for each
tree risk zone. Using stick pins of various colors to mark the map works well and
allows the map to be updated easily to reflect changes in risk levels. Figure 2.9 is a
manually generated map that illustrates tree risk zones , using the above mentioned
color-code system , for the city ofGrand Rapids, Minnesota.

Update the community tree risk zone map to reflect significant changes within
the tree population , roadway traffic patterns, or public use patterns. Keep up to
date on the incidence of very high - risk [Link] very high- risk trees that are
identified during ongoing tree risk inspections or post-storm damage surveys, or
that are reported by tree planting or pruning crews with red pins on manually
produced maps or color code these areas red on computer generated maps. Remove
the red pins or color coding when corrective actions are completed . Delineate
neighborhoods that have a large number of storm -damaged trees on the map until
corrective actions are completed . Some communities red -code neighborhoods with
large, mature trees that have undergone sidewalk reconstruction projects because
severe root severing has occurred and the risk of tree failure is very high . Roadway
repair or construction projects that result in serious congestion traffic patterns
problems should also be tracked and coded appropriately.

Establish tree risk inspection methods, according to tree risk zone categories.
Tree risk assessments estimate the degree of risk associated with a given tree to
fail and potentially injure persons or damage property , and should be capable of
measuring risk levels ranging from low to very high . Within a tree risk management
program , implementation of more than one inspection method may be useful.
In -depth inspection methods that examine the full range of tree defects and site
conditions present are most useful when conducting risk assessments to determine
the likelihood of a tree to fail and strike a target. Less intensivemethods can be
effective tools for identifying very high -risk trees and pinpointing high -risk zones
within the community, and for conducting post-storm tree damage surveys. We will
describe two basic methods: 1) walk -by ( individual tree) inspections and 2) drive-by
(windshield ) inspections, and discuss the appropriate use of each of thesemethods
within the context of a tree risk management program . See Table 2.2

Walk -by (individual tree) inspections. This method requires inspectors to

walk through an area and rate individual trees for their potential to fail ,based on
the presence ofdefects, evaluation of targets, and other site conditions. Alltrees
located within striking distance of a target receive a 360-degree visual inspection .
Diagnostic tests are performed as needed .
 Strengths of walk -by inspections. Walk -by tree inspections represent an in-depth
evaluation method that provides the level of information necessary to make
cumulative decisions about tree defects, site conditions, and the level of risk
associated with a given tree to fail and strike
a target. To accurately assess the potential
risk that a tree will fail , it is important to
thoroughly examine the tree and determine
the full range of defects and site conditions
that are present and could contribute to
tree failure. Tree risk assessments should be
capable ofmeasuring a variety of risk levels,
ranging from low to very high , and should
include examination of all sides of the tree
including the rooting zone, root collar,
main stem , branches, and branch unions. A
360 -degree inspection method is especially
critical when defects occur on only one side
of the tree and might be missed using the
drive-by /windshield inspection method . It is
not uncommon to find a tree that displays a
full, green canopy and/or no major defects
when viewed from only one side ( Fig 2.10 ).
The same tree , when viewed from the other
side, may reveal a serious wound with
Figure 2.10 . This tree, when viewed
extensive decay that causes the tree to be at a
from one side, displays no serious de fects.
very high level of risk for failure (Fig 2.11).

Walk -by inspections represent an inspection

method that provides communities with the
level of cumulative information needed to
conduct tree risk assessments within all tree
risk zones. They are the suggested inspection
method for conducting tree risk assessments in
very high , high , and moderate risk areas.

Defects can occur anywhere on a tree, an

inspection method that examines all sides
of a tree will provide the most complete
information to determine the potential
risk for that tree to fail

Weaknesses of walk - by inspections. Walk

by inspections are more labor intensive
and costly to conduct than less intensive
methods such as drive-by surveys. Because
of the higher cost of implementing walk Figure 2.11 . The same tree, viewed
by inspections, it may be necessary to limit from the opposite side, displays serious
their use to areas with the highest degree of defects: a large stem cavity with extensive
decay. These defects and the tree's close
risk such as very high , high , and moderate
proximity to a target make it a very high
risk zones. This could be an effective way risk tree.
 to streamline program costs and focus limited community resources to areas of
greatest risk .

Drive -by (windshield ) surveys. This method involves inspectors visually scanning
trees for the presence ofhazardous defects while traveling at slow vehicle speeds.
It is recommended that a follow -up individual tree inspection be conducted on all
trees noted by the drive-by survey to have hazardous defects present. Two people
should be present in the vehicle: one to drive and one to assess trees and record
data.

Strengths of drive-by inspections. Drive-by surveys are quick and easily

implemented , and can be a cost effective planning tool to provide preliminary
data on very high -risk trees and to pinpoint high -risk zones within the
community tree population . They can detect overt hazards such as standing dead
trees, trees with significant numbers of dead branches, or major tree architectural
problems visible from the road . They could be used as a scoping tool to conduct
a preliminary survey of the community's tree resource and provide an estimate of
the number of highly hazardous trees . This information can be very valuable in
building community support and documenting the need to establish a tree risk
management program . As a supplemental survey tool, drive-by surveys can be
used to augment efforts to divide the community into tree risk zones, and assist
communities to focus the use of limited resources to the areas of highest risk .
Drive-by surveys could also provide a quick and timely response after storms to
identify areaswhere damage to trees occurred and where corrective actions are
likely to be needed . This is possible since many storm -damaged trees will have
defects in their crowns such as broken branches or cracked branch unions that
are visible from the road .

Under situations of limited community resources, it may be feasible to use drive-by

surveys to conduct tree risk inspections in low hazard zones and as a supplemental
survey method in moderate hazard zones during “ off-years” when individual tree
inspections are not scheduled . Under conditions of extremely limited community
resources, some communities have made a short-term decision to exclude low risk

areas from the tree risk inspection program . In this case, tree risk inspections would
not be conducted within low risk areas, but rather informal tree risk observations
would be made as part of the ongoing tree maintenance program .

Weaknesses of drive-by inspections. Although drive-by surveys are an effective

method for conducting preliminary surveys or post-storm tree damage surveys,
their usefulness for conducting individual tree risk assessments is very limited .
Drive -by surveys collect incomplete data on tree defects, site conditions, and
potential targets because they rely on information inspectors collect during a
visual scan , while traveling in a moving vehicle , viewing only one side of the
tree. Many trees with hazardous defects will go undetected using this method
of survey. For example, drive-by surveys will not detect defects (overt or subtle)
that occur on the side of the tree facing away from the road . Additionally ,more
subtle defects such as narrow cracks or girdling roots, even if they occur on the
side facing the road, may go undetected simply because they cannot be readily
seen from the road . Clearly, defects presentin a tree, but not able to be observed
with a drive-by survey, can cause a tree to have a high risk for tree failure (Figs
2.12 and 2.13 ). The data collected with drive-by surveys is limited to what an
 inspector can readily see from the road ,
and restricts the usefulness of this method
to the detection of very high - risk trees
that have hazardous defects visible from
the road . Within the context of a tree risk
management program , drive-by surveys are
best used a preliminary or supplemental
survey tool, not as a stand- alone tree risk
assessment method .

Establish tree risk inspection schedules

based on tree risk zone categories. Frequent
inspections are essential for a successful tree
risk management program . Tree structure and
vigor necessarily change over time since trees are
living organisms. Systematic inspections detect
and monitor potentially deleterious changes.
If tree inspections are not conducted on an
ongoing and regular basis, many hazardous
defects and situations will go undetected , and
Figure 2.12 . This tree, when viewed
the fundamental goal of reducing risk to public
from oneside, displaysno serious defects.
safety cannot bemet.

In addition to improving public safety, frequent

tree risk inspections provide a continuous source
of tree resource data, and can eliminate the need
to conduct separate, periodic tree inventory
assessments as part of the tree planting or
pruning programs. This integrated approach
establishes a foundation formaking informed
management decisions, validating budget
requests,and documenting program success.

Tree risk inspection schedules, like tree risk

inspection methods, can be established
according to identified tree risk zones as
discussed in Step [Link] -risk zones should
be inspected frequently, using in - depth tree
inspection methods. Lower risk areas can be
inspected less frequently and may employ the
use of walk -by/individual tree inspections as
well as less intensive drive -by surveys . This
approach allows the community to target the Figure 2.13 . The same tree, viewed
use of limited fiscal resources to the areas of from the opposite side, displays serious
defects: a large stem cavity with extensive
greatest risk . Inspections can be conducted at
decay. These defects and the tree's close
any time of the year, leaf-on or leaf-off, with the
proximity to a target make it a very high
exception of times when snow cover prevents risk tree.
the examination of root conditions.

Table 2.2 outlines suggested minimum guidelines for inspection methods and
inspection schedules within a community tree risk management program . The
suggestions contained in this table present a range of inspection options within most
 Table 2.2 . Suggested minimum guidelines for inspection methodsand inspection schedules
within a community tree risk management program .

Hazard Color Timing of Suggested Comments

Zone Codes Inspections Inspection Method
Categories

Annual Walk -by/

Very High Red Individual Tree
Inspections

1-2 years Walk -by /

High Orange Individual Tree
Inspections
3-5 years Walk -by/ Consider conducting a
Individual Tree drive-by/windshield survey
Moderate Yellow Inspections on an “ off-year” when
individual tree inspections
are not scheduled .

5-7 years Walk -by/

Individual Tree
Inspections
Low Green
or
Drive-by!
Windshield
Surveys
After Drive -by/ If potentially hazardous
All Rated Severe Windshield trees are detected , follow
NA
Zones Storms Surveys up with individual tree
inspections

The information contained in this table is offered as suggested guidelines and presents a range of inspection
optionswithin most risk zone categories. Individual communities must assess their tree resource needs and
community resources, and adoptprogram guidelines that address their specific situation. Communities
should always seek professional legal advicewhen drafting specific language governing inspection methodology
and frequency.

risk zone categories. Individual communities must assess their tree resource needs
and community resources, and adopt program guidelines that address their specific
situations. It is critical to remember that the community is ultimately responsible for
maintaining the publicly owned tree resource and shouldering the liability that may
result from improperly caring for it. Not having funds to maintain the resource does
not absolve a community of this responsibility or accountability in lawsuits arising
from personal injury and property damage claims resulting from a fallen tree or tree
branch . Moreover, the cost of a judgment against the community or the defense costs
in a lawsuit could conceivably pay for a tree risk management program for many
years ( Tate 1985). Communities should always seek professional legal advice when
drafting specific language governing inspection methodology and frequency to ensure
that professional standards are met and reasonable care is demonstrated .

Step 7. Select a Tree Risk Rating System

There aremany evaluation systems that rate the risk of damage or injury posed by a
defective tree or tree part. Some systemsdefine a numerical risk value, while others
are categorical and describe the level of risk on a scale ranging from “ low ” to “ very
high .” The first tree risk rating systemsused in the United States were developed for
use in recreational sites and were based on tree failure information collected from
federal and state recreation areas within the United States . Some state and federal
agencies, including the U.S. Forest Service, the National Park Service , and the
Minnesota Department of Natural Resources have developed tree risk rating and
management program guidelines for recreation sites to reduce accidents caused by
tree failures (Paine 1971, Mills and Russell 1981, Wallis et al. 1980, Johnson 1981,
Albers and Hayes 1991). Later, tree risk rating systemswere developed for use in
urban areas, and many of these “ urban” systemswere modeled after recreational site
systemsand guidelines. To date,most published tree risk rating systems are designed
for use in recreational areas, but a few are designed for use in urban areas (Bartlett
Tree Expert Co. 1991 ,Matheny and Clark 1994 , Colorado Tree Coalition 1999 ,
Hayes 2000 ).

In Chapter 3 (How to detect and assess hazardousdefects in trees), two risk rating
systems (Minnesota DNR and U.S. Forest Service) are discussed as examples of
systems that have been successfully implemented in urban areas. No single risk rating
system is perfect or capable of adapting to all situations, nor is there onemodel
system recommended for all communities. For these reasons, this manual does not
recommend a particular tree risk rating system over another. A survey was sent to
the authors of tree risk rating systems/manuals , designed for use in urban areas, and
published in the United States. The survey consisted of ten questions that addressed
assessment methods and rating systems used for conducting tree risk inspections,
time required to conduct an assessment, and the level of training needed to prepare
field staff to conduct assessments. Survey questionswere selected based on their
perceived usefulness to community decision -makers in selecting a tree risk rating
system suitable for their respective communities. Survey questions, and responses
provided by the respondents, are summarized in Appendix 1.

Regardless of the tree risk rating system selected , collect all information on a
standard form that summarizes the important aspects of the assessment. Store tree
risk assessment information so that data is easy to access , update , and [Link]
communities can afford the cost of a computer that is capable ofmanaging their
tree resource data . Most communities have chosen to use standard PC workstations
that may be connected to a municipal wide area network . There are many software
programs on the market that can store and manage tree resource data .Most
spreadsheet or database programs can be used for this purpose . Tree inventory
software programsare commercially available and can be very useful and cost
effective if they do not need to be customized for your community's needs. Whatever
computerized database system the community selects, it must be able to manage tree
risk assessment data as well as basic tree inventory data and generate management
recommendations. Useful information can often be obtained from communities that
have already established a tree inventory system or tree risk management program .
It may even be possible to purchase a customized spreadsheet or database program
from another community forestry program . Take care to ensure that the software is
compatible with databases within other city departments.

Although the up -front hardware and software costs are reasonable, they represent
only a portion of the total investment. The timeand labor needed to update and
maintain a computerized system is substantial, and these costs should be factored
into budget requests. Consider the internal and external resources that will be
 necessary to automate the system . Internal resources include ongoing clerical
support, hardware and software support , and staff training. External resources
include program development, program customization , report writing and network
administration .

Establish an
implementation schedule
for corrective actions.
Removal or immediate
corrective treatment of
very high -risk trees must
be the top priority within
any tree risk management
program ( Fig 2.14 ). It
is not uncommon for
a community to have a
large number of high - risk
trees, particularly if a tree
inventory survey or tree risk
inspections have never been Figure 2.14. The removalor immediate corrective treatment
conducted or have not been of very high-risk trees must be a top priority within any tree risk
conducted in recent years. management program .
For most communities ,
limited budgets and personnelwill require that corrective actions be implemented or
phased in over a period of years. In such cases, the question becomes, “ Which of the
very high -risk trees should receive corrective treatment first?”

Be prepared to explain the rationale for assigning treatments to trees identified as

hazardous. Clearly outline themethods used to identify high -risk trees , initiate
necessary corrective actions, and implement these actions within a reasonable
time frame. Numeric tree risk rating systems provide a justifiable way to prioritize
corrective treatments . Trees with the highest numeric risk rating are treated first, and
other corrective treatments are implemented later, according to decreasing numeric
risk ratings. If integrating the tree risk zone approach with a numeric risk rating
system , trees with the highest risk ratings within the highest risk zones are treated
first, followed by those within the moderate and low risk zones. Such a system
allows managers to identify the highest risk trees and implement corrective actions
on an expedited basis, and demonstrates an approach to implementing corrective
treatments in a reasonable and systematic fashion .

Step 8. Write a Comprehensive Tree Risk Management Program Policy

The community must write , adopt, and enforce a tree risk management policy
that specifies program goals, management strategies, and implementation steps
identified in Steps 5 , 6 , and 7. The tree risk management program policy should
include provisionsthat the community is willing and able to enforce. Consult with
the city's legal counsel throughout the process of writing, adopting and enforcing
a tree risk management program policy. Timely legal advice, based on current laws
and professional standards, will help to ensure that reasonable care is being taken
to manage the public safety risks associated with hazardous trees. Once a program
policy is written and adopted , the community will be held responsible to enforce the
stated policy provisions. For this reason , review policy statements often , preferably
on an annualbasis, to ensure the provisions provide the level of risk management
that is appropriate for the community.

Tree risk management program policy statements should notduplicate or contradict any
existing laws. Review copies of other policies, ordinances, codes, rules , or regulations
that affect trees in the community , and cross-reference those that are pertinent to the
tree risk management program policy. For example: Do the utility departmentor utility
companies have written policies regarding trees and shrubs growing near overhead or
underground utility lines? Does the street department have any written policies that
require trees to be trimmed to a certain height above streets and sidewalks?

Be aware of industry standards for proper tree pruning techniques, safety

requirements for tree care operations, and selecting high quality nursery stock .
Implementation of these standards is voluntary, and the community may wish
to establish their own set of standards. Whatever tree care standards are selected
for implementation , they should be stated or cross-referenced within the tree risk
management program policy.

Elected officials, with the designated authority, should sign off on the program
policy to officially adopt it as a community tree risk management policy. Once the
plan is signed, elected officials should confirm that they will support the personnel
who administer the tree risk program and support their assessments of trees and
recommendations for corrective treatments . Establish a process to handle conflicts
with homeowners , and corrective action appeals presented by affected citizens.

Address the following points in the tree risk management program policy:
• State the community's understanding of its responsibility to maintain the
safety of public lands from potentially hazardous trees

• Identify who will administer the tree risk management program and possess
the authority to enforce tree risk reduction policies

• Identify the standard (tree risk rating system ) to be used to assess the degree
of risk associated with a given tree to fail and potentially injure persons or
damage property

• Specify inspection methods and schedules to be implemented

Specify a process bywhich corrective actions will be implemented

• Identify a process for handling corrective action appeals presented by affected

citizens

a process for handling violations of the tree risk management

program policy

An interactive software program ( TREEORD ) has recently been developed as a tool

for communities to draft and write tree ordinances. It containsmore than 1,800
examples of text contained in existing ordinances from communities throughout the
United States. The example text has application for developing policy statements
as well as ordinances. TREEORD is available for purchase from : Tree Trust, 2350
Wycliff Street, Suite 200 , St. Paul, MN 5511 ([Link]
Step 9. Implement a Tree Risk Management Strategy
Hire and/or train staff. Trained and able staff must be available to implementa tree
risk management program . Staff can be cross-trained and shared between the tree
planting, pruning, and tree risk management program areas, and every effort should
bemade to coordinate activities and share costs among these programs. For smaller
communities that do not have a City Forester or forestry staff, itmay be more
cost effective to contract these services by hiring professional forestry consultants
to conduct tree risk inspections or implement corrective actions. Out-sourcing
services in this way solves the problem of limited in -house staff size, and eliminates
the need to provide ongoing staff training in tree risk assessment and management.
Professional consultants should provide evidence of accredited training in tree risk
management, arborist certification , and extensive field experience in the detection ,
assessment, and correction of tree defects. Sharing a City Forester position between
several communities may also be a feasible approach to administering a tree risk
management program within smaller communities .

Some larger communities will have a City Forester and a forestry staff in place
who can be trained to conduct tree risk inspections and implement a tree risk
management program . Proper training is paramountto ensuring staff possess the
knowledge needed to conduct tree risk inspections correctly and make accurate
and informed management decisions. Staff require thorough training and proper
supervision . At a minimum , training should consist of 1-2 days of intensive
classroom and field training, with a heavy focus on conducting actual tree risk
assessments in the field . The training program should provide for the continuing
education of the staff, and offer refresher courses at least every couple ofyears.
Newly trained staff should work under the supervision of a more experienced staff
member to become familiar with the program specifications, and the local tree
resource characteristics and conditions. There is no substitute for experience in tree
risk assessment, so teaming an experienced inspector with a newly trained inspector
should be a top priority. In addition , periodic spot-checking of all trained staff
should be done as a quality control measure.

Some communities will train and supervise volunteers to assist with implementing a
tree risk management program . This is a controversial practice, and many published
texts on the topic of tree risk /hazard management unequivocally state that tree risk
assessments should be conducted only by tree care professionals who are specifically
trained in tree risk assessment techniques. Clearly this approach is thorough and may
be the preferred option , but it may be too limited in its perspective. If volunteers
are provided the same level of training as community forestry staff, are teamed
and supervised with experienced inspectors, and pass quality control checks that
demonstrate proficiency in conducting tree risk assessments in the field , it is possible
that volunteers could possess the skills needed to conduct tree risk assessments .
Proper training, supervision , and quality control checks to demonstrate proficiency
are critical to making this approach succeed , however. Clearly, not all volunteers
will be suited for this assignment. As a general rule , communities should confer
with a city attorney on issues relating to professional standards, practicality, legality,
and economics to receive advice and assistance in drafting specific language to be
included in a policy statement.
Here are somekey points to consider that relate to the use of volunteers within a tree
risk management program :

• Volunteers must be indemnified . The city attorney should determine the

process thatmust be followed to ensure volunteers are indemnified against
personal liability while assisting in a community tree risk management
program .

• Volunteers should receive proper training and supervision . Volunteers should

receive 1-2 days of training , with a heavy focus on conducting tree risk
assessments in the field . In addition to training, volunteers should always
work under the direct supervision of a local professional to become familiar
with the program specifications and local tree resource characteristics. The
professional should provide backup assistance on any trees that are difficult to
rate or pose other problems. Periodic spot-checking ofvolunteer work should
be done as a quality assurance measure , and the proficiency ofvolunteers in
conducting tree assessments must be regularly assessed .

Volunteers should be qualified. Whenever possible, an effort should be made

to work with volunteers who have a background in urban forestry or have
received urban forestry training from State Extension Programs and other
programs such asMaster Gardeners, Tree Care Advisors , Woodland Keepers
or Tree Keepers.

Volunteers should receive training on how to effectively talk with

homeowners about the purpose of the tree risk management program and
how to address concerns about tree removals.

Implement risk inspections and corrective actions according to established

methods and schedules. Risk inspections should be implemented according to the
methods and schedules established in Step 6. Establishment of an implementation
schedule for corrective actions is discussed in Step 7 .

Document tree risk inspections, corrective actions, and tree failures. It is critical
to document the inspection process and maintain records of recommended corrective
treatments and the dates they are implemented . Whatever tree risk assessment/
rating system is used , a standard data collection form should be used to capture
this information . The standard form should include the nameof the inspector,
date of inspection , tree defect and risk rating information, recommended corrective
treatments, the date, and who completes corrective treatments. Information
contained on the standard form can bemanually filed or entered into a computer
database file. Digital photography can a very valuable tool to document and
supplement inspection reports. Access to tree inspection data will help managers
actively manage their tree resource and make sound, objective, and timely
management decisions. For example, all high - risk trees recommended for removal
can be identified , and work schedules can be coordinated to remove such trees, on an
expedited basis .

Documenting the inspection process and tracking corrective actions will help
demonstrate that the community is implementing a systematic procedure for
inspecting, evaluating, and managing potentially hazardous trees. Tracking corrective
treatments as they are completed can be a powerful tool to document the number
 of high -risk trees that have been
removed since the inception of the
program , and demonstrates that the
community has materially reduced
risk to public safety through the
implementation of the tree risk
management program .

Inspect,document, and photograph

all tree failures and significant branch
failures immediately (Fig 2.15 ).
This information may prove to be
extremely valuable in defending
the community against negligence
Figure 2.15 . All tree failures and significantbranch failures should lawsuits. Collect information about
be inspected immediately, documented, and photographed. the details of the tree failure such
as the presence and severity of
structural defects , wood decay, or injuries;maintenance history; site conditions; the
time and date of the tree failure, and prevailing weather conditions. Document the
inspector's opinion as to how and why the tree failed , if any significant structural
defects were present, and any other extenuating factors that may have contributed to
the failure. Collect this information on a standard form , and store it within the tree
risk management computer database program , along with tree risk assessment data.
Appendix 2 contains an example form for recording tree failures, developed by the
California Tree Failure Reporting Program .

Analysis of tree failure data can help to identify patterns of recurring failure of certain
tree species, or failures associated with specific structural defects, site conditions,
or management practices. This information can be an invaluable tool for the tree
risk managers to pinpoint high-risk “problem ” tree species in need ofmore frequent
risk inspections or corrective pruning, and more accurately assess the risk potential
of certain defects. Identification ofhigh -risk or “ problem ” tree species can help
tree planting programsmake better choices ofwhat trees should be planted in the
community, and refine their list of recommended tree species for planting.

Are You Getting What You Want?

Step 10. Evaluate Program Effectiveness
There are amyriad of books and other materials in print that provide in -depth
analysis of program evaluations, their designs,methods, and techniques. There are
at least 35 different types of evaluation including needs assessments , accreditation ,
cost-benefit analysis, efficiency, formative , summative, goal-based , process, outcomes
etc. (McNamara 1998 ). Outcome-based program evaluations are being used
increasingly for non -profit and community -based programs. An outcome-based
evaluation can determine if your organization is doing the right program activities to
bring about the outcomes you believe or have verified to be needed by your clients.
Outcomes are benefits to clients from participation in the program . For a tree risk
management program , two expected outcomes would be 1) increased public safety
and 2) improved urban forest health and sustainability. Once themajor outcomes
are identified , observable measures or indicators of success or failure must also be
identified. For example , if the annual number of reported cases of personal injury or
property damage due to hazardoustrees has been reduced since the inception of the
program , the tree risk management program can be credited with improving public
 safety . An observable indicator of improved urban forest health and sustainability
would be a decline in the number of very high -risk trees in need of removal, and
fewer trees in need of corrective pruning.

The overall program and all program components should be evaluated to determine
how they are performing. For example, the following questionsmight be addressed :

• Is the risk rating system working ?

• Weremost of the trees that failed rated as high- risk trees? If yes, then the
tree-risk -rating system is working. If trees with low numeric ratings for
failure are failing , then adjustments must be made to the tree-risk -rating
system .

Review quality control checks to see if the staff are accurately conducting
tree assessments . Survey staff to determine what they like or dislike and
what they feel is working and not working aboutthe tree -risk -rating
system .

• Has the number of tree “ hazard ” complaints from the public decreased ?

• Is there a backlog of trees needing removal?

• Is the inspection schedule working?

• Are there any cost reductions as a result of corrective actions taken ?

• Is staff training effective?

• Is the use of volunteers effective?

• Are citizens unhappy with corrective actions?

• Is there a need to have a public review period ?

Authors

Jill D. Pokorny
Plant Pathologist
USDA Forest Service
State & Private Forestry, Northeastern Area

Jana S. Albers
Forest Health Specialist
Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, Division of Forestry

Literature Cited

Albers, J.; Hayes, E. 1991. How to detect, assess, and correct hazard trees in
recreational areas. St. Paul,MN: Minnesota Department of Natural Resources.64 p .
Bratkovich , S. M.2001. Utilizing municipal trees: ideas from across the country . NA
TP-06-01. Newtown Square, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
Northeastern Area, State and Private Forestry. 91 p .

Cesa, E .; Lempicki, E .; Howard , J. 1994. Recycling municipal trees: a guide for

marketing sawlogs from street tree removals in municipalities. NA- TP-02-94 .
Radnor, PA : U. S. Department of Agriculture , Forest Service , Northeastern Area,
State and Private Forestry. 52 pp.

California Tree Failure Report Program . 2002. California tree failure report form (Form
[Link]). Davis, CA: University ofCalifornia. 2 p .

Colorado Tree Coalition (CTC ). 1999. Hazard treemanagement. Fort Collins CO :

Colorado State Parks. 93 p .

Council of Tree and Landscape Appraisers (CTLA). 2000. Guide to plant appraisal (9th
Edition). Champaign , IL : International Society of Arboriculture. 143 p.

Demsey, G. 1994. Notes from hurricane Andrew . In : Burban , L. L .; Andersen , J. W.,

eds. Storms over the urban forest, 2nd Edition. Radnor, PA : U. S. Departmentof
Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Area , State and Private Forestry: 105-133.

Hayes, E. 2002. Evaluating trees for defects (2nd Ed.). Rochester, MN : [Link] . 34
p.

Jaenson , R .; Bassuk , N .; Schwager, S .; Headley, D. 1992. A statisticalmethod for

the accurate and rapid sampling of urban street tree populations. Journalof
Arboriculture. 18 (4 ): 171-183.

Johnson , D. 1981. Tree hazards: Recognition and reduction in recreation sites. Tech .
Rep. R2-1. Lakewood , CO : U. S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service , Rocky
Mountain Region . 17p.

Johnson, J.R. 1999. Storms over Minnesota .Minnesota Shade Tree Advocate 2( 1): 1-12 .

Johnson , J.R .; Hauer, R.J. 2000. A practitioner's guide to stem girdling roots of trees.
BU -7501-S . St. Paul,MN : University of Minnesota Extension Service. 20 pp .

Matheny, N. P., Clark, J. P. 1994. A photographic guide to the evaluation of hazard

trees in urban areas (2nd ed .). Champaign, IL : International Society of Arboriculture.
85 p .

McNamara, C. 1998. Basic guide to program evaluation : The management assistance

program for nonprofits . http : // [Link]/library/evaluatn/tnl_eval.htm .
(Accessed December 2001) .
 Mills, L.; Russell, K. 1981. Detection and correction of hazard trees in Washington's
recreation areas.Report42. Olympia ,WA: Washington Department of Natural
Resources. 37 p .

Paine, L. A. 1971. Accident hazard : evaluation and control decisions on forested

recreation sites. Res. Pap . PSW -RP-68 . Berkeley, CA: U. S. Department of

Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station .
11 p .

Petitjean ,M. L .; Ryan , D. P.; Bloniarz., D.V. 1997. Establishing the value of street trees.
Northeast Center for Urban and Community Forestry Newsletter 1(2): 1-8 .

Smiley, E.T.; Fraedrich, B.R. 1997. Hazardous tree evaluation and management
(version 3.3 ). Charlotte ,NC: Bartlett Tree Expert Co. 65p.

Tate, R. L., 1985. Uses of street tree inventory data. Journal of Arboriculture. 11 (7) :
210-213 .

Wallis, G .; Morrison, D .; Ross, D. 1980. Tree hazards in recreation sites in British

Columbia . Joint Report No. 13. Canadian Forest Service, British Columbia Ministry
of Lands, Parks and Housing. 52 p .

World Forestry Center. 1993. A technical guide to urban and community forestry .
Portland, OR: World Forestry Center. 49 p .

General Reference

Kuser, J.E., editor. 2000. Handbook of urban and community forestry in the northeast.
New York : Kluwer Academic/ Plenum Publishers. 444p .
40 - Community Tree Risk Management: Program Planning and Design
 CHAPTER 3

How to Detect and Assess Hazardous Defects in Trees

By Jana S. Albers, Jill D. Pokorny and Gary R. Johnson

Defects and their risk of failure

There are as many ways for trees to fail as
there are trees. An ice storm can overload all
the branches on a tree, a blustery wind can
blow down a tree if its roots are restricted or
a cracked tree can and fail just under its own
weight. See Figures 3.1, 3.2 , and 3.3 .

Trees are designed to easily withstand the

normal windstorms and winter stormsthat
occur, yet we have all seen trees that have
failed . Trees fail when the load (weight and
motion of the crown) exceeds the mechanical Figure 3.1. Branch union failure during an ice storm .

strength of their branches, stems or root

systems. See Figure 3.4 . This is true for both
sound and defective trees, but defective trees
can only withstand a fraction of the load that
sound trees can withstand . Defective trees
fail sooner than sound trees.

A sound tree becomes potentially dangerous

when the tree's woody structure is weakened
by one or more defects. Most defects can
be linked to past wounding and decay,pest
infestations, severe storms, or to growing
Figure 3.2 . Blowdown tree due to restricted roots.
conditions that limited the root system . Since

defects, the old injury sites and nearby wood ,

are structurally weaker than uninjured wood,
the tree is predisposed to fail at the location
of the defects (Figure 3.5 ). During storms,
pre -existing defects predispose trees to failure
(Johnson and Johnson 1999).

Defects are visible signs that a tree has the

potential to fail (Figure 3.6) and the location
of a defect signals where failure is most
likely to occur. Tree failure can be predicted
because defects show us where the tree is
Figure 3.3. A cracked tree failed justunder its own
likely to fail. This manual identifies seven weight.
categories of defects: decayed wood, cracks,
root problems, weak branch unions, cankers , poor tree architecture, and dead trees, tops, or
branches. See Box 1. Seven categories of defects. Examples of tree defects and risk rating systems
were chosen to depict tree species and conditions that occur in the Northeastern U.S.
Figure 3.4 . Trees fail when the load exceeds the tree's mechanical
strength .

BOX 1

Seven categories of defects

Decayed wood
Figure 3.5 . Defective trees fail sooner than
sound trees.
Cracks

Root problems Healthy, well-maintained trees that are

growing on suitable sites will be able to
Weak branch unions minimize the impact of wounding and
the extent of decay and other defects.
Cankers Trees that are site - stressed have reduced
energy reserves, and therefore ,have
Poor tree architecture
compromised ability to deal with wounds
and the ensuing decay. Urban trees are
Dead trees, tops, or branches
AY more likely to be site-stressed due to
a number of factors. Most urban trees
survive on construction -altered soils that
may be compacted , poorly drained , high in clay, sand, or
gravel, very alkaline or littered with construction debris.
Quite often , these trees are growing in root-confined spaces,

Figure 3.6 . Defects are visible signs Figure 3.7 . When the roots, stem , or branches are
that a tree has the potential to fail. defective, a tree can becomehazardous.
such as, narrow boulevards or sidewalk Form 3.1 . Defective trees : Risk assessment guidelines
(See FormsSection for a full-size copy of the form ).
planting pits. See Figure 3.7 . Additionally,
many urban trees are subjected to chemicals Defective trees: Risk assessment guidelines
Tree defects Moderate risk of failure High risk of failure
such as deicing salts, herbicides and fertilizers Decay - Wood that has rotted • Indicators ofadvanced • Indicators ofadvanced decay are found on
or is missing. Indicators of decay are found on 25% to 40 % of the circumferenceofany stem , branch or
commonly used in landscape maintenance. advanced decay are rotten 40 % of the circumference of root collar
wood, fungal fruiting bodies, any stem , branch or root Note: In order to verify the extent
cavities,holes,open cracks or collar of [Link]
Poor tree maintenance exacerbates the stresses bulges in the wood. probes or drillsmayto want to useshell
determine
• Shell thickness is > and < 2 thickness
placed on trees by the above factors. These inches of sound wood for each - Stem has advanced decay and the shell thickness
6 inches of stem diameter and meets the following criteria:
stem has opening < 30 % of Shell thickness < 1 inch of sound wood
cumulative stresses all take a toll on tree stem circumference. for each 6 inches of stem diameter, or,
- Stem hasan opening 30% of the stem
vitality and structural integrity, increasing the circumference and shell thickness is 2 inches of
sound wood for each
risk of failure for urban trees. 6 inches of stem diameter
• Any large branch with decay.
Crack - crack is a separation • Stem has a single crack and • Stem is split in two by a crack.
of the wood : decay. •Stem segment hasmultiple cracks and decay.
a splitthrough the bark into the • Branch has a crack
wood.
In this chapter, seven common defects are • Roots within the area
Root problems - inadequate defined by the CriticalRoot • Leaning tree with recent evidence of root lifting,
anchoring by the root system , are < 40% damaged, soilmovement or soil mounding.
presented along with inspection techniques damaged roots or stem girdling Radius
decayed, severed,ordead. • Roots within the CriticalRootRadius are
roots. > 40% damaged,decayed, severed, or dead.
to assess the risk of failure for trees with these .Girdling roots constrict 40% of the root collar.
Wenk branch union - An • Branch union has included •Weak union is also cracked,cankered or decayed.
cpicormic branch or a branch bark •Large cpicormic branch on decayingstem .
defects. Each type of defect has a distinctive union with included bark.
Canker = An area where bark • Canker or canker plus decay . Canker affects > 40% of the tree's circumference,
range of symptoms that indicates its severity and cambium are dead. affect 25% to 40% of the • Canker plus decay affect 40% of the tree
tree's circumfcrence circumference
and the tree's potential to fail. Three risk Poor architecture - growth • Branch has a sharp bend or • Tree with excessive lean ( > 40 ).
pattern indicates structural twist. • Leaning tree has a crack in stem
imbalance or weakness in the • Large,horizontalbranch • Leaning tree has canker ordecay on the lower
of-failure ratings are used : low ,moderate branch, stem or tree with several verticalbranches
on it. • Leaning tree has a horizontal crack on the upper
and high (See Form 3.1: Defective trees: side lower
the of theside
lean and/ orbuckling bark andwood on
Dead wood = A dead tree or • Any lodged branch.
Risk assessment guidelines). A tree with a dead branches • Any dead tree, tree top or branch.
low risk -of-failure rating has a defect that
Defects
potential : Defects are visible signs that a tree is failing er hasthe Minimum amountofsoundwood in shell needed:
does not appear to be currently affecting the the defectsto fail. Defects predispose a tree to fail at the location of Need ofsound shell
Defective tree : A tree with oneormore defects
Risk offailure : Risk of tree or branch failure can be predicted for each of diameter
because Steen Shell
structural integrity of the tree . A tree with a weakes .defects indicateseventy
Since defect which canpartofthe
change tree structurally
the tree's risk of the Diameter thickness
moderate risk -of-failure rating may or may not failure can change over time 12
Moderate risk of failure : Currently, the tree's defects do not 2
meet the thresholdfailure
in eventualtree for failure. Thedefects rayormay to benotresult 10 4
result in eventual failure, but does not warrant monitored to determine if"Moderate
the defectsriskhavetreeschanged
need since closely
the last Forstor without openings orcracks
24
inspection
High risk affailure : Currently,these defects indicate that the Need of sound shell
immediate corrective action . A tree with a high tree is in imminent danger of failing orhas
failed Corrective action should be taken as soon as possible. already partially for each of diameter
Risk management: Stem
risk -of-failure rating is in imminent danger of information needed toThese
evaluateguidelines
the failureareintended to provide the
potentialofinspected Diameter thickness
trees. Theyoftheare naturalvariability
because only guadelines. Absoluteof trees rules can not bemade
and theirdefects. All of 1216 4
the defective trees can metde detected corrected or diminated 24 8
failing or has already partially failed . Corrective However, by doing inspections and acting on them ,we can
recessfullymanage therisk of treefailure For stem with openings < 30% of stem circumference
action should be taken as soon as possible. Inspectieas :Be systematic and complete. Inspect annually. Critical root radies The CRR is used to define the portion of
except
should wherebe donepolicy
after indicates
severe stormotherwise Additionalsense
[Link] inspections theroot system
experience and professional judgment are required ofthe trained vitality the [Link]
tree Theof radius
theareastemis asually
of thisThiscircular
that is critical
bsyond forastheability
area isdefined dripline andof the
tree inspector CRR (in feet ) - DBH 15
Tree species,age, size and condition : These allplay a role in
Use the severity levels found in this chapter as theconsistently
type, extentandto severity of [Link] specieshavemore
we
defects. Treesprone in goodcertain
conditiondefects
have the trees
capacitytend toto createmore
wood
of years which can reduce the severity of some defects over aperiod
guidelines when assessing trees. Remember,
Exposure
have a higherandexposure
crownstreto winds
: Open-thangrowntreestreesgrowing
with full crowns
in groups DBH 13 - CRR
these are guidelines; no absolute rules can be Hands
the severityRecentofdefects
change in wind exposure or crown size can affect
Decumentation : ALWAYS document inspections and actions
made to cover the natural variability of trees Use
defectsa form thatrecords
and their inspectiondate, treeactions,
severity,recommended species,tree location,
action taken and
date.
"Low It'shelpfulte
Risk trees map the arca. Remember to documentthe
and their defects. Although the list of defects Treatment :Correcting defective trees can be as creative as your
Imagination and resources allow Treatments include moving the
and their combinations appears to be lengthy, target, rerouting traffic, closing of or fracing offthe site, pruning
the defective branches,reducingthe crownweight exposure and
ultimately,removing the tree
it is not exhaustive. Inspectors need to use their Epicerk branch Epicermic branches are nes, younger
per thatreplacedinjured,
branches pruned declining branches
judgment and local experience when evaluating toTheytheform cak unions
centerofthe stem because they are not stached all the way
Decay: Decay is generally limited to the column ofwood
present at theif enough
determine timeof [Link] toshellsupportthe thickness to
and assessing tree defects. risk of failure increasessoundwhenwooddecayremains columns expand intotrecthe The new Od
wood because there is no sound shell ofwood near these defects.
Continuously expanding columns of decay are the result of MINNESOTA
mrolled
infections cracka (rams-homing). girdling routs and canker-rot Department of
Individual tree inspections are enhanced
if inspectors have an understanding of the
factors that create or accelerate the development of defects in trees. Several species have growth
characteristics that make them prone to certain defects (Table 3.1).
Table 3.1. Tree defects by species.
- Y
Commonly found
Species group defects
Comments

Weak branch unions Due to included bark and opposite branching pattern

Ash Poor architecture Multiple codominant stems

Branch breakage Branch shedding in trees > 15 ” d.b.h.

Decay Common in older stems due to canker-rot fungus.

Aspen Canker Stem breakage at canker.

Root problems Stem girdling roots.

Decay Common in older stems, usually large columns of decay.

Basswood
Branch breakage Branch shedding in trees > 15 " d.b.h.
Canker-rot common in stem .

Decay Susceptible to soil compaction , summer soil

Birch Root problems temperatures.
Dead tree tops
Susceptible to boring insects if predisposed by root

problems.
Black cherry Branch breakage Rapid decay of dead branches.

Decay Wood is quickly and extensively decayed .

Boxelder
Branch breakage Branch shedding in trees > 15 ” d.b.h.
Root problems Stem girdling roots
Cottonwood
Branch breakage Branch shedding in large, old trees.

Due to Dutch elm disease .

Dead branches, tree
Elm Stem girdling roots
Root problems
Included bark

Cracks Common in lower stem .

Hackberry Weak unions Common due to growth habit of tree .

Branch breakage Branch shedding in trees > 15 " d.b.h.

Hawthorn Weak unions Common due to branching pattern .

Hickory Branch breakage Branch shedding in trees > 15 ” d.b.h.

Canker Susceptible to insect and fungal cankers.

Honey locust Root problems Stem girdling roots

Branch breakage Branch shedding in trees > 15 ” d.b.h.

Ironwood Root problems Shallow root system is easily damaged .
Cracks Wounds during tree's youth becomecracks as trees age.

Maples, Cankers Susceptible to insect and fungal cankers.

red & sugar Weak unions Codominant stems commonly have included bark.

Root problems Stem girdling roots.

; in Trees
 Same as maples, above Wood tends to fracture .
Maples , silver
Branch breakage Branch shedding in trees> 15 ” D.B.H.
Susceptible to brown- rot decay.

Decay Due to construction damage, borer attack or root decay.

Dead branches Susceptible to oak wilt disease .

Oaks , red
Dead tree Branch shedding in trees> 15 ” DBH , esp . after stand

Branch breakage thinning

Pear Weak unions Multiple branching, included bark

Walnut Branch breakage Branch shedding in trees > 15” D.B.H.

Cracks Wood is easily fractured .

Willow Root problems Stem girdling roots.

Branch breakage Branch shedding in trees > 15 ” D.B.H.

Decay Susceptible to canker-rot decay fungus.
All conifers
Branch breakage Due to snow - loading or windstorms.

Prone to stem and root collar decay.

Decay
Balsam fir Susceptible to insects consuming needles or cambium
Dead top
layer.

Susceptible to insects consuming needles or cambium

Pines ,
Dead top , dead tree layer.
jack & red
Jack pines susceptible to cankers.
Branch breakage Wood in branches is easily fractured .
Pines, white
Dead branches, tops Susceptible to white pine blister rust.

Spruces Root problems Shallow rooted and susceptible to windthrow .

Tamarack Root problems Susceptible to root rot.

All defective trees cannot be detected , corrected or eliminated

All defective trees cannot be detected, corrected or eliminated . To begin with , our knowledge
of trees is less than complete. Although we can readily recognizemost defects, there are root
problems and some internal defects that are not easily discernable. These trees may require in
depth assessments and the use of specialized diagnostic tools. Secondly, defect severity can and
does change with time. Inspection and correction schedules should be consistent from year to
year. Finally , trees are masters at covering up problems and surviving. All defective trees cannot
be detected ; our aim is to find 80 percent ormore of the defective trees with each inspection . By
doing inspections and acting on them in a timely manner, we can successfully manage the risk of
tree failure in our urban forests .
 The Seven Defect Categories

Decayed wood

Cracks
100

Root problems

Weak branch unions

Cankers

Poor tree architecture

M

Dead trees, tops , or branches

46 - How to Detect and Assess Hazardous Defects in Trees

 Decayed Wood

Decayed wood = wood that has rotted or is missing .

Advanced decay and cavities always result

in less structural strength and reduced
stability. Indicators of advanced decay
are rotten wood , fungal fruiting bodies,
cavities,holes, open cracks or bulges in
the wood . See Figure 3.8 .

Decayed wood is the result of the long

term interaction between a tree and
decay -causing fungi. The decay process
takes wood through several stages of
degradation; from stain to decay to
Figure 3.8 . Advanced decay reduces the structural integrity
cavity. The presence of advanced decay or and strength ofwood.
a cavity results in less structural strength
and can reduce the stability of the tree. Decay can occur
in branches, stemsand/or roots. Root decay will be
discussed further in the section on Root Problems. Some
tree species are resistant to decay; others decay quickly
and more extensively ( Table 3.1).

Wood decay is an internal process with just a few external

indications. Indicators of advanced decay are the fungal
fruiting bodies — mushrooms, conks and brackets (see
Figure 3.9 ) and rotten or punky wood, cavities, hollows,
holes, inrolled cracks, and bulges in the wood (see Figures
3.10 through 3.14 ).
Figure 3.9. Fungal fruiting bodies
indicate advanced decay.

Figure 3.10 - 3.11. Rotten or punky wood or cavities indicate advanced decay.
 Figure 3.12 . Hole in stem Figure 3.13. Decay is always Figure 3.14 . Bulges often indicate
revealing internal column of associated with inrolled cracks. decay.
advanced decay.

Wounds start the decay process. See Figures 3.15 through 3.19. Wounds can be caused by storms,
vehicles , excavation , improper pruning, vandalism , and by animals and insects.

Figure 3.15. Wounds start the Figure 3.16 . Old pruning wound with decay. Figure 3.17. Old wound with
decay process. wood discoloration .

Figure 3.18 . Lawn mower damage associated with Figure 3.19. Human caused canker with internal
decay. decay.

sin Trees
 Wounds expose cambium and wood to air or to soil, if wound is underground (Text Box 2 and
Figure 3.20 ).

BOX 2

What is the cambium ?

The cambium is a layer between the bark and wood that sheaths the tree from root tip
to branch tip . See Figure 3.20 . This is the layer that creates wood and inner bark each
year.

Cambium

Figure 3.20 . The cambium is a thin layer of cells that sheath the tree.

Decay -causing fungi infect thewounds and can , in time, cause advanced decay. Trees
interact with decay -causing fungi and limit the spread of decay within the tree. See Box 3:
Compartmentalization of decay and other defects.

How to C
Compartmentalization of decay and other defects .

Compartmentalization explains how wounded trees set boundaries which limit the spread
of decay (Shigo 1989). The process of compartmentalization preserves a tree's mechanical
strength so that a decaying tree does not fail. Compartmentalization also occurs when
wounded trees are infected with canker -causing fungi, mining or boring insects , and other
agents .

How does a tree limit decay and other defects ?

1. Wounding starts the process . A wound exposes cambium and wood to air (or soil if
below ground). See Figure 3.20.

2. The living cells just behind the wound react immediately. If wounding occurs during the
dormant season , the cambium reacts very early the next spring .

3. The tree creates a new wall,

called the barrier zone, to Clear wood
prevent the invading micro
organisms from spreading out
into the new and future wood .
It is created by the cambium . Barrier zone
It is a continuous barrier, both
chemical and physical, which
is built right into the current Wound-altered
annualring. The barrier zone wood
persists for the life of the tree in
the annual ring in which it was
created . See Figure 3.21 .

4. A succession of bacteria
and fungi are involved in the
Figure 3.21. The barrier zone separates wood formed before
infection of the wound and they wounding from wood formed after wounding .
grow into the wood .

5. The compartmented tree uses its existing structure to limit the extent and severity of
injured and infected tissues.

6. Discolored and sometimes decayed wood results, butit is limited by the barrier zone
and other walls. Inside the barrier zone, the tree attmpts to halt or contain the invading
fungus. The column ofwood is decay -altered , ranging from discolored wood to decayed
wood to a cavity. The actual extentand severity ofdecay within the column is up to the
interaction between the tree , the fungi and how long they've been interacting.

7. New wood , laid down in the years after wounding,will be free from decay.

in Trees
BOX 3 - Compatmentalization - continued

The barrier zone separates wood formed before wounding from wood that will form after
wounding. The essence of compartmentalization is that trees set the boundaries; trees limit
the decay column so that new wood will be free from decay. See Figure 3.22 .

Decay will be contained or limited by the barrier zone. If you know the size of the tree when
itwas wounded , then you know the potential extent of internal decay , all the wood present at
the time ofwounding.

Clear
sapwood

Barrier
zone

Wound
altered
wood

Discoloration

Decay

Wound

Redrawn (After Shigo, 1977).

Figure 3.22. Trees limit the extent of decay so thatwood formed after wounding will
be free from decay
Commonly, the extent of decay is limited to thewood present at the timeof wounding . See
Figure 23. All wood inside this column could potentially be decayed . In reality,decay is often
limited to the location of the wound and only extends a few feet above and below thewound.
Wood produced after the year ofwounding will not be decayed. However, if a tree wounded a
number of times over a period of years, multiple decay columns are created and they often merge.
See Figure 24. Only in advanced stages of decay do the fungi produce fruiting bodies.

li 5.
st 79

Figure 3.23. Decay is usually limited

to thewood column present at the time
of wounding.

Multiple
barrier zones

Clear wood

Figure 3.24 . Additionalcolumns of discolored and decayed wood form as the tree suffers
additional wounds.

in Trees
The undecayed layer surrounding the compartmentalized decay column is called the shell. See
Figure 3.25 . If the shell thickness is thin relative to the size of the tree , the shell is likely to
fracture causing the tree to fail. See Figures 3.26 . Studies have
shown that, if a tree has less than one inch of sound wood in its
shell for every six inches of stem diameter, then the tree is
likely to fail (Mattheck
1998 ). See Figure 3.27
and Table 3.2 .Measure
stem ( or branch )
diameter where decay
is present. If possible,
determine where the
shell is the thinnest and
take your measurement
there because the tree is
most likely to fail where
the shell is the thinnest.
Figure 3.25. The outermost layer of Figure. 3.26 . If shell thickness
undecayed wood is called the "shell. is thin relative to stem diameter,
then that area is likely to fail.

Table 3.2 . Shell thickness requirements for closed shell

Closed shells need at least 1 inch of sound shell for

each 6 inches of stem diameter
Stem diameter Shell thickness
(inches) (inches)
1

12 2

18 3

24 4

48 8

Shell
thickness

Figure 3.27 .
There needs to be
at least 1 inch of
sound wood in
the shell for each
6 inches of stem
Diameter diameter. Measure
1 in the same location
0
on the tree .

How to Detect and Assess Hazardous Defects in Trees - 53

 All trees do not have a
sound shell ofwood :
somehave openings in
them . See Figures 3.28
and 3.29 . An opening
can be a hole, and old
wound , a fire scar, a
cankered area or a wide
crack . A tree can have
internal decay and
Figure 3.28-3.29. All trees do not have a solid
an opening and still shell of sound wood. Some trees have cracks or
be structurally sound openings in them .
provided that the shell
is thick enough and
the openingis not too
wide. If an opening in the stem is up to 30 percent of the stem circumference, then the shell
needs to have at least 2 inches of sound wood for every six inches of stem diameter ( Fraedrich
and Smiley 1999 ). See Figure 3.30 and Table 3.3. Trees with larger openings and / or thinner
shells are likely to fail.

Table 3.3 . Shell thickness requirements for open shell

Open shells need atleast 2 inches of sound shell

for each 6 inches of stem diameter when the open
ing is less than 30 % of the stem circumference .
Stem diameter Shell thickness
(inches) (inches)
6 2

12 4

18 6

24 8

48 16

Shell
thickness
Figure 3.30
S There needs to be
at least 2 inches
of sound wood in
the shell for each 6
Diameter inches of diameter
when openings
occur in the stem .
Opening in The openings must
shell be smaller than
Opening < 30 % of
stem circumference 30 % of the stem
circumference.

54 - How to Detect and Assess Hazardous Defects in Trees

 Shell thickness can be affected by the presence of bulges or swellingson the stem . See Figure
3.31. Bulges in the stem are formed as a reaction to the presence of decay. Bulges and swellings
help strengthen the tree and can decrease the likelihood of failure due to the presence of decay.
See Box 4: Adaptive growth and decay.

Adaptive growth and decay

Thicker annual rings are created where the risk of breakage is [Link] decay fungi
are active , the wood's structure is weakened . Each year, as the tree creates a new annual
ring, a slightly thicker layer of wood is created in the vicinity ofthe decayed wood. See
Figures 3.31 and 3.32 . Over time, the tree creates bulges , swellings, etc. to add wood more
quickly to that area, decreasing the likelihood of failure and fracture due to the presence of
decay.

Thicker annual
rings created
near decayed wood

Figure 3.31. Trees create

thicker annual rings in the
vicinity of decaying wood. Over
time, bulges or swellings develop. Figure 3.32. Bulges and swellings indicate advanced decay.

One group of decay -causing fungi, the brown rotters , do

not induce the tree to create extra wood near the location
of the decay. Bulges and swellings are not produced .
Examples of these fungi are : The velvet-top fungus,
Phaeolus schweintizii, on conifers , the chicken mushroom ,
Laetiporus sulfureus, and the red -belt fungus, Fomitopsis
pinicola , on hardwoods and conifers . See Figure 3.33.

Figure 3.33 . Decay

caused by a brown rot
fungus.
 If a tree is repeatedly wounded by the presence of inrolled cracks,
included bark , canker-rot fungi, or equipment (mowers, plows,
and weed whips), decay occurs in every annualring of wood . See
Figures 3.34 through 3.36 and Box 5 : Canker-rot fungi. These
trees should be carefully inspected because their decay is never
fully compartmentalized and a sound shell ofwood does not
form . The tree is likely to fail at
or near the location of the crack
or wound because a large and
ever-expanding column of decay Figure 3.34. Canker rot
is present there. Again , evaluate fungi cause the decay column to
shell thickness and opening constantly enlarge

width to help determine the tree's

potential for failure.

Figure 3.35. An inrolled crack

creates an ever -expanding column Figure 3.36 . Diagram of decay
in an inrolled crack .
of decay.

BOX 5

Canker- rot fungi

A canker-rot fungus rewounds the tree each year and infects each new annual ring
allowing decay to spread . A solid shell ofwood cannot be formed at the location of a
canker-rot infection . See Figure 3.37 .

Some examples of these fungi and their hosts are : Phellinus pini on conifers ; P.
everhartii and P. robustus on oaks ; P. spiculosus on oaks, hickories, and honey locusts ;
P. tremulae on aspens; Inonotus obliquus on birches ; I. glomeratus on maples ; and I.
hispidus and I. andersoni on many hardwood species. See Figure 3.38 .

Fungalfruiting
body

Figure 3.37 . Decay spreads to all new wood layers as they form Figure 3.38 . Fomes connatus on
each year. Decay is not fully compartmentalized . maple .

56 - How to Detect and Assess Hazardous Defects in Trees

In some situations, wood is missing from one side
of the tree due to a combination of causes

such as decay, canker, or mechanical wounding. In

this case, a tree needs at least 60 percent of
its circumference to be sound wood . See Figure
3.39.

All the situations described for stems also apply to

branches and root collars.

Visual assessment of the extent of decay can often

be a reliablemeans of predicting potential risk .
However, invasive techniques may be needed to
quantify the thickness of the sound shell of wood
in comparison to the size of the tree. Use a probe Figure 3.39. A tree needs at least 60 percent of
its circumference to be sound.
or another tool to test several areas in order to find
the location of the thinnest shell of sound wood .
The shell will be thinnest between root flares, where the defect symptom is most pronounced , or
just behind the bulge of an inrolled crack . If possible, use a metal rod to probe existing holes and
cracks to determine shell thickness . Use an increment borer, drill, or other invasive techniques
only when there are no other means to estimate the extent of sound wood . See Figures 3.40 and
3.41.

Figure 3.40-3.41. Invasive techniques may be

used to quantify the extentofdecay.

In -depth assessments, using specialized diagnostic tools, may be warranted when additional
information about the location and extent of internal decay is critical to assessing the probability
of tree failure. See later section in this chapter, Tree risk inspections and the use of specialized
diagnostic tools.
 Decayed Wood

High risk of failure:

See Figures 3.42 through 3.45.

• Advanced decay affects more than 40 percent of the

circumference of any stem , branch , or root collar.
Note : In order to verify the extent of decay, you may want
to use probes, drills, or other diagnostic tools to determine
shell thickness.

• Stem has advanced decay and the shell thickness meets the Figure 3.42 . High risk of
following criteria : failure: Advanced decay affects
more than 40 percentof the
stem circumference.
- Shell thickness is less than 1 inch of sound wood for
each 6 inches of stem diameter, or

- Stem has an opening greater than 30 percent of the

stem's circumference, and the shell thickness is less
than 2 inches of sound wood for each 6 inches of stem
diameter.

Any large branch with decay.

Moderate risk of failure :

• Indicators of advanced decay are found on 25 to 40 percent

of the circumference of any stem , branch or root collar.

Shell thickness is between 1 and 2 inches of sound wood for

each 6 inches of stem diameter, and stem has opening less Figure 3.43. High risk of
than 30 percent of the stem's circumference. failure: Shell thickness is less
than 1 inch of sound wood per
each 6 inches of stem diameter.

Figure 3.44 . High risk of

failure: Stem has opening
greater than 30 % of its
circumference and there is
less than 2 inches of sound
wood for each 6 inches of stem Figure 3.45 . High risk of failure: Large
diameter branch with decay.

58 - How to Detect and Assess Hazardous Defects in Trees

 Cracks

Crack = a separation of the wood, a deep split

1181 through the bark and into the wood.

Cracks form when the load exceeds the capacity of the stem
to withstand the load . The vastmajority of cracks are
caused by improper closure of wounds, by the splitting of
weak branch unions, or by flush -cut pruning. See Figures
3.46 through 3.49 . Cracks can occur in branches, stems, or
roots. The wood behind the crack may be sound, decayed , or
missing (cavity). Several types of cracks can be found in trees
and, like other defects, the severity of cracks ranges across a
spectrum . Vertical cracks run with the wood grain , along the
length of the tree and may appear as shear cracks, inrolled
cracks, or ribbed cracks. Horizontal cracks run across the
wood grain . See Box 6 : Types of Cracks. Figure 3.46 . A crack indicates
that the tree is failing.

Types of Cracks

Vertical
Shear crack : Separates the stem into two halves along the wood grain .
Inrolled crack : Margins of crack turn inside the stem .
Ribbed crack : Has a raised rib ofwood on stem .

Horizontal
Horizontal crack : Cuts across the grain ; like cutting a tree down .

Figures 3.47-3.49. Most cracks develop from improper wound closure, splitting of weak branch unions, or from
flush cut pruning
NG

Shear cracks, a type of vertical crack , become hazardouswhen

they go completely through the stem and separate the stem

into two halves. See Figures 3.50 and 3.51. As the tree bends
and sways in the wind, one half of the stem slides over the
other, elongating the crack . Eventually the enlarging crack
causes the two halves of the stem to shear apart. See Figures
3.52 and 3.53. A shear crack always has a high risk of failure.
See Box 7 : Shear cracks.

Figure 3.50 . A shear crack

always has a high potential for
failure.

Figure 3.51. The enlarging crack Figure 3.52. Codominantstems

causes the stem to shear apart. commonly split, creating a shear
crack.

Shear Cracks

Shear cracks are

formed when weak ,
codominant stems
break apart. A
shear crack always
has a high risk of
failure. See Figure
3.54.

Figure 3.54. Cross section of a shear crack.

The tree is split into two halves.
Figure 3.53. Aftermath of shear crack
failure

60 - How to Detect and Assess Hazardous Defects in Trees

 |

Another type of vertical crack is an inrolled crack , also called a ram's

horn . The margins of this type of crack curl inward on each of its
sides and forms inrolled bark and wood. See Figures 3.55 through
3.58 . The fissure of an inrolled crack may appear open or closed .
Serious decay is always associated with an inrolled crack because the
crack margins rewound the tree each year allowing decay to spread
rapidly. Inrolled cracks often generate other cracks in the samestem
segment. See Box 8 : Inrolled crack . Trees with an inrolled crack ,
advanced decay, and another crack , all in the same stem segment, have
a high risk of failure. To determine the potential for failure, measure
the shell thickness in a few locations around the tree's circumference ,
determine the width of the crack opening and look for the presence of
any other type of crack .

Figure 3.55 . An
inrolled crack with
crack margins open
exposing hollow interior.

Figure 3.56 . An inrolled Figures 3.57-3.58 . Decay is always associated with

crack with crack margins an inrolled crack. There may or may notbe a hollow
closed . column inside the cracked tree.

Inrolled crack
Secondary
crack
An inrolled crack is formed when a wound
does not close properly . The layers ofbark
and wood forming themargins of the wound
meet but do not grow together and do not seal Year of
over the wound. Instead these layers curl wounding
inward on each side of the wound and form
inrolled bark and wood . See Figure 3.59. The
crack perpetuates itsfelf as new layers ofwood
are added each year to the inrolled bark and
wood , increasing the separating force between
Inrolled crack
the two sides and enlarging the crack . Seri
ous advanced decay is always associated
Figure 3.59. Evaluate inrolled cracks by
with inrolled cracks. Inrolled cracks become determining shell thickness, size of crack opening
more hazardous as they enlarge and generate and by checking for the presence of a secondary
secondary cracks in the stem . crack .
MO

A tree with a ribbed crack has a raised rib of wood on its stem with a crack along the length
ofthe rib . See Figures 3.60 and 3.61. The crack can be open or closed . See Box 9: Ribbed
cracks. A ribbed crack has a high risk of failure when associated with another crack or with
extensive advanced decay. Evaluate shell thickness and size of crack opening. Ribbed cracks
may also form at the base of weak unions or on large branches.

Figure 3.60. A ribbed crack creates a ridge-like Figure 3.61. A ribbed crack can fail when associated with
protruberance from themain stem . extensive advanced decay or another crack.

BOX 9
Ribbed cracks

Ribbed cracks are created as the tree attempts to seal over a wound . Margins ofthe
crack meet and mesh but are reopened due to tree movement or extremely cold tem
peratures . Thicker annual rings are created in order to stabilize the developing crack at
the location of the crack . This forms the ribbed appearance over a period ofmany years .
See Figure 3.62.

Rib

Year of wounding
barrier zone
formed

Figure 3.62 . Thicker annual rings are formed every year over the site of an old
wound which creates a ridge ( rib ) of wood.

in Trees
 NO

Horizontal cracks run across the grain of the

wood . See Figures 3.63 and 3.64. Horizontal
cracks are rarely found because they develop
just before the trees fail. See Box 10 : Horizontal
cracks. Horizontal cracks are a sign of imminent
failure in leaning trees (see the section on Poor
Architecture in this chapter for details ).

Horizontal cracks Figure 3.63. Horizontal cracks form across the

wood grain .

These cracks run across the grain of wood

and are formed when loading in the tree's
crown pulls wood fibers apart. Horizontal
cracks are a sign of imminent tree failure .

Seams are generally not hazardous, but

they can be confused with cracks. A seam
is a vertical line in the bark . See Figure 3.65
Figure 3.64.
Generally, a seam is Alush with the stem . A seam Horizontal
can be considered a phase in the wound sealing cracks are rarely
found because
process. See Figure 3.66 . As time passes, a solid
they develop just
shell ofwood begins to form over the old wound before trees fail.
which strengthens the stem and, eventually , the
seam disappears . Thewood inside the tree may be sound or decayed . If in doubt, evaluate
the tree's shell thickness to determine its risk of failure .

Seam

Year of
wounding

Figure 3.65. Seams are fully

compartmentalized. If internal decay is
present, check shell thickness.

Figure 3.66 . A seam can be considered a final phase in the wound

sealing process .
Cracks are hazardouswhen they compromise the structure of the tree by splitting the stem
in two or when another defect, such as internal decay and a crack, do not provide enough
sound wood in the outer shell to support the tree. The presence of multiple cracks and decay
indicates a very defective tree . Treeswith an inrolled crack, advanced decay, and another
crack , all in the same stem segment,have a high risk of failure.

Cracks
GI

High risk of failure:

See Figures 3.67, 3.68, and 3.69.

• Stem is split in two by a crack .

• Stem segmenthas multiple cracks and decay.
. Any cracked branch .

Moderate risk of failure :

• Stem has a single crack and decay .

Figure 3.67 . High risk of failure:

When stem is split in two by a crack.

Figure 3.68. High risk of Figure 3.69. High risk of

failure: When stem segment has failure:When any large branch is
multiple cracksand decay. cracked.
 Root Problems
Root problems = inadequate anchoring by the root system , damaged roots , or
stem -girdling roots .

When a tree has extensive root damage, the

whole tree usually tips over and falls to the
ground because the roots can no longer provide
adequate anchoring. Roots can be lost due to
excavation , trenching, soil compaction , grading,
paving , fungal decay, or environmental stress,
such as drought or flooding . See Figures 3.70
through 3.76 .

Figure 3.70. Failure of root system to anchor the

tree.

Figure 3.71
- 3.76 . Roots
can be lost due
to excavation ,
paving, soil
compaction ,
regrading,
trenching, and
root decay.

How to Detect and Assess Hazardous Defects in Trees - 65

 Common symptoms of root problems include: decline or dieback symptoms in the crown ,
dead roots , missing roots ,broken roots, decayed roots, leaning trees, and presence of fungal
fruiting bodies at the root collar. See Box 11: Crown decline.

Crown decline

Trees maintain a dynamic equilibrium between

their live branches and their roots. When the
equilibrium is disrupted by root disease, root
decay, or root loss , decline symptoms appear
in the branches . The loss of essential roots is
followed by the decline and dieback of twigs
and branches . If too much of the root system is
lost, the crown will decline and the tree will die
Figure 3.77. Crown decline is a symptom of
or it will fail. See Figure 3.77 .
extensive root system loss

Serious root problemsbecome apparent

when a tree develops a new or abnormal lean .
See Figure 3.78 . In these cases, a portion of the
root system failed and the tree started to tip over
but the tree was stabilized , at least temporarily,
by the remaining root system . Newly leaning
trees are often accompanied by soil mounding ,
soil cracking, root lifting, or root breakage near
the stem on the far side of the lean . See Figures Figure 3.78 . Root system failed to anchor tree
and tree developed a "new lean .” Look for soil
3.79 through 3.82 . A tree with a new lean may
mound , soil cracking near root collar, or broken
indicate a high risk of failure. Trees with an roots sticking out of the soil.
established , stabilized lean are discussed further
in the section on Poor Architecture.

Figure 3.81. A
leaning tree that
also had advanced
decay in the root
collar.

Figure 3.82.
Exposed roots on
Figures 3.79-3.80 . A leaning tree with a soil
tree that failied . mound at the base of the tree.

66 - How to Detect and Assess Hazardous Defects in Trees

 Sometimes it is obvious that trenching, paving, grading, or soil compaction occurred . See
Figures 3.83,3.84 , and 3.85 . To determine how much damage the root system did sustain ,
estimate how much of the critical rooting area was damaged based on the pattern of damage.
Critical rooting area is defined by the Critical Root Radius (CRR ). See Box 12 : Critical
Root Radius. The CRR is a circular area around the stem of the tree , usually larger than the
area defined by the tree's dripline. A tree is adequately anchored when the roots inside the
area defined by the CRR are sound and alive. Up to 40 percent of the root system can be
damaged before anchoring is seriously impaired ,but some tree species are more susceptible
to root loss than others . See Table 3.4: Tree characteristics . You may want to consider larger
CRR's for sensitive trees.

Figures 3.83-3.84. To estimate how Figure 3.85. Recent construction on

much root damage was sustained, three sides of this tree reduces anchoring
determine how much of the Critical Root ability of roots .
Radius was disturbed.

Critical root
radius
DBH x 1.5 = CRR
The CRR is used to
define the portion of
the root system nearest
the stem that is critical CRR
DBH
for the stability and 5 inches 7.5 feet
10 15
vitality of the tree. It is
15 22.5
a circular area defined 20 30
as CRR = DBH X 1.5
foot per inch . This area
is usually beyond the DBH
dripline of the tree. The
CRR can be used for
CRR
narrow - canopied trees
as well as open - grown
trees. (Miller et al 1995 ,
Matheny and Clark
Figure 3.86 . Use the Critical Root Radius to estimate the extent of damage
1991) See Figure 3.86 . to a tree's root system . Up to 40 percent of the area can sustain damage before
anchoring is seriously impaired .
Table 3.4 . Tree characteristics .

Soll Mature
Root
Specles compaction & Crown
severance
flooding spread
Northern white cedar Tolerant Tolerant 10-20 feet
Balsam fir Tolerant Tolerant 20-35
White fir Tolerant Sensitive 10-20
Tamarack Tolerant Tolerant 15-25
White pine Tolerant Sensitive 50-80
Jack pine Tolerant Sensitive 20-30
Red pine Tolerant Sensitive 20-40
Scotch pine (Tolerant) (Sensitive ) 30-50
Eastern redcedar Tolerant Sensitive 10-20
Black spruce Tolerant Tolerant 15-30
Colorado spruce Intermediate Tolerant 20-30
White spruce Tolerant Intermediate 20-30
Black ash Tolerant Tolerant 30-60
Green ash Tolerant Tolerant 30-50
White ash Tolerant Intermediate 50+

Bigtooth aspen Tolerant Sensitive 20-35

Quaking aspen Tolerant Sensitive 20-35

Blue beech Sensitive Sensitive 15-20
Paper birch Intermediate Sensitive 30-50
River birch Tolerant Tolerant 30-50
Yellow birch Intermediate Sensitive 25-50
Boxelder Tolerant Tolerant 35-50

Ohio buckeye Intermediate Intermediate 30-40

Butternut Sensitive Intermediate 50-60

Catalpa Intermediate Tolerant 30-50

Black cherry Intermediate Sensitive 40-50

Kentucky coffeetree Intermediate Intermediate 40-50

Eastern cottonwood Tolerant Tolerant 80-100

Red -osier dogwood Tolerant Intermediate 10-12

American elm Tolerant Intermediate 70-150
Slippery elm (Tolerant) (Intermediate ) 40-60

Hackberry Tolerant Intermediate 50+

Hawthorn Intermediate Intermediate 20-30
Bitternut hickory Intermediate Intermediate 30+

Honeylocust Tolerant Intermediate 50-75

Ironwood Sensitive Sensitive 20-30
Basswood ( Intermediate ) Sensitive 50-75

in Trees
 Soil Mature
Root
Species compaction & crown
severance
flooding spread
Black locust Tolerant Sensitive 20-50

Red maple Tolerant Tolerant 40-60

Silver maple Tolerant Tolerant 75-100

Sugar maple (Intermediate) Sensitive 60-80

Mountain ash Tolerant Intermediate 15-25
Black oak Sensitive Sensitive 50-70
Bur oak (Tolerant) Intermediate 40-80

Northern pin oak Sensitive Sensitive 30-50

Red oak Tolerant Sensitive 40-50

Bicolor oak (Intermediate) Tolerant 40-50

White oak Sensitive Sensitive 50-90
Wild plum Tolerant Sensitive 15-25
Serviceberry Intermediate Sensitive 6-15
Black walnut Sensitive Intermediate 60-100 +
Black willow Tolerant Tolerant 20-40

In other cases , particularly for root decay, it is difficult to see the pattern of damage in the
root system . Another means to assess the soundness of themain roots is to use a metalprobe
to locate and test them for the presence of advanced decay. See Figure 3.87 . At least 60-70
percent of the buttress and main roots need to be sound in order to have the tree adequately
anchored (Mattheck and Broeler, 1994 ).

Metalrod
or
probe

Т.

Figure 3.87 . Use a metal rod as a probe. To ensure that a tree is adequately anchored, 60-70 percent of its
main roots must be sound.

How to D
 A tree may have a restricted root system which can compromise the tree's stability and vigor.
Site conditions that restrict root systems are : shallow soils , compacted clay soils, saturated
soils, or confined rooting areas e.g. sidewalks, buildings. See Figures 3.88 through 3.90 . Due
to the asymmetrical nature of restricted root systems, these treesmay be at more risk than
their normally -rooted counterparts. See Box 13 : Restricted root systems. If new curbs
or sidewalks were installed or trenches dug for utility installation , roots aremore likely to be
damaged or removed during the construction process . See Figures 3.91 through 3.94 . Even
though the trees'vitality may recover over time, the trees are highly unstable for many years
due to their asymmetrical and reduced root systems. In root-restricting locations, roots are
much more critical for anchoring and stability. Here, any root loss is significant. So if any of

themain order roots inside the CRR are damaged or missing, the risk of tree failure is likely
to be high .

Figures 3.88-3.90 . Restricted root systemswill

compromise the tree's stability and vitality.

Figures 3.91-3.94. Roots are often removed or

damaged during construction .

70 - How to Detect and Assess Hazardous Defects in Trees

BOX 13

Restricted root systems

Roots of trees thathave been bounded

on at least two sides ( [Link] curb and
sidewalk ), have distinctively different
growth patterns, as compared to open
grown [Link] systems of open -grown
trees are shallow (usually less than 3 feet
in depth ) and quite extensive (usually
two to four times the height of the tree).
Figures 3.95
Restricted root systems generally grow 3.96 . Root
in a linear pattern , along the length of the systems in
restricted spaces
boulevard lawn . See Figures 3.95 and have distinctly
3.96 . When roots grow in the direction different growth
of the sidewalks and curbs, their roots patterns than
those without
characteristically " turn " with the physical
barriers.
obstructions and grow parallel to them .
Therefore, if a 20 inch dbh tree is growing
in a boulevard site that is 5 feetwide
and 60 feet long, the root system will OPEN
MERCHES
be concentrated in that 5 foot x 60 foot
rooting space .
 Besides being restricted by shallow soils or concrete
barriers, trees can be restricted by their own roots. See
Figures 3.97 through 3.99 . This condition is known
as “ stem
girdling roots”. Stem girdling roots aremost
commonly a human -caused problem . When a tree is
planted too deeply, roots that encircle the stem can
develop . Even as little as four inches of added soil can
be too much . Over time, the encircling roots start
compressing and killing the stem tissues below ground.
Stem girdled treesmost commonly break at a point
just below the girdling roots .
See Box 14 : Stem girdling
roots. Trees most commonly
decline in health or suddenly
fail in windstormswhen stem

compression reaches a point

where more than 40 percent
Figures 3.97-3.98 . A tree can be
of the stem circumference is restricted by its own roots when “stem
girdled . How to detect the girdling roots” encircle the stem .

presence of stem girdling roots

is discussed later in this chapter: Figure 3.99. Eventually trees with stem
Tree risk inspections and use of girdling roots fail due to extensive decay
at the root collar.
specialized diagnostic tools.

BOX 14

Stem girdling roots

There are probably several reasons why roots begin growing

in an encircling pattern around stems: they are already present
in pot-bound trees or they develop around trees planted in
extremely compacted soil, trees planted too deeply or when
roots hit solid obstructions in soil. See Figures 3.100 .When the Figures 3.100 . Stem girdling
roots develop when the tree is
stem is buried , the encircling roots can survive and develop into
young and become a problem in
stem girdling roots. a decade or two. If seedlings are
pot-bound or planted too deeply,
Trees that are suffering from stem stem girdling roots can develop .

girdling roots exhibit some common

symptoms: stunted growth , scorched foliage, abnormal leaning,
lack of a characteristic trunk flare , early leaf coloration and leaf fall,
and vulnerability to secondary problems. See Figure 3.101. These
symptoms are subtle and seemingly healthy trees can suddenly fail
during windstorms. In storm damage surveys conducted in 1997-1998
by the University of Minnesota's Forest Resources Department, 30
percent of all landscape trees that failed in windstorms failed at the root
collar due to stem girdling roots (Johnson 1999).

Figures 3.101. Trees with stem girdling roots may show symptoms of crown decline,
stunted growth, abnormal foliage, leaning, and lack ofnormal rootfares.

72 - How to Detect and Assess Hazardous Defects in Trees

 Root Problems

High risk of failure:

See Figures 3.102 , 3.103, and 3.104 .

• Leaning tree with recent evidence

Figure 3.102 . High risk of failure: Leaning tree with
of root lifting, soil movement, or recent evidence of root lifting, soilmovement or soil
soil mounding . mounding

• More than 40 percent of the roots

within the CRR are damaged ,
decayed , severed , or dead .

• Stem girdling roots constrict more

than 40 percent of the tree's
circumference.

Moderate risk of failure :

• Less than 40 percent of the roots

within the CRR are damaged ,
decayed , severed , or dead . Figure 3.103 . High risk of failure: Roots within CRR
are more than 40 percent damaged, decayed, severed, or
dead.

Figure 3.104 . High risk of failure: Stem girdling roots

constrict more than 40 percent ofthe tree's circumference.
NOTES :

s in Trees
 Weak Branch Unions

Weak branch union = An epicormic branch or a branch union with included

bark .

Treesmay suffer from

naturally formed
imperfections that can
lead to branch failure
at the union of the
branch and main stem .
There are two types

imperfections that create

weak branch unions:
a branch union with Figures 3.106 . Weak branch unions due
included bark , and , an to formation of epicormic branches.

epicormic branch . See

Figures 3.105 and 3.106 .
Figures 3.105 . Weak branch
Branch unions can be union due to presence of
included bark .
characterized as strong

or weak . Strong branch

unions have upturned branch bark ridges at branch
junctions. See Figure 3.107 and Box 15: Strong
branch unions. Annual rings of wood from the branch
Figure 107. Strong branch union .
grow together with annual rings of wood from the
stem , creating a sound, strong union all the way into
the center of the tree .

Strong branch unions

BBR
Strong branch unions have an BBR
upturned ridge of bark between
the stem and branch . This is
called the branch bark ridge
(BBR ) and can be found on the
uppermost part of the union .
See Figures 3.108 , 3.109 .

Figure 3.108 - 3.109 . Strong unions are characterized by

upturned branch bark ridges (BBR).
07

One type of weak branch union occurs when a branch and

stem (or two ormore codominant stems) grow so closely

together that bark grows between them , inside the tree. See
Figure 3.110 . The term for bark growing inside the tree is
" included bark .” See Box 16 : Included bark . Asmore and
more bark is included inside the tree, the weak union ismore

likely to fail. See Figures 3.112 and 3.113.

In storm damage surveys conducted in 1997-1998 by the

University of Minnesota's Forest Resources Department, 21
percent of all landscape trees that failed in windstorms failed
at weak branch unions of co -dominant stems. Some species
are notorious for having included bark : European mountain
ash , green ash , hackberry, boxelder, willow , red maple, silver
maple , Amurmaple, cherry and littleleaf linden ( Johnson Figure 3.110 . Weak branch
and Johnson 1999). union because bark is growing
inside the tree.

BOX 16

Included bark

Unlike the normal wood

to -wood connections of Included
bark
strong branch unions,
these weak unions have
bark -to -wood connec
tions. Bark does not
adhere to wood , so the
branch is not tightly at
tached to the tree . See Y
Figure 3.111.
Figure 3.111. Included bark between 2 codominant stems (left) and
between the stem and a branch (right).

Figure 3.112 - 3.113. Asmore bark is included inside

the branch union , the branch is more likely to fail.

76 - How to Detect and Assess Hazardous Defects in Trees

 Ma

Epicormic branches (also

called water sprouts ) are
formed as a response to
injury or environmental
stress. See Figure 3.114 .
Epicormic branches
are new branches

that replaced injured ,

pruned , or declining
branches . Commonly ,
epicormic branches Figure 3.114 . Epicormic branches are new branches
form on the stemsand that replace injured , pruned or declining branches.
branches of topped

trees. When old , large

epicormic branches are
growing on decaying stems or branches, the
Figure 3.115 . Large old
epicormics are very likely to fail. See Figure epicormic branches are
3.115 and Box 17 : Failure of epicormic likely to fail.
branch on topped stem .

Failure of epicormic branch on topped stem

Epicormic branches ,
Strong
by their very nature, union
form weak unions
Epicormic
because they are branch
shallowly attached
instead of being
attached all the
way to the center of
the stem . Epicor
mic branches grow
Crack
very quickly so they starting Epicormis
become heavy very branch
falls off
quickly. After a time
they loose their con
nection to the main WWA
branch and may
fall to the ground
because the under
lying wood cannot
support their weight.
Figure 3.116 . How an epicormic branch forms, growsand eventually fails on
See Figure 3.116 . a tree thatwas topped .

How to D
 If a weak union is also cracked , cankered or decayed , the union is likely to fail, causing the
branch to fall off the tree. Sometimes, ridges of bark and wood will form on one or both
sides of a weakened branch union in order to stabilize the union. The branch is very likely to
fail when a crack forms between the ridges. See Figure 3.117 .

Weak

Branch

D1 Unions

High risk of failure :

See Figures 3.118 through
3.120.

• Weak union is also cracked ,

cankered or decayed .
Large epicormic branch on
decaying stem .

Moderate risk of failure :

• When a branch or
codominant stem has
Figure 3.117 . If a Figure 3.118. High risk of failure: A
included bark .
weak union is also weak union that is also cracked.
cracked it is very
likely to fail.

Figure 3.119. High risk of failure: A weak union Figure 3.120 . High risk of failure: Large epicormic
that is also cankered or decayed . Note that branch is branches on a decaying stem .
also cracked .

78 - How to Detect and Assess Hazardous Defects in Trees

 Cankers
RUS Canker = an area where bark and /or
cambium are dead .

A canker is an area on a branch , stem , or root

where the bark and /or cambium are dead . As the
tree adds a new annual ring ofwood each year,
the cankered area will not be able to do so . Large
cankers or a number of small cankers in close
Figure 3.121. A canker is an area where the
proximity can predispose a tree to failbecause bark and the cambium are dead . Wood below
the canker is also disfigured .
there is not enough wood
to support the tree at the
location of the canker (s).
See Figures 3.121 through
3.123. Stems and branches
often fracture on or near
their cankers.

Cankers can be caused by

fungi, insects , lightning , or
mechanical damage such as
wounds and gouges caused
by vehicles, vandalism , lawn
mowers, or string-trimmers. Figure 3.122 , 3.123. Two viewsof samecanker: Cankers can predispose
See Figures 3.124 through a tree to fail because there is not enough wood to support the tree at the
location of the canker.
3.130 . Bark may or may

not adhere to the canker face. Fungal cankers are long-term , tree-fungus associations that
prevent normal wood formation at the canker location. Sometimes fungal cankers quickly
girdle the tree, killing the stem and branches above the canker.

Figure 3.124 - 3.126 .Many cankers have decaying wood below the cankered area.
 Figure 3.127 - 3.130 . Cankers can be caused by insects, fungi,
and mechanical wounds, including vandalism .

Regardless of origin , cankers can lead to tree failure if they affect 40 percent or more of
the tree's circumference. If decay is also present, the combination of decay and canker can
weaken the tree very quickly. When decay is present, evaluate shell thickness and size of
opening caused by the canker.

w
Cankers

High risk of failure :

See Figures 3.131 and 3.132.

• Canker affects 40 percent

ormore of the tree's
circumference .

Figure 3.131. High risk of Figure 3.132. High risk

• Canker plus decay affect 40 of failure:When canker plus
failure: When canker affects
percent or more of the tree's 40 percent or more of the tree's decay affect 40 percent or more
circumference . circumference. of the tree's circumference .

Moderate risk of failure :

.
Canker or canker and
decay affect 25 percent
to 40 percent of the tree's
circumference .

s in Trees
 Poor Architecture
Poor architecture = growth pattern
indicates structural imbalance and
weakness in the branch , stem or tree.

Whether it's a leaning tree or a branch problem ,

in most cases poor architecture is a product of past
changes in the tree's environment or growth pattern ,
or damage to the tree. Leaning trees are the most Figure 3.133 . Strucural imbalance causes
this tree to have poor architecture.
common example of poor architecture. See Figure
3.133 .

All trees lean to some extent. In some cases, tree

lean is a new or recent condition and is due to
35
partial windthrow . See the previous section on
Root Problems for this situation. In other cases, the
tree has leaned for a long time and is well anchored
and balanced for its load. Some situations warrant
treatment, however. If an established tree leans
Figure 3.134 . When an established tree
excessively, 40 degrees ormore, and hangs directly
leans excessively ( 40 degrees or more), then
over a target, then either the target should be moved target or the tree should be removed .
or the tree should be removed . See Figure 3.134 .

A leaning tree with a serious defect in the lower stem or root collar is very likely to fail
because it has both a structural imbalance and a weakness in the stem and roots. A leaning
tree is likely to fail when the lower stem or root collar is even moderately decayed or
cankered. See Figures 3.135 and 3.136 . Because of the unbalanced load that the tree carries,
there is always a high risk of failure.

A leaning tree
with a shear
or inrolled
crack is in
imminent
danger of
failing because
it has already
fractured . See

Figure 3.137.

Figure 3.135 . Note fungal Figure 3.136 . Canker and Figure 3.137 . A leaning
fruiting bodies. Advanced decay in lower stem of a tree with a crack is in
decay in base of a leaning leaning tree. imminent danger of failing.
tree .
Leaning trees may also fail with only subtle warning signs. A leaning tree displaying tension
and buckle symptoms has a high risk of failure (Mattheck 1998). See Box 18 :Leaning tree
with tension and buckle symptoms. A leaning tree with tension and buckle symptoms has a
high risk of failure because it has already partially failed . See Figures 3.139 and 3.140.

BOX 18

Leaning tree with

tension and buckle Tension Buckle

symptoms symptom
symptoms

Tension symptoms are hori Bark may be Bulges in

zontal cracks on the upper missing bark

side of a leaning tree. Hori

Horizontal
zontal cracks are formed as
crack
wood fibers are torn apart.
See Figure 3.138 .

Buckle symptoms are bulges

in the bark and wood on the
lower side of a leaning tree .
The buckles are formed as
the wood is compressed by
the weight of the leaning tree.
Bark may appear loose or
compressed.

Figure 3.138. Tension and buckle symptoms on a leaning tree.

Figure 3.139. Tension symptom : Horizontal crack Figure 3.140. Buckle symptom : Bulges in bark on
in wood of leaning tree. lower side of leaning tree.

s in Trees
A harp tree (also called trees on trees) can be recognized as

a tree with a large horizontal branch that supports several,

smaller vertical branches. See Fgure 3.141 and Box 19 :
Harp trees. After many years, it is common to find cracks in
the union of the horizontal branch and the main stem due

to the increasing weight and movement of the horizontal

branch . Branches on harp trees are especially vulnerable to
winds pushing them from the side (Mattheck 1998 ).

Figures 3.141. Harp tree

created as epicormic branches
grow vertically off a topped tree
with tipped branches.

Harp trees

Harp tree architecture is usually

produced in response to the loss of
a main branch . When a tree loses
a main branch in the upper crown ,
the tree rebuilds the crown on its
lower branches. See Figure 3.142 .
In doing so , epicormic branches
form along the top side of the
branch creating the strings of the
harp .

Inspect for
cracks

Figures 3.142. The horizontalbranch supports many

heavy and fast-growing vertical branches. Inspect the
branch union for evidence of cracks, decay or cankers.
 Branch failure can be caused by
poor architecture. In most cases,
poor branch architecture is a
product of past changes in the
tree's environment, abnormal
growth pattern , or damage to the
tree. See Figure 3.143.

Branch and tree failures caused

by poor architecture is usually

a product of past changes
in the tree's environment or

growth pattern , or damage to Figure 3.143. Bends, twists,and crooks can indicate poor
the tree. See Table 3.5 : Branch architecture in branches.
and tree failures caused by poor
architecture .

Table 3.5. Branch and tree failures caused by poor architecture.

Cause / event Change in the tree Worst-case Outcome

Nearby trees
removed or Branch grows into the new space and Tree is prone to
tree is crown becomes imbalanced . Epicormic windthrow .
pruned branches form on the stem Branch failure
heavily .

Storm
damage to
branch or Branch develops a sharp twist or bend, Branch failure
branch becomes decayed .
branch
tipping

Partial loss Multiple branches, epicormic branches ,

of tree crown or codominant stems arising from one Branch failures
area of the stem

Tree was Epicormic branches form and stem Epicormic branch failure
decay develops quickly from stub and stem failure in the
topped downward upper crown

Failure of epicormic
Loss of a Harp tree architecture and epicormic
main branch branches and horizontal
branches form
branch failure

Two
Canker and decay develop at point of Branch failures
branches rub
contact
together

in Trees
 Poor
Ny Architecture

High risk of failure:

See Figures 3.144 through
3.147 .

• Tree with excessive lean

( greater than 40 degree
angle ).
• Leaning tree has a crack in
stem .
. Leaning tree has canker
or Figure 3.144 . High risk of Figure 3.145 . High risk of
decay on the lower stem . failure : A tree with excessive lean failure: When a leaning tree has a
. Leaning tree has a (greater than 40 degrees). crack in stem . Note crack started
in branch union .
horizontal crack on the
upper side of the lean or
buckling bark and wood on
the lower side .

High risk of failure:

• Branch has a sharp bend

or twist.
• Large , horizontalbranch
with several vertical
branches on it.

Figure 3.146 . High risk of Figure 3.147. High risk

failure:When leaning tree has of failure: Leaning tree
canker or decay on the lower has horizontal crack.
stem .
NOTES :

in Trees
 Dead Tree , Top or Branch
Dead = a dead tree , top or branch is structurally
unsound because of pre -existing defects
or rapid decomposition of the wood . Failed
branches that are lodged in the crown may fall
at any time.

Live treesmost often fail first at their defects. Dead trees,

however, can fracture anywhere: at the ground line, just above
the stump, just below the lowest branch , or anywhere in the
crown. See Figure 3.148 . They can also fail where there is a
pre-existing defect. As timepasses, the probability of failure
increases. Dead tops or branches may remain attached to live
trees for several years or may fall off suddenly . Dead branches
usually break offnear or at the live stem . See Figure 3.149 .
Dead tops frequently break off just above the live stem . See Figure 3.148 . A dead tree always
has a high risk of failure.
Figure 3.150 .
Branches on dead

trees usually decay

and fall first ,
leaving a slowly
decaying main stem
that may stand for
many years.

A broken branch
that is caught
Figures 3.149, 3.150 . Dead branches or dead
up in the tree's tree tops also pose a high risk of failure because
crown by other they can break off atany time.
branches is called

a “lodged branch .” See Figures 3.151 and 3.152. A lodged

branch is hazardous because it has already failed and only waits
to be dislodged by the wind or by the failure of the supporting
branch .

Figures 3.151-3.152. Lodged branches have already failed and only wait to be dislodged and fall to the ground .
 Dead trees within striking distance of a target should always be removed as soon as possible,
simply because we cannot predict how fast the tree will decompose and fail , especially near its
defects. For wildlife habitat, dead trees may be left if they would not fall into target areas.

Dead Tree , Top , or

Branch

High risk of failure:

See Figures 3.153 and 3.154.

.
Any lodged branch .

Figure 3.153. High risk of failure: Any lodged

Any dead tree, top , or branch . branch.

Figure 3.154. High risk of failure : Any dead tree ,

tree top or branch .

s in Trees
Tree Risk Inspections and Use of Specialized Diagnostic Tools

Tree risk inspections provide a systematic method ofexamining trees, assessing defects
present, and estimating the degree of risk trees pose to public safety. Visual inspectionsof
individual trees, using the 360-degree walk -by method, are sufficient for detecting most
defects and assessing the probability of tree failure. Some defects , however, do not have
external signs or symptoms and their detection requires in -depth inspections and the use
of specialized diagnostic tools. Every tree risk management program must include regularly
scheduled tree risk inspections,whether visual or in -depth .

In -depth tree assessments are warranted when a tree poses a high degree of risk to public
safety and exhibits suspected defects that cannot be fully evaluated during the visual
inspection process. For example, in high - use /risk areas where stem girdling roots (SGR ) are a
suspected defect, soil excavation near the base of the treemay be necessary to determine the
presence of SGRsand the extent to which they constrict the stem . In the case of some root
problems, itmay be necessary to excavate soil to locate primary support roots and investigate
if they have been severed or are decayed . For trees in high - use/risk areas that exhibit external
signs of decay but the extent of internal decay is uncertain , it is advisable to measure the
thickness of the outer ring or shell of sound wood within the tree, and to determine if safe
shell limits (see Defects: decayed wood) are met. For each type of in -depth assessment,
diagnostic tools are available to assist in the examination . Examples of in -depth assessment
methods and diagnostic tools are discussed below .

Root Collar and Stem Girdling Roots Assessments

Root collar examinations are performed to detect
damage or decay in buttress and primary support
roots and the presence of stem girdling roots. A
root collar examination typically takes from fewer
than 20 minutes for smaller trees and less extensive
examinations, to more than 2 hours for larger trees
requiring more excavation (Johnson and Hauer
2000). The examination begins by probing into the
soil near the root collar with a 3 / 8 -inch -diameter
probe, rod , or steelwire (coat hanger gauge) to
determine the depth of primary branch roots and
the presence of any encircling roots or other root
damage such as decay or severing. See Figure 3.155 .
The root collar is defined as the base of the tree were
the primary roots first begin to branch away from
the stem and normally appears swollen or slightly
flared . Next, the soil is excavated outward from the
root collar and primary support roots are examined .
For the average-sized landscape tree (9 to 15 inches
d.b.h.), with roots 6 to 10 inches from the surface ,
Figure 3.155 . A metalprobe inserted
soil should be excavated 12 to 18 inches outward
into the soil near the root collar.
from the trunk . If the primary branch roots are
deeper, widen the examination area proportionately. Gradually loosen and remove soil
until the stem /root conflict or root collar is exposed . Hand trowels, knives, stiff bushes,
 wet/ dry vacuums, air compressors, and water can be used to loosen and remove soil
around roots. Shallow examinations of smaller trees do not require the use of elaborate
equipment. However, vacuums and portable air compressors are most effective with
larger trees and examination areas. Do not use spades or shovels unless certain that no
roots exist in the soil to be excavated . After the soil is excavated , look for the presence of
stem girdling roots and evidence of stem compression or other root damage. In the case
of root decay, a metal rod may also be used to probe the roots farther out from the trunk
and to test for presence of advanced decay. Ifthe roots are severely decayed, they will be
punky in texture and easily probed by themetal rod. The risk of tree failure is considered
to be high if girdling roots constrict greater than 40 percent of the stem's circumference
or greater than 40 percent of roots within the CRR are damaged or decayed .

Decay Detection Assessments

Decay assessments determine the location and extent of decay present in a tree and
whether the decay represents a significant risk to the structural integrity of the tree. The
outer shell of sound wood is measured to ensure safe shell limits are met and the tree
does not pose an unacceptable level of risk .Many devices are available to detect internal
decay and other defects in standing trees. Traditional, low -tech devices include the steel
rod , mallet, increment borer, and portable drill. High -tech devices include penetrometers
(Resistograph, densitomat, and Sibert Decay Detecting Drill (DDD 200)), sonic
and ultrasonic detectors (Mertigard Stress-wave Timer, Sound Impluse Hammer, and
Arborsonic Decay Detector), electrical conductivity meter (Shigometer, Vitalometer),
and the Fractometer. Harris et al. (1999) described the use , limitations, and invasiveness
of many of these instruments . Nicoletti and Miglietta (1998 ) reviewed technical aspects
of several decay detection instruments and offered opinions on the reliability of each .
The following instruments are commercially available for use by tree care professionals
in the United States. The information presented is current as of the date ofwriting;
however, readers should be alert for new developments in technology.

Examples of Decay Detection Devices Commonly Used in the United States

Metal Rod

A 3 /8 - inch - diameter metal rod may be used to probe stem and roottissue to detect
the size of cavities, depth of cracks, or the presence of advanced decay. If the stem or
root tissue is severely decayed , they will be punky in texture and easily probed by the
metal rod .

Rubber Mallet

A rubbermallet (Figure 3.156 ) can be manually

struck against the bark or exposed wood
surface , and, with experience , an operator can
interpret whether the resulting sound indicates
hollowness or severe decay. This method is
highly subjective, and is dependent on the
operator's experience and interpretation skills.
Care should be taken not to mistake the sound
emitted by striking loose bark as the presence of
decay within the wood of the tree. This method
is non - invasive, and the tool is cheap , easy to
carry, and requires no maintenance .
Figure 3.156 . A rubber mallet.
Increment Borer

The increment borer ( Figure 3.157 ) consists

of a hollow tube with an external screw thread
at one end . It is screwed into a tree and
removes a core of wood approximately 5mm
in diameter. The core can be examined for the
presence of discoloration or decay along the
wood cross-section, and the presence of decay
can bemanually mapped along the length of
the core. Multiple borings around the stem
circumference will provide a measurement of
the thickness of the outer shell of sound wood ,
limited to the length of the core. Increment
borers are inexpensive, easy to carry, and require
Figure 3.157 . An increment borer.
limited maintenance . However, this method of
assessment is invasive to the tree, and causes the
largest diameter wound of the decay detecting devices commonly in use. In trees
with internal decay, an increment borer can break an existing barrier zone within
the tree and may allow decay to progress into healthy wood. Finally, if the coring tip
becomes dull, the tool may get stuck and removal from the tree can be difficult.

Penetrometers

Penetrometers record the resistance encountered by a probe as it is impelled into

the wood rotating at a high speed . The portable drill, Resistograph , and Siebert
DDD 200 are themost commonly used decay detection instruments of this type
in the United States. All of these devices assess changes in the mechanical resistance
of wood to quantify the amount of decay present. They work on the premise that
during the wood decay process,wood density decreases and , correspondingly ,wood
hardness and drilling resistance declines. In simplified terms, sound wood is dense,
hard in texture, and has a high resistance to the drill penetrating it. In contrast,
severely decayed wood is less dense, softer in texture, and has reduced drilling
resistance .

Portable drills. Portable drills (Figure 3.158 ) have been used formany years by trees
care professionals in the United States and are considered by many to be reliable
decay detection tools. A cordless 3 /8 -inch drill, with a 1/8- by 12 -inch brad point
tip bit is used . As the tree is drilled , decay is indicated by reduced resistance to the
drill penetrating thewood. The bit is pulled out typically at 0.5 -inch intervals, and
the wood shavings are evaluated for presence of
discoloration , punkiness, and odor as indicators
of decay. An advantage of the portable drill
over other decay detecting drills is that drill
shavings provide direct evidence of the presence
and location of decay. By examining thewood
shaving at frequent intervals , the operator can
manually map discoloration , decay, and cavities
with reasonable accuracy along the length of
the drillpath . This tool is relatively inexpensive,
quite easy to carry, and requires very little
maintenance. A disadvantage of the portable
drill is the potential for subjective error in
quantifying decay. Figure 3.158 . A portable drill.
Studies have shown the portable drill to be effective in detecting late-intermediate
and advanced decay (greater than a 20 - percentweight loss in the wood ) when used
by experienced operators, but far less reliable when used by inexperienced operators
(Costello and Quarles 1999) . In addition , even experienced operators can not
reliably detect the presence of early to early- intermediate stages of decay (less than a
20 - percent weight loss in the wood ) with a portable drill.

Resistograph. The Resistograph (Figure 3.159)

is a relatively new instrument developed in
Germany. It is easy to operate and use, and
weighs between 5 and 6 pounds, depending
on themodel. A battery -operated motor drives
a specially engineered drill bit (needle) into
the wood at a constant speed of 8, 16 , or 24
inches per minute. Drilling depth is 12 , 16 ,
or 20 inches, depending on the model, and
the drill bit diameter is 1/8 inch at the cutting
tip and 1/16 inch along the shaft. The drilling
resistance at the needle tip is transferred through
a gearbox to a pointer that is visible at the top
of the instrument and graphs the results on Figure 3.159. The resistograph.

a waterproof wax paper printout. As the drill

penetrates thewood , resistance to the pressure of the drill is measured and recorded ,
and the pattern of changes in resistance is used to determine decay presence or
absence. For example, relatively high resistance readings indicate sound wood,while
low readings suggest decay or other defects. Severalmodels exist,with the higher
end models (E Series) containing an electronic component with an optional personal
computer interface for on-screen viewing, and specialized Windows® software for
data analysis . A printer attachmentis available for viewing and interpreting results
onsite .

An advantage of the Resistograph over the portable drill is the fact that results
are quantitative, and a written record is graphed on waterproof paper for
documentation . Advanced decay and cavities can be detected , and their location
can bemapped along the cross-section of the drill depth. A disadvantage of the
Resistograph over the portable drill is its increased weightand size that makes it more
difficult to transport and use in the field. A disadvantage of the Resistograph over
the Sibert Decay Detecting Drill is that the drill bit is sharp , not blunt, and becomes
dull and needs regular replacement.

Sibert Decay Detecting Drill (DDD 200). The Sibert DDD 200 measures
changes in the speed of penetration , at a constant forward pressure of penetration ,
and functions on the sameprinciples of the portable drill and the Resistograph .
The results are quantitative and can be displayed and printed for documentation
purposes . The drill bit is 1.5 mm wide, blunt, and isnormally 200 mm in length .
The drill width is less than the Resistograph , and is reportedly less likely to snap .
The drill bit is blunt (versus a sharp drill bit that becomes dull and requires regular
replacement), and rotates at 7,000 rpm which supposedly eliminates the problem of
wood chips filling the drill path and causing friction to develop along the length of
the drill shaft .Models are available that provide an electronic output, viewable on a
computer screen and printable.

s in Trees
 Limitations of penetrometers. Studies have been conducted to evaluate
the reliability of the portable drill and the Resistograph by comparing decay
assessments generated from each instrument with decay assessments from laboratory
measurements of wood density and visual examinations of density samples for
elm and blue gum trees (Costello and Quarles 1999). Wood density values below
a critical level were used to determine the presence of decay within wood samples
tested , and then compared to Resistograph readings and portable drill findings. Both
instruments were able to reliably detect late- intermediate and advanced decay and
the presence of cavities. Neither, however,was able to reliably detect the presence of
early to early -intermediate stages of decay. In cases where early to early-intermediate
decay advances well in front of the advanced decay cylinder within the tree,
penetrometers may produce an assessment that underestimates the amount of decay
present. This may have significant safety implications because wood can suffer loss of
strength in the difficult -to -detect earlier stages of decay.

Another limitation of decay detection devices is the variability of thewood resistance

readings and lack of tree species profile data. The resistance patterns of sound
wood in different tree species may vary significantly, and there may be substantial
differences even within an individual tree. These differences depend on factors such
as patterns-of-growth rate and the presence of resins, reaction wood , and heartwood .
Friction between the probe shaft and the displaced wood fibers which line the drill
hole can cause an increase in resistance with increasing depth . The friction can
become strong enough to skew the resistance readings too high and prevent detection
of decayed wood . For these reasons, familiarity with wood resistance patterns,
between tree species and within tree species, is critical for an accurate interpretation
of decay presence and absence. The operator should obtain reference data from
anatomically comparable undecayed or sound wood for each tree species evaluated ,
as a standard of comparison . Profile data has been collected in Germany on many
tree species (Mattheck et al. 1997 ); however, published data is lacking for U.S. tree
species. Until this information becomes available, it will be difficult to accurately
interpret test results for U.S. tree species.

Cost is another issue to consider. The Resistograph and Siebert DDD 200 are
expensive to purchase and maintain . Many small communities, with limited
budgets, would be prohibited from purchasing them . A possible solution to this
problem would be for two ormore communities to share the cost of purchasing the
instrument, and then schedule its use on a rotational basis.

Electrical Conductivity Meters (Shigometer /Vitalometer)

The Shigometer was invented by A. L. Shigo in the early 1980's. The French have
modified the instrument and market it as the Vitalometer. A 3 -mm (3 /32-inch )
hole is drilled into the tree trunk to a depth of 30 cm , an electrode is inserted , and
the electrical resistance (ER ) ismeasured at 1 -cm intervals with an ohmmeter. The
quantity of free ions varies from one type of wood to another and the greater the
number of free ions, the lower the ER. Decayed wood has more free ions than non
infected wood . As the electrodes encounter decayed wood the ER drops substantially
and abruptly ; a drop of 50 percent indicates the presence of decayed wood.

Several problems limit the effectiveness and use of electrical conductivity meters
in the field . For example ,the drill bit is fragile and often snaps when drilling.
Interpreting results can be difficult when the moisture content of the wood is below
the fiber saturation point,when the wood is impregnated with resin (resin acts as an

How to D
 insulator), and when the drill hole fills with water (as often happens with bacterial
wet wood ). Wood that is discolored , but not decayed , may result in reduced ER
readings, and cause the operator to overestimate the amount of decay in the wood.

Sonic and Ultrasonic Detectors

Sonic devices ( stress -wave timers). The Mertigard Stress-wave Timer and the Sound
Impluse Hammer are acoustic devices that measure the time taken for a stress or
shock wave to pass through an object, in this case a tree trunk. The stress wave is
initiated by a hammer blow that is delivered to a start probe located on one side of
the trunk , and the time required for it to travel to a second , sensor probe located
on the opposite side of the trunk is measured . Probes are mounted on steel screws
that are inserted into the outermost wood of the tree . All sonic devices work on the
principle that transmissibility of sound waves through a body is determined by the
body's density . Damaged wood is usually less dense because it has been decayed by
fungi or tunneled by insects . If a portion of the trunk is damaged and the wood
density reduced , transmission of the sound takes longer than if the tree was free
of defects. Severe defects reduce the sound velocity to less than 70 percent of the
characteristic values of sound wood (Bethge et al. 1996 ) .

A major disadvantage of stress -wave timers is that although they are capable of
detecting the presence or absence of internal defects such as decay, cracks, and holes,
they cannot map the specific location or quantify the extent of internal defects.
Another disadvantage of stress-wave timers is their inability to detect certain kinds of
decay that cause embrittlement of thewood ; in particular, decay caused by Ustilina
deusta (Schwarze et al. 1993). For stress-wave timers , a reduction in wood density
will result in a decrease in the sound velocity, whereas a reduction in the elasticity of
the wood will increase the sound velocity. Decays that result in embrittlement cause
a reduction in both wood density and elasticity, and hence produce no net change in
the sound velocity .

Ultrasonic devices. Ultrasonic devices work on the sameprinciple as the stress-wave

timers, but measure the transit time of an ultrasound pulse between a transmitting
sensor and a receiving sensor. The sensors (approximately 40 mm in diameter) must
be in direct contact with wood to ensure a good
acoustic contact with the tree, requiring two discs
of bark to be removed for each measurement. The
Arborsonic Decay Detector (Figure 3.160) is an
example of an ultrasonic device used by tree care
professionals in the United States.

Similar to stress -wave timers, ultrasonic devices

can detect the presence or absence of defects,
but the type of defect (e.g., decay, cracks,
cavities) and the severity of strength loss cannot
be distinguished . Use of these devices does not
allow the operator to measure the thickness of the
outer shell of sound wood or to map the specific
location and extent of defects. As in the case of
stress-wave timers, certain studies have indicated
that test readings obtained with ultrasonic timers
generally need to be evaluated by reference to Figure 3.160. The arborsonic decay
readings from sound wood of the tree species detector.

in Trees
 concerned (Lonsdale 1999). Ultrasonic devicesmight be expected to share with
stress-wave timers the inability to detect certain types of decay, particularly those
that cause embrittlement of the wood, and this possible shortcoming should be
investigated . Unlike stress-wave timers, ultrasonic devices cannot be used on very
large diameter trees , as the signals that they emit are quite rapidly attenuated in the
wood. In the case of the Arborsonic Decay Detector, the maximum path length is
about onemeter.

Fractometer

The Fractometer is an instrument that determines wood quality in termsof wood

strength and elasticity (Mattheck et al. 1994 ). A 5 -mm diameter core of wood is
extracted with an increment borer, placed in a clamping device, and stressed to the
point of failure by increasing the force pushing against it. The fracture moment and
angle of failure are measured at a number of points along its length . Measurements
ofbreaking strength allow zones of weakened wood to bemapped with the stem
cross-section , and the bending angle measurements help to determineif the wood is
liable to undergo brittle on non -brittle fracture. Mattheck et al. (1994 ) concluded
that large fracture moments and small fracture angles were indicative of sound wood .
A decrease in fracture moment, an increase in fracture angle, or a combination of the
two is indicative of the presence of decay.

Several limitations exist with the use of the Fractometer. Sample cores from several
tree species tested in the United States could not be properly tested using this
instrument because core samples broke when the lever arm was initially placed
against the sample, and no measurable results could be obtained (Matheny et al.
1999 ). The tree species tested included Monterey cypress ( Cupressus macrocarpa),
ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa ), black cottonwood (Populus trichocarpa ), Douglas
fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), and coast redwood (Sequoia sempervirens). Secondly, the
operator must know the breaking strength value that should be expected for sound
wood (decay -free) for a given tree species . The manufacturer provides strength data
for different tree species , but this data is based on work completed in Germany, and
the values should not be regarded as standards for U.S. tree species. A study assessing
the fracture moment and fracture angle of 25 tree species in the United States using
the Fractometer (Matheny et al. 1999) concluded that due to the variation in test
results among geographic locations and within individual species, operators must
compare Fractometer results with decay - free samples taken from the same tree and
should not rely on tables of standardized results.

This assessment method is more invasive than many decay detection devices, and
involves the use of an increment borer and the collection of 5 -mm core samples. It
is essential for the borer to be kept sharp and aimed at towards the center of the tree
(i.e., parallel to the rays and at right angles to the axes of the stem ). Any deviation
form these conditions could produce misleading results .

A Final Word About Decay Detection Devices

Decay detection devices should be used with discretion because most are invasive
in their mode of application and cause some degree of injury to the tree. Wounds,
created when probes are drilled into the tree or when the bark is removed to attach
sensors,may serve as entry points for decay organisms. Invasive methods may also
allow existing decay to spread internally by interfering with the tree's ability to
compartmentalize the decay. Although it is uncertain to what extent these small

How to Dei
diameter wounds contribute to the development of decay within trees, the injury
caused by most decay detection devices should not be overlooked . It is advisable to
restrict the use of decay detection devices to situations when additional information
about the location and extentof internal decay is critical to assessing the probability
of tree failure, particularly for trees in high use areas.

When using decay detecting devices, limit the number of drill holes or sensor sites
to theminimum needed to collect critical field data. When determining the number
and location of sampling sites, try to visualize thewidth and length of the decay
column based on external signs and symptoms. Makemultiple borings around the
circumference of the stem and atmore than one height along the length stem to
help determine the width and length of the of the decay column, respectively. Test
areas that you suspect to have the thinnest shell of sound wood . The shell of sound
wood will be thinnest between root flares, where the defect symptoms are most
pronounced , or just behind the bulge on an inrolled crack (Hayes 2000).
The specific assessment device that you choose to use will depend on the field
situation , your level of experience, and the size of your pocketbook. For example,
a low -tech , inexpensive tool such as the portable drill has been documented to be
quite effective in detecting advanced decay, and sometimes intermediate decay, when
operated by a person experienced in its use. The stress-wave timers and the ultrasonic
timers are capable ofdetecting the presence of internal defects such as decay, cracks,
and holes, but cannot be used to quantify the extent or position of the defects. In
most cases, more detailed mapping of the defects will be desired , and currently the
penetrometer devices have more potential to measure the location and severity of
defects . When measuring the thickness of sound wood surrounding cavities or decay
columns, the device employed should be suited to the size of the tree. For example,
drilling devices, although limited to the length of the drill-bit or probe, can be used
on most large diameter trees since the acceptable safety factor ( safe shell limits )
depends on as little as the outermost 30 percent of the cross -section being completely
sound. Currently available ultrasonic timers, however, will provide data only if the
cross-section of the tree is less than or equal to one meter (39.37 inches).

Misinterpretation of results is an inherent problem associated with all of the above

mentioned decay detection devices. Problemswith misinterpretation of results
can be minimized by ensuring that devices are evaluated under a wide range of
conditions that should include different defect types and severities, and a wide range
or tree species over a large geographic area. As mentioned above, tree species profile
data , from anatomically comparable undecayed sound wood for each tree species
evaluated , should be developed for U.S. tree species as a standard of comparison for
each device used .

In the future , what is needed ideally is a compact, non -invasive device that is
affordable , quick and easy to use, and that will provide reliable information on
the location , extent, and type of defect or decay. The use of radar, x-rays, x -ray
tomography, thermal imaging, frequency imaging, and nuclear resonance is being
explored and may one day provide the solution .

s in Trees
Formulating Tree Risk Ratings
The purpose of tree risk inspections is to detect defective trees in target areas, assess
the severity of the defects, and recommend corrective actions before tree failure occurs.
Tree risk ratings can assist communities in quantifying the level of risk posed to public
safety and in prioritizing the implementation of corrective actions. Two systems of
field inspection and risk rating follow , one from theMinnesota Department of Natural
Resources, and one from the U.S. Forest Service . Although these systems are similar in
many ways, their approach to risk rating (step 3 ) differs. Each is presented in its entirety
to be used as a stand-alone process.

A 7 -Step Process Using theMinnesota DNR System

Step 1. Locate and Identify Trees to be Inspected
Inspections can be conducted anytimeof the year with the exception of times when
snow cover prevents examination of the root collar area. When the inspectors arrive
on the site, they must determine which trees to inspect. Only trees that could fall
onto a target or into a target area need to be inspected . To determine whether a tree
could fall on a target, measure or estimate tree height and the distance to the target.
If the target area is within 1.5 X the tree's height, then the tree should be inspected
(Figure 3.161). When in doubt, measure heights and distances . Consider tall, distant
trees as well as those immediately adjacent to the target area.

Step 2. Inspect Individual Trees and Assess Their Defect(s)

Individual tree evaluations must include a close inspection of the rooting zone, root
flares , main stem , branches, and branch unions. Use a pair of binoculars to visually
inspect the higher branches. All sides (360 degrees) of the tree must be examined .
During the inspection , judge the severity of each tree's defects with respect to defect
severity levels established in this manual. A more detailed explanation of the seven
defect categories and their failure thresholds can be found in the beginning of this
chapter. Assign a single defect level for each tree: low-, moderate-, or high -risk of
failure.

A common error made during hazard tree inspectionsis confusing crown vigor with
structural soundness . Just because the crown is full and green , it doesn'tnecessarily

If target is If target is
h within 1.5 more distant
tree heights , than 1.5 tree heights ,
inspect the tree the tree does not
need to be inspected

‫ܚܫܩܝܫ‬
1.5 xh

Figure 3.161. Ifthe target is within 1.5 times the tree's height, then the tree should be inspected.

How to D
 mean that the tree is sound. Health and vigor are related to energy supply. Energy
and food -related activities occur in the thin layers of cambium and sapwood .When
cambium and sapwood healthy, the crown looks good . But that doesn't mean the
tree is sound. Structural soundness is related to the condition of stem wood , branch
attachments, and anchoring roots.

Step 3. Estimate the Risk Rating for Each Tree

Use the severity levels found in thismanual as guidelineswhen assessing trees.
Remember, these are guidelines; no absolute rules can be made to cover the
natural variability of trees and their defects. Although the list of defects and their
combinations appears to be lengthy, it is not exhaustive. Inspectors need to use their
judgment and local experience when evaluating and assessing tree defects .

All defective trees cannot be detected , corrected , or eliminated . To begin with , our
knowledge of the trees is less than complete . Although we can readily recognize most
defects and symptoms, there are root problemsand some internal defects that are not
easily discernable and may require in -depth inspections and the use of specialized
diagnostic tools. Secondly, trees can survive formany years with internal defects .
Defect severity can and does change with time. Whereas all defective trees cannot
be detected , our aim is to find 80 percent ormore of the defective trees with each
inspection . By doing inspections and acting on them , we can successfully manage the
risk of tree failure.

There are three categories of tree risk ratings:

Low -risk rating : At the current time, the defects do not meet the threshold of
failure. No corrective action is necessary.

Moderate-risk rating: At the current time, the defects do notmeet the threshold
for failure. The defects may ormay not result in eventual tree failure. Corrective
action is discretionary .

High -risk rating : Currently, these defects indicate that the tree is failing, is in
imminent danger of failing, or has already partially failed . Corrective action should
be taken as soon as possible .

Step 4. Prioritize Highly Defective Trees for Treatment

In some communities, the defective tree population may be very low or may be
manageable with existing resources . In this case, the community may opt for
assigning the risk rating equal to the defect rating. The risk rating for each inspected
tree can be estimated by simply rating its defects.

Low probability of failure = Low - risk rating

Moderate probability of failure = Moderate- risk rating.
High probability of failure = High -risk rating.

Larger communities, or those with a high proportion of defective trees, may want
to rank their highly defective trees in order to prioritize treatments and removals . In
this case, target area usage is used to augment the ranking. Target area usage is simply
an estimation of the occupancy and duration of occupancy of an area by people and
their vehicles,buildings or equipment. Inspectors must assess each tree's target area
for its human occupancy during the data gathering phase of tree inspections.

's in Trees
 Community policy usually dictates how the frequency of target area use is estimated .
The following is an example of what your community could choose to do .

Frequent use areas would generally be located along downtown streets, along
congested streets, near schools, in public playgrounds and picnic areas ,near bus
stops, near public buildings, in parking lot interiors. Intermediate use areas would
include parking lot peripheries, and along secondary streets. Low use areas would be
in industrial areas, in public wooded areas, and along trails .

Assign a point value for each inspected tree as follows:

1 = Frequent use.
2 = Intermediate use
3 = Low or occasional use

Only rank trees that have a “ high ” defect rating. Use the following formula (see
Table 3.6 ) :

Trees with high defect rating + Target area use rating = Treatment ranking

Table 3.6 . Ranking highly defective trees for treatment priority.

Defect rating Target area use rating Treatment priority

High Frequent use = 1 1 (Highest)

Intermediate use = 2 2

Low or occasional use =- 3 3

Based on your community's policy , remove or treat trees starting with those ranked as 1
and move on down the list as financial resources allow .

Step 5. Conduct a Public Review Before Implementing Corrective Actions

Communication with community members and landowners is recommended before
corrective actions are taken . If people are informed of the need for the corrective
actions before the time they begin to see trees being removed or pruned , there will be
clearer understanding and better community acceptance of why the actions are being
taken .

Step 6. Take Corrective Action as Soon as Possible on the Highest Risk Trees
Once high risk trees are identified , action must be taken as soon as possible .
Negligence may be assumed if a community identifies high risk and then takes no
action . See Chapter 5 for more information about treating and correcting high -risk
trees.

How to De
Step 7. Document the Process: Inspection Results, Actions Recommended, and
Actions Taken

Documentation should include recording the inspection dates, individual tree ratings
and corrective actions recommended and then carried out. These are absolutely
critical to keep on file. Document all ratings, including the low ratings, on the field
sheets. Data may be taken during street tree inventories, hazard tree inventories,
as reported by community personnel, etc. Use the form supplied in this manual or
create one that suits your needs. See Form 2. Maps are helpful and can be reused in
subsequent years .

Form 3.2 : Hazard tree inspection form

(See Forms Section for a full-size copy of the form )

HAZARD TREE INSPECTION FORM

Unit

Subunit

Inspectors

Date

Remarks

MAP
Tree location Hazard Recommended Action
or map Tree species Detect(s ) potential Remarks action taken /date
number H or M

LocalManager Date

Source : MN DNR

ts in Trees
A 7 -Step Process Using the USDA Forest Service Community Tree Risk Rating
System

Step 1. Locate and Identify Trees to be Inspected

Inspections can be conducted anytime of the year with the exception of times when
snow cover prevents examination of the root collar area. When the inspectors arrive
on the site, they must determine which trees to inspect. Only trees that could fall
into a target area need to be inspected . To determine whether a tree could fall on
a target, measure or estimate tree height and the distance to the target area. If the
target area is within 1.5 X the tree's height, then the tree should be inspected (Fig
3.179). When in doubt, measure heights and distances. Consider tall,distant trees as
well as those immediately adjacent to the target area.

Step 2. Inspect Individual Trees and Assess Their Defect(s)

Individual tree evaluationsmust include a close inspection of the rooting zone, root
flares , main stem , branches, and branch unions. Use a pair ofbinoculars to visually
inspect the higher branches. All sides of the tree must be examined. During the
inspection , the severity of each tree's defects is judged with respect to defect severity
levels established in this manual. A more detailed explanation of the seven defect
categories and their failure thresholds can be found in the beginning of this chapter.

A common error made during hazard tree inspections is confusing crown vigorwith
structural soundness. Just because the crown is full and green , it doesn't necessarily
mean that the tree is [Link] and vigor are related to energy supply. Energy
and food-related activities occur in the thin layers of cambium and sapwood .When
they're healthy, the crown looks good. But that doesn't mean the tree is sound.
Structural soundness is related to the condition of stem wood , branch attachments
and anchoring roots.

Step 3. Estimate the Risk Rating for Each Tree

Use the severity levels found in this manual as guidelines when assessing trees.
Remember, these are guidelines, no absolute rules can be made to cover the
natural variability of trees and their defects . Although the list of defects and their
combinations appears to be lengthy, it is not exhaustive. Inspectors need to use their
judgment and local experience when evaluating and assessing tree defects.

All defective trees cannot be detected, corrected , or eliminated. To begin with ,our
knowledge of the trees is less than complete. Although we can readily recognize most
defects and symptoms, there are root problemsand some internal defects that are not
easily discernable and may require in-depth inspections and the use of specialized
diagnostic tools. Secondly , trees are masters at covering up problems and surviving.
Defect severity can and does change with [Link] all defective trees cannot
be detected , our aim is to find 80 percent or more of the defective trees with each
inspection . By doing inspections and acting on them , we can successfully manage the
risk of tree failure.

The U.S. Forest Service uses a 10 - point numeric system to rate the risk of damage
or injury posed by a defective tree or tree part. This numeric system provides
communities with a management tool to help prioritize corrective treatments. Trees
with the highest numeric risk ratings receive corrective treatment first. The total risk
rating is equal to the numeric sum of three primary components, and under certain
situations, an optional fourth component. See the formula below :

How to De
Risk Rating (3-10 points ) = probability of failure (1-4 points) + size of defective part
(1-3 points) + probability of target impact ( 1-3 points) + optional subjective risk
rating (0-2 points)

The optional subjective risk rating is used if professional judgment suggests the need
to increase the total risk rating and invoke immediate corrective action . For example,
trees with a numeric risk rating of 9 or 10 would be identified as high priority trees
to receive corrective treatments first. An inspector may wish to increase a tree's risk
rating from 8 to 9 as a means of ensuring the tree will receive immediate corrective
treatment. The total risk rating should not exceed 10 points.

Below is a discussion ofthe four components contained in the 10 -point risk rating system :

Probability of failure: 1-4 points

1. Low : someminor defects present:
• Minor branch / crown dieback

• Minor defects or wounds

2. Moderate: several moderate defects present:

• Stem decay or cavity within safe shell limits: shell thickness > l inch of
sound wood for each 6 inches of stem diameter

• Crack (s) without extensive decay

• Defect(s) affecting 30 to 40 percent of the tree's circumference

• Crown damage/breakage: hardwoods up to 50 percent; pines up to 30

percent

• Weak branch union :major branch or codominant stem has included

bark

• Stem girdling roots: < 40 percent tree's circumference with compressed

wood

• Root damage: <40 percent of roots damaged within the CRR

3. High :multiple or significant defects present:

• Stem decay or cavity at or exceeding shell safety limits: shell thickness <
1 inch of sound wood for each 6 inches of stem diameter

• Cracks, particularly those in contact with the soil or associated with

other defects

• Defect(s) affecting >40 percent of the tree's circumference

• Crown damage/breakage: hardwoods > 50 percent; pines > 30 percent

its in Trees
 • Weak branch union with crack or decay

• Girdling roots with >40 percent of tree's circumference with compressed

wood

• Root damage : >40 percent of roots damaged within the CRR

• Leaning tree with recent root breakage or soilmounding, crack or

extensive decay

• Dead tree: standing dead without other significant defects

4. Extremely High : multiple and significant defects present; visual obstruction

of traffic signs/lights or intersections:
• Stem decay or cavity exceeding shell safety limits and severe crack

• Cracks: when a stem or branch is split in half

• Defect(s) affecting >40 percent of the tree's circumference or CRR and

extensive decay or crack (s)

• Weak branch union with crack and decay

• Leaning tree with recentroot breakage or soil mounding and a crack or

extensive decay

• Dead branches: broken (hangers) or with a crack

• Dead trees: standing dead with other defects such as cracks,hangers,

extensive decay, or major rootdamage

• Visual obstruction of traffic signs/ lights or intersections

• Physical obstruction of pedestrian or vehicular traffic

Size of defective part(s): 1-3 points

1. Parts less than 4 inches in diameter

2. Parts from 4 to 20 inches in diameter

3. Parts greater than 20 inches in diameter

Probability of target impact: 1-3 points

1. Occasional Use: Low use trails and roadways; parking lots adjacent to low
use areas; natural or wilderness areas; transition or buffer areas with limited
public use; industrial areas.
 2. Intermediate Use: Moderate to low use school playgrounds, parks, and picnic
areas; parking lots adjacent to moderate use areas; secondary roads and inter
sections,(neighborhoods) and park trails within moderate to high use areas;
and dispersed campgrounds.

3. Frequent Use: Emergency access routes,medical and emergency facilities

and shelters, and handicap access areas; high use school playgrounds, parks,
and picnic areas; bus stops; visitor centers, shelters, and park administrative
buildings and residences; main thoroughfares and congested intersections
in high use areas; parking lots adjacent to high use areas; interpretive signs,
kiosks; scenic vistas; and campsites (particularly drive-in ).

Other Risk Factors: 0-2 points

This category is to be used if professional judgment suggests the need to
increase the risk rating and invoke immediate corrective actions. Total risk
rating typically should not exceed 10 points. It is especially helpful to use when
tree species growth characteristics become a factor in risk rating. For example ,
sometree species have growth patterns that make them more vulnerable to
certain defects such as weak branch unions (silver maple ) and branching
shedding (beech species, Fagus).

Step 4. Prioritize Defective Trees for Treatment

The removal or immediate corrective treatment of high -risk trees must be a top
priority within any tree risk management program . Trees with the highest numeric
risk rating (10 ) should be treated first. Based on your community's policy, remove
or treat defective trees starting with those rated as 10 and move down the list as
financial and human resources allow .

Step 5. Conduct a Public Review Before Implementing Corrective Actions

Communication with community members and landowners is recommended before
corrective actions are taken . If people are informed of the need for the corrective
actions before the time they begin to see trees being removed or pruned , there will be
clearer understanding and better community acceptance of why the actions are being
taken .

Step 6. Take Corrective Action as soon as Possible on the Highest Risk Trees
Once high risk trees are identified , action must be taken as soon as possible.
Negligence may be assumed if a community identifies high risk and then takes no
action . See Chapter 5 for more information about treating and correcting high - risk
trees .

Step 7. Document the Process: Inspection Results, Actions Recommended and Actions
Taken

Documentation should include recording the inspection dates, individual tree ratings
and corrective actions recommended and then carried out. These are absolutely
critical to keep on file . Document all ratings, including the low ratings, on the field
sheets. Data may be taken during street tree inventories, hazard tree inventories, as
reported by community personnel, etc. Use the forms supplied in this manual or
 create one that suits your needs. See Form 3: USDA community tree risk evaluation
form and Form 4:Guide to risk rating codes .Maps are helpful and can be reused in
subsequent years.

Form 3.3 : USDA community tree risk evaluation form (See Forms Section for full size form )

USDA COMMUNITY TREE RISK EVALUATION FORM

Example Form *
Location : Date : Inspector(s ):
3
Corrective Action
Tree # Species DBH Location (StreetAddress) Defect Action Completed
Code(s) Code(s)

1-4 pts 1-3 pts 1-3 pts 0-2 pts 3-12 pts Date Initials

* This is an example form adapted from various sources by the US Forest Service,Northeastern Area Hazard Tree Training Team . The US Forest Service assumes no responsibility for
conclusions derived from the use ofthis form . Managers should construct their own forms, based on need and experience. Revised: 4/03

How to Dete
Form 3.4 : Guide to codes for USDA community tree risk evaluation form
(See Forms Section for full size form )
Guide to Risk Rating Codes
(companion guide to the Community Tree Risk Evaluation Form )
PROBABILITY OF FAILURE: 1-4 points
1. Low : someminor detects present:
-minor branch/ crown dieback
-minordefects or wounds
2. Moderate: severalmoderate detects present
- sternfor decay
each 6 orinches
cavityofwithin
stem safe shelllimits: shellthickness > 1 inch of sound wood
diameter
- crack (s) withoutextensive decay
- detect(s) affecting 30-40% of the tree's circumference
• crown damage breakage:hardwoods up to 50% pines up to 30 %
-Weak branch union:major branch or codominant stem has included bark
- stem girdling roots: <40 % tree's circumference with compressed wood
- root damage: < 40 % ofroots damaged within the CRR
3. High : multiple or significant defects present:
- stemsounddecay
woodor cavity
for eachat 6or inches
exceeding
of stemshelldiameter
safety limits: shell thickness < 1 inch of
- cracks, particularly those in contactwith the soil orassociated with otherdefects
- defect(s) affecting > 40 % of the tree's circumference
- crown damage/breakage:hardwoods >50 % pines > 30%
-weak branch union with crack ordecay
girdling roots with > 40 % of tree's circumference with compressed wood
• root damage: > 40 % of roots damaged within the CRR.
- leaning tree with recent root breakage or soilmounding, crack or extensive decay
dead tree: standing dead without other significantdefects
4. Extremely
signs/lightsHigh : multiple and significant defects present, visualobstruction of traffic
or intersections:
· stem decay or cavity exceeding shellsafety limits and severe crack
- cracks: when a stem or branch is split in half
- defect(s) attecting > 40 % of the tree's circumference CRR and extensive decay or
crack (s)
- weak branch union with crack and decay
leaning tree with recent rootbreakage or soilmounding and a crack or extensive
decay
-dead branches: broken (hangers) orwith a crack
- dead trees: standing dead with other detects such as cracks,hangers, extensive
decay, ormajor root damage
- visualobstruction of traffic signs/lights or intersections
- physicalobstruction of pedestrian or vehicular traffic
SIZE OF DEFECTIVE PART(S ): 1-3 points
1. Parts less than 4 inches in diameter
2. Parts from 4 to 20 inches in diameter
3. Parts greater than 20 inches in diameter

PROBABILITY OF TARGET IMPACT: 1-3 points

1. OccasionalUse:
- low use roads and park trails; parking lots adjacent to low use areas, natural areas such as
woods or riparian zones;transition areas with limited public use;industrial areas.
2. Intermediate Use:
-moderate to low use school playgrounds, parks, and picnic areas; parking lots adjacent to
moderate use areas, secondary roads (neighborhoods) and park trails within moderate to
high use areas; and dispersed campgrounds.
3. FrequentUse :
- emergency access routes,medical and emergency facilities and shelters, and handicap
access areas; high use schoolplaygrounds, parks, and picnic areas; bus stops; visitor
centers, shelters, and park administrative buildings and residences; main thoroughfares and
congested intersections in high use areas,parking lots adjacent to high use areas;
interpretive signs,kiosks, scenic vistas; and campsites (particularly drive-in ).
OTHER RISK FACTORS: 0-2 points
- This category can be used itprofessional judgmentsuggests theneed to increase the risk
rating
- It is especially helpfulto use when tree species growth characteristics become a factor in risk
rating. For example, some tree species have growth patterns thatmake them more
vulnerable to certain defects such asweak branch unions (silvermaple) and branching
shedding (beech ).
It can also be used if the tree is likely to fail before the nextscheduled risk inspection ,
Table [Link] Codes Table 2. Corrective Action(s) Codes
Code Defror Prune
D Decay PD Deadwood
CR CRack PW Weakwood (defective
Root Root Problems part(s ))
RSG Stem Girdling PC for Clearance
RS Severed PT to Thin crown or reduce
RPD PlantingChange
Depth (too deep) crown weight
RGC Grade PR to Reduce crown height
RSB Sidewalk Buckling
Target
WBU Weak Branch Union TM Move
CA CAnker TEV Exclude Visitors from
PTA Poor Tree Architecture Target Area
PTA:LT Leaning Tree
PTA : TT Topped Tree CB Cable Bracing
EE Excessive Epicormics CWT Convert to Wildlife Tree
RT Remove Tree
DEAD DEAD tree,tops or branches Monitor Monitor regularly
VO Visible Obstruction NA No Action Requirod
PO Physical Obstruction

cts in Trees
Authors
Jana S. Albers
Forest Health Specialist
Minnesota Dept. Natural Resources , Div. of Forestry

Jill D. Pokorny
Plant Pathologist
USDA Forest Service
State & Private Forestry, Northeastern Area

Dr. Gary Johnson

Assoc. Professor, Urban and Community Forestry
University of Minnesota
1530 N. Cleveland Ave.
St. Paul, MN 55108

Literature Cited

Albers, J.; Hayes, E., principal authors. 1993. How to assess and correct hazard trees in
recreational areas. St. Paul:Minnesota Department of Natural Resources.63 p .

Bethge, K .; Mattheck , C .; Hunger, E. 1996. Equipment for detection and evaluation of

incipient decay in trees. Journal ofArboriculture. 20 : 13-37 .

Costello , L. R .; Quarles, S. L. 1999. Detection of wood decay in blue gum and elm :
an evaluation of the Resistograph and the portable drill. Journal of Arboriculture.
25 (6 ): 311-317 .

Gilman, E. 2002. An illustrated guide to pruning .Albany, NY: Delmar Publishers . 330
p.

Harris, R. W. 1992. Arboriculture: integrated management of landscape trees, shrubs,

and vines. Englewood Cliffs , NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc. 674 p.

Hayes, E. 2002. Evaluating trees for defects (2nd Ed .).Rochester,MN : [Link] . 34

p.

Johnson , G. R., 1999. Protecting trees from construction damage; A homeowner's

guide. FO -6135 -S (revised ). St. Paul,MN : University ofMinnesota Extension
Service. 16 p .

Johnson ,G.R .; Johnson , B. 1999. Storm damage to landscape trees: prediction ,

prevention , treatment. FO -7415 -S. St. Paul,MN : University ofMinnesota
Extension Service. 8 p .

Johnson , G., Hauer, R. 2000. A practitioner's guide to stem girdling roots of trees. BU
7501- S. St. Paul: University of Minnesota Extension Service. 20 p .

How to Dete
Lonsdale, D. 1999. Principles of tree hazard assessment and management. Forestry
Commission Research for Amenity Trees No.7. Norwich , England: Her Majesty's
Stationary Office. 388 p.

Matheny, N. P.; Clark , J. R. 1998. Trees and development: a technical guide to

preservation of trees during land development. Urbana, IL: International Society of
Arboriculture . 184 p .

Matheny, N. P.; Clark , J. R .; Attewell, D .; Hillery, K .; Graham , A. W .; Posner, G. 1999 .

Assessment of fracture moment and fracture angle in 25 tree species in the United
States using the Fractometer. Journal of Arboriculture. 25 ( 1): 18-23 .

Mattheck , K .; Breloer, H. 1994. The body language of trees, a handbook for failure
analysis . London , England: Her Majesty's Stationary Office. 240 p .

Mattheck C .; Bethge, K. A .; Albrecht, W. [Link] to read the results of Resistograph

[Link] of Arboriculture. 21: 331-336 .

Mattheck , C .; Breloer, H ; Bethge, K. 1994. A guide to Fractometer tree assessment.

Arborist News 4 : 9-12 .

Nicoletti, G .;Miglietta, P. 1998. Using high- technology instruments to assess defects

in trees. Journal of Arboriculture. 24 (6 ): 297-302.

Schwarze F.; Mattheck , C .; Breloer, H. 1993. Der sprode Baumbruch -verursacht durch
Brandkrustenpilz . Neue Landschaft 38 : 737-747 .

Shigo, A. 1989. A new tree biology . Durham , NH : Shigo and Trees, Assoc .636 p .

Shigo, A .; Marx , H. 1977. Compartmentalization ofdecay in trees. Agric . Bull. 405 .

Washington , D. C .: U. S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 74 p.

Smiley, E.T.; Fraedrich , B.R. [Link] tree evaluation and management

(version 3.3). Charlotte, NC : Bartlett Tree Expert Co.65p .

its in Trees
Forms Section

This section contains the following full-size versions of the forms that were discussed in this
chapter.

Form 3.1 - Defective Trees Risk ManagementGuidelines

Form 3.2 - Hazard Tree Inspection Form

Form 3.3 - USDA Community Tree Risk Evaluation Form

Form 3.4 - Guide Codes for the USDA Community Trees Evaluation Form

How to Dete
 Defective trees : Risk assessment guidelines

Tree defects Moderate risk of failure High risk of failure

.• Indicators of advanced • Indicators of advanced decay are found on

Decay = Wood that has rotted
or is missing. Indicators of decay are found on 25 % to > 40 % of the circumference of any stem , branch or
advanced decay are rotten 40 % of the circumference of root collar.
wood , fungal fruiting bodies, any stem , branch or root Note : In order to verify the extent
cavities, holes, open cracks or collar. of decay, you may want to use
bulges in the wood . probes or drills to determine shell
• Shell thickness is > 1 and < 2 thickness.
inches of sound wood for each • Stem has advanced decay and the shell thickness
6 inches of stem diameter and meets the following criteria :
stem has opening < 30 % of . Shell thickness < 1 inch of sound wood
stem circumference. for each 6 inches of stem diameter, or ,
• Stem has an opening > 30 % of the stem
circumference and shell thickness is < 2 inches of
sound wood for each
6 inches of stem diameter.
• Any large branch with decay .

Crack = crack is a separation Stem has a single crack and • Stem is split in two by a crack .
of the wood ; decay. • Stem segment has multiple cracks and decay.
a split through the bark into the • Branch has a crack .
wood .

• Roots within the area

Root problems = inadequate • Leaning tree with recent evidence of root lifting,
defined by the CriticalRoot soil movement or soil mounding .
anchoring by the root system ,
Radius are < 40 % damaged , • Roots within the Critical Root Radius are
damaged roots or stem girdling
roots . decayed , severed , or dead.
> 40 % damaged , decayed , severed , or dead .
Girdling roots constrict > 40 % of the root collar.

Weak branch union = An • Branch union has included • Weak union is also cracked, cankered or decayed .
epicormic branch or a branch bark . • Large epicormic branch on decaying stem .
union with included bark .
.
Canker = An area where bark • Canker or canker plus decay • Canker affects > 40 % of the tree's circumference .
and cambium are dead . affect 25 % to 40 % of the • Canker plus decay affect > 40 % of the tree's
tree's circumference. circumference .

Poor architecture = growth • Branch has a sharp bend or Tree with excessive lean ( > 40 ° ).
pattern indicates structural twist. • Leaning tree has a crack in stem .
imbalance or weakness in the • Large, horizontal branch Leaning tree has canker or decay on the lower
branch , stem or tree . with several verticalbranches stem .
on it. • Leaning tree has a horizontal crack on the upper
side of the lean and/ or buckling bark and wood on
the lower side.

Dead wood A dead tree or · Any lodged branch .

dead branches. Any dead tree, tree top or branch .
 Defective Trees Risk ManagementGuidelines - page 2

Defects : Defects are visible signs that a tree is failing or has the
potential to fail. Defects predispose a tree to fail at the location of Minimum amount of sound wood in shell needed :
the defects .
Defective tree : A tree with one or more defects . Need 1" of sound shell
Risk of failure : Risk of tree or branch failure can be predicted for each 6 ” of diameter
Shel
because defects indicate which part ofthe tree is structurally the Thickness Stem Shell
weakest. Since defect severity can change , the tree's risk of Diameter thickness
failure can change over time. 6” 1”
Moderate risk of failure : Currently, the tree's defects do not 12 2
Diameter 18 3
meet the threshold for failure. The defects may ormay not result O
in eventual tree failure . “Moderate risk” trees need to be closely 24 4
monitored to determine if the defects have changed since the last
For stem without openings or cracks.
inspection .
High risk of failure : Currently , these defects indicate that the
Need 2" of sound shell
tree is in imminent danger of failing or has already partially
She for each 6 " of diameter
failed. Corrective action should be taken as soon as possible.
Stem Shell
Risk management : These guidelines are intended to provide the
Diameter thickness
information needed to evaluate the failure potential of inspected
Dlarne 6" 2"
trees. They are only guidelines. Absolute rules can not be made
12 4
because of thenatural variability of trees and their defects. All of Opening
Opening 30% 16 6
the defective trees can not be detected , corrected or eliminated . Mom Groulerance
24 8
However ,by doing inspections and acting on them ,we can
successfully manage the risk of tree failure .
For stem with openings < 30 % of stem circumference .
Inspections : Be systematic and complete . Inspect annually ,
exceptwhere policy indicates otherwise . Additional inspections Critical root radius : The CRR is used to define the portion of
should be done after severe storm events. Common sense, the root system nearest the stem that is critical for stability and
experience and professional judgment are required of the trained vitality of the tree. This area is usually beyond the dripline ofthe
tree inspector. tree . The radius of this circular area is defined as
Tree species, age, size and condition : These all play a role in CRR (in feet ) = DBH x 1.5 .
.

the type, extent and severity of defects. Certain species are

consistently prone to certain defects. Old trees tend to havemore
defects. Trees in good condition have the capacity to create more
wood which can reduce the severity of some defects over a period
of years .
Exposure and crown size : Open - grown trees with full crowns DBH x 1.5 = CRR
have a higher exposure to winds than trees growing in groups or
stands. Recent change in wind exposure or crown size can affect
the severity of defects .
Documentation : ALWAYS document inspections and actions. DBH CRR
Use a form thatrecords inspection date, tree species, tree location , 5 inches 7.5 test
10 15
defects and their severity, recommended actions, action taken and 15 22.5
date. It's helpful to map the area. Remember to document the 20 30
" Low Risk ” trees.
Treatment : Correcting defective trees can be as creative as your DBH
imagination and resources allow . Treatments include: moving the
target, rerouting traffic, closing off or fencing off the site, pruning
the defective branches, reducing the crown weight/ exposure and , CRR
ultimately, removing the tree.

Epicormic branch : Epicormic branches are new , younger

branches that replaced injured , pruned or declining branches.
They form weak unions because they are not attached all the way Minnesota
to the center of the stem .
Decay : Decay is generally limited to the column ofwood
present at the time of [Link] shell thickness to
determine if enough sound wood remains to support the tree. The
risk of failure increases when decay columns expand into the new Departmentof
NaturalResources
wood because there is no sound shell of wood near those defects .
Continuously expanding columns ofdecay are the result of MINNESOTA
inrolled cracks (rams-horning), girdling roots and canker-rot Departmentof
infections. Natural
Resources
 HAZARD TREE INSPECTION FORM

Unit

Subunit

Inspectors

Date

Remarks

MAP

Tree location Hazard

or map Tree species Defect(s ) Recommended Action
potential Remarks
number H or M action taken /date

LocalManager Date
Source : MN DNR
 FORM
EVALUATION
RISK
TREE
COMMUNITY
USDA
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)
s
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Code
(s) Code
(s)

(Sum of
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Columns 1-4 )
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pts 1-3
pts 1-3
pts 0-2
pts 3-12
pts Date Initials

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Guide to Risk Rating Codes
( companion guide to the Community Tree Risk Evaluation Form )

PROBABILITY OF FAILURE : 1-4 points

1. Low : someminor defects present:

- minor branch / crown dieback
-minor defects or wounds

2. Moderate : severalmoderate defects present

- stem decay or cavity within safe shell limits : shell thickness > 1 inch of sound wood
for each 6 inches of stem diameter
- crack (s ) without extensive decay
defect (s ) affecting 30-40 % of the tree's circumference
- crown damage/breakage : hardwoods up to 50 % ; pines up to 30 %
- weak branch union : major branch or codominant stem has included bark
- stem girdling roots : < 40 % tree's circumference with compressed wood
- root damage : < 40 % of roots damaged within the CRR

3. High : multiple or significant defects present:

- stem decay or cavity at or exceeding shell safety limits : shell thickness < 1 inch of
sound wood for each 6 inches of stem diameter
cracks, particularly those in contact with the soil or associated with other defects
defect( s ) affecting > 40 % of the tree's circumference
- crown damage/breakage: hardwoods > 50 % ; pines > 30 %
- weak branch union with crack or decay
-girdling roots with > 40 % of tree's circumference with compressed wood
- root damage: > 40 % of roots damaged within the CRR .
- leaning tree with recent root breakage or soilmounding, crack or extensive decay
- dead tree: standing dead without other significant defects

4. Extremely High : multiple and significant defects present; visual obstruction of traffic
signs/lights or intersections:

- stem decay or cavity exceeding shell safety limits and severe crack
- cracks: when a stem or branch is split in half
- defect(s ) affecting > 40 % of the tree's circumference or CRR and extensive decay or
crack (s )
- weak branch union with crack and decay
- leaning tree with recent root breakage or soil mounding and a crack or extensive
decay
-dead branches: broken (hangers ) or with a crack
- dead trees: standing dead with other defects such as cracks, hangers , extensive
decay, ormajor root damage
- visual obstruction of traffic signs/lights or intersections
- physical obstruction of pedestrian or vehicular traffic

SIZE OF DEFECTIVE PART (S ): 1-3 points

1. Parts less than 4 inches in diameter

2. Parts from 4 to 20 inches in diameter
3. Parts greater than 20 inches in diameter
Guide Codes for the USDA Community Trees Evaluation Form - page 2

PROBABILITY OF TARGET IMPACT: 1-3 points

1. Occasional Use :
-
- low use roads and park trails ; parking lots adjacent to low use areas; natural areas such as
woods or riparian zones ; transition areas with limited public use ; industrial areas.

2. Intermediate Use :

- moderate to low use school playgrounds, parks, and picnic areas ; parking lots adjacent to
moderate use areas; secondary roads (neighborhoods) and park trails within moderate to
high use areas; and dispersed campgrounds.

3. Frequent Use:
- emergency access routes , medical and emergency facilities and shelters, and handicap
access areas; high use school playgrounds, parks, and picnic areas ; bus stops; visitor
centers , shelters, and park administrative buildings and residences;main thoroughfares and
congested intersections in high use areas; parking lots adjacentto high use areas ;
interpretive signs, kiosks; scenic vistas; and campsites (particularly drive - in ).

OTHER RISK FACTORS : 0-2 points

- This category can be used if professional judgment suggests the need to increase the risk
rating.

- It is especially helpful to use when tree species growth characteristics become a factor in risk
rating. For example , some tree species have growth patterns thatmake them more
vulnerable to certain defects such as weak branch unions (silvermaple) and branching
shedding (beech ).

- It can also be used if the tree is likely to failbefore the next scheduled risk inspection .

Table 1. Defect Codes Table 2. Corrective Action (s ) Codes

Code Defect Prune

D Decay PD Deadwood
CR CRack PW Weakwood (defective
Root Root Problems part(s ))
RSG Stem Girdling PC for Clearance
RS Severed PT to Thin crown or reduce
RPD Planting Depth (too deep ) crown weight
RGC Grade Change PR to Reduce crown height
RSB Sidewalk Buckling
Target
WBU Weak Branch Union TM Move
CA CAnker TEV Exclude Visitors from
PTA Poor Tree Architecture Target Area
PTA :LT Leaning Tree
PTA :TT Topped Tree CB Cable /Bracing
EE Excessive Epicormics CWT Convert to Wildlife Tree
RT Remove Tree
DEAD DEAD tree , tops or branches Monitor Monitor regularly
VO Visible Obstruction NA No Action Required
PO Physical Obstruction
 CHAPTER 4

Prevention of Hazardous Tree Defects

By Gary R. Johnson, Richard J. Hauer, and Jill D. Pokorny

Introduction

The fundamental goal of tree risk management is to prevent development ofhazardous

tree defects and reduce the risks hazardous trees pose to public safety. Development of
many hazardous defects in trees can be prevented through effective planning, and the
implementation of sound arboricultural practices. Post-storm tree damage surveys document
that appropriate species composition , and proper planting and maintenance practices can
help prevent the formation ofmany structural defects that predispose trees to branch and
stem failures. (Dempsey 1994 , Johnson 1999). This chapter discusses how communities can
prevent development of many hazardous tree defects through effective streetscape planning
and design . Designing a species-diverse, uneven -aged forest, matching tree species to site
conditions, purchasing high quality nursery stock , implementing proper planting and
pruning techniques, and protecting trees from construction damage help to promote healthy
trees and reduce development of hazardous tree defects.

Designing a Species -Diverse, Uneven -Aged Urban Forest

When many of our older cities were established ,there were initially few large trees present.
Tree planting programs lined the streets of many communities with avenues of even
aged trees all of the same [Link] these planting programseventually resulted in
aesthetically beautiful tree- lined boulevards, this practice led to problems that eventually
convinced arborists that this practice should be avoided . The vulnerability of an urban forest
to insect and disease outbreaks is much higher where a single species of tree dominates the
landscape. This problem was dramatically illustrated during the Dutch elm disease epidemic
that altered forever the character of so many eastern city streets.

As many of the avenue trees planted in the early 20th century are rapidly approaching the end
of their normal lifespan in an urban setting, urban forest managers have an opportunity to
develop a well-designed, species-diverse, uneven -aged management system . In such a system ,
replacement trees are of varying species with differentlife expectancies. While this system will

not recreate the avenues ofmajestic single-species canopies of eras past, it will help to provide
sustainable tree cover over a large part of the urban landscape. Even in those communities
where trees are somewhat haphazardly replanted as they die, the result will be an unavoidable
shift froman even -aged management system towards a more sustainable species-diverse,
uneven -aged management system .

Matching Tree Species to Site Conditions

Tree species vary in their nutritional,water, and light requirements, and in their resistance
to environmental and chemicalextremes. Match tree species to each site by considering
both the silvical characteristics (requirements ) of the tree, and the conditions of the site.
The Silvics Manual of North America , volumes 1 (conifers) and 2 (hardwoods) are excellent
sources of information on plant/ site requirements (Burns and Honkala 1990 ). Both

Prevention of Hazardous The

 publications are available through the publications link on the following website: http: //
[Link]/spfo .

Site Characteristics that Affect Tree Species Selection

When choosing a species to fit a site, consider soil and light conditions; exposure to sun ,
wind , ice, snow , and de-icing salt; space limitations (both above and below ground ); and
human use of the site. Soil conditions, especially in urban areas, often drive tree species
selection . In addition to the site factors listed above, trees in areas that are converted from
woodland to urban through new construction require specific consideration . Each site
characteristic is described below in more detail.

Soil pH

Apply soil and percolation tests to all potential planting sites . Soil texture and pH test
results will provide themost valuable information for tree selection . Trees that require
loose and organic soil should not be planted on sites that are primarily compacted ,
heavy clay soils. Always plant trees that perform best on neutral to alkaline soils on sites
with soil pH levels greater than 7.2. Trees that perform better than others on neutral to
alkaline soils include hackberry (Celtis), basswood ( Tilia ), ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba), and
most crabapple species (Malus).

Soil Compaction
Compaction can be measured with a penetrometer, a field instrument that measures
the pressure required to push a probe through the soil to various depths. Compaction
can also be approximated with a digging spade. If a shovel can easily penetrate the soil
to a depth of two spade blade lengths, compaction is not limiting. If the shovel requires
a person to jump on it and provide weight to penetrate the soil, compaction may limit
certain species. If a pick -axe is required to break the ground and dig the planting hole,
compaction will be severely limiting to all but a few (mostly undesirable) tree species.

Soil compaction problems can be minimized by site preparation and plant selection .
Often , trees that perform well in wet areas do better than others in compacted , clayey
soils since potential oxygen limitation is similar in both environments. Chisel tooth
plowing or otherwise fracturing the soil prior to planting creates loosened avenues
for tree roots to expand. This advantage may be relatively short-lived and limited in
relationship to the entire compacted site , but it does allow the tree to recover from
transplant shock and become adjusted to the harsh site.

Soil Drainage
Percolation rates are likewise relatively easy to determine. Dig a hole in the planting
area to a depth of 24 inches. Fill the hole with water and allow it to completely drain .
Fill the hole with water a second time. If the hole drainswithin a couple ofminutes,
choose trees that survive in drier sites, such as coffeetree (Gymnocladus dioicus), corktree
( Phellodendron ), and elm (Ulmus), or surfacemulch the area to build up an organic layer
and conserve moisture. If thehole drains completely within 24 hours, the soil is suitable
for most tree species. If the hole takes several days to completely drain (or never drains),
plant only trees that survive in waterlogged conditions. Alder (Alnus), willow (Salix ),
tamarack (Larix laricina ), and black ash (Fraxinus nigra) are all suitable for wet sites.
 Urbanized soils are often altered significantly from their
native condition .

The chemical, physical, and biological changes listed below all affect
tree species selection .

ChemicalChanges
Increased soil pH
Reduced nutrient recycling
. Increased soil pollutants (heavy metals , de-icing salts )
Physical Changes
More shallow soil profile
Reduced organic matter content
Increased concentration of buried debris (asphalt, concrete , etc.)
.
Reduced percolation rate ( soil drainage)
Reduced oxygen concentration due to soil compaction
Biological Changes
Increased competition by turf grasses, such as Kentucky bluegrass
Reduced numbers of symbiotic microorganisms (mycorrhizal fungi, bacteria ,
and actinomycetes )
Increased numbers of opportunistic pathogens and insect pests

Low Light Situations

Canyons are commonly found in urban areas, most commonly in larger cities with tall
buildings. Trees planted in these areas must be able to thrive in low -light situations.
Often , trees that naturally occur as understory trees are better choices for these sites.
For example, redbud ( Ceris spp.), ironwood (Ostrya virginiana ), hemlock ( Tsuga), and
bladdernut (Staphylea ) thrive in low -light situations.

Exposure to Sun and Wind

Exposure to sun and wind can limit tree selection choices and tree health . Sites that
are fully exposed tend to dry out faster, heat up faster, and make it harder for trees to
establish and thrive. Sites that are fully exposed to wind can further compound these
problems. Trees that are native to prairies, exposed outcroppings, or savannas, such as
honeylocust (Gleditsia ), hawthorn (Crataegus), spruce (Picea), and bur oak ( Quercus
macrocarpa ), would be better choices than trees that are native to shaded , organic-rich
forest situations.

Susceptibility to Ice, Snow , and Wind Damage

Trees vary in their susceptibility to ice, snow , and wind storms ( Table 4.1). In general,
trees fail when their ability to withstand loading events from storms is surpassed. Wood
strength has been suggested as a primary determinant of tree susceptibility to storms.
While wood strength is important, other factors , including leafmorphology, canopy
density, tree architecture,decay susceptibility, included bark, and rooting patterns, also
determine storm resistance in trees.

Prevention of Hazardous Tree Defects - 119

 Table 4.1 The ice storm susceptibility of tree species commonly planted in urban areas.

Susceptible Intermediate Resistant

American elm Bur oak American Sweetgum

American linden Eastern white pine Arborvitae

Black cherry Northern red oak Baldcypress

Black locust Red maple Black walnut
Bradford pear Sugar maple Blue beech

Common hackberry Sycamore Catalpa

Green ash Tuliptree Eastern hemlock

Honeylocust White ash Ginkgo

Pin oak Ironwood

Siberian elm Kentucky coffeetree

Silver maple Littleleaf linden

partially adapted from Hauer et al ( 1993)

De- icing Salt Damage

In many areas of the northern tier states, de-icing salt spray drift is amajor limiting site
factor. Trees that are located within 60 feet of an arterial street or highway that support
10,000 or more vehicles per day are particularly vulnerable to de-icing salt spray damage
(Johnson and Sucoff 1995). De-icing salt spray places significant stress on trees, even if it
does not always kill the tree. Typically , trees within the spray zone area becomedisfigured
and generally unhealthy (e.g., poor growth rate, scorched , or lost foliage) and are more
vulnerable to secondary problems and decay. De- icing salts can accumulate in the soil,
and cause trees to exhibit foliar symptoms induced by excess sodium and chlorine levels,
and leaf scorch due to reduced uptake and translocation of water within the tree . If trees
are to be planted in areas where de- icing salts are a limiting site factor, only use tree
species that are tolerant to salt injury. Black alder (Alnus glutinosa ), white ash (Fraxinus
americana ), Japanese tree lilac (Syringa reticulata), and Norway maple (Acer platanoides)
would be suitable for these sites (Johnson and Sucoff 1995) .

Human Use of the Area

No matter where the planting site is (e.g., residential, park , tree lawn, sidewalk , or plaza),
consider how the area will be used . Human activities have long-term effects on tree
condition and health . Unintentional wounding and landscape management practices are
themost notable causes of damage .

Trees in tree lawns, plazas, and parks are particularly susceptible to wounding by
unintentional vandalism . Car doors and bumpers wound stems, signs are nailed or
stapled to public trees, and branches are broken when children climb trees. Locate trees
far enough away from curbs, sidewalks, and intersections (i.e., areas where traffic is
concentrated) to reduce chances of wounding. Do not use species that are notoriously
poor compartmentalizers (e.g., beech (Fagus), red maple (Acer rubrum ), silver maple (Acer
saccharinum ), hackberry (Celtis), red oak (Quercus rubra), and many poplars (Populus) in
areas where wounding is likely. Avoid the use of low -branched species where climbing
and subsequentwounding is likely. Although low -branched species can be pruned to

120 - Prevention of Hazardous Tree Defects

 raise their canopies, the frequent pruning
required to remove lower branches only
adds to the amount of wounding and the
maintenance care such trees receive .

All trees are vulnerable to wounding

where turf grass is allowed to grow up
to the stems. Invariably, lawn mowers
and string trimmers will wound the base
of these trees repeatedly (Figure 4.1).
If for no other reason , all trees should
have a mulched area around their stems
to prevent the need for trimming grass
away.

Sites that are characterized by clay soils

can become particularly vulnerable to
foot traffic compaction if the activities in Figure 4.1. Lawn mower and string trimmer damage
caused by mechanical injury and subsequent decay at
the area are frequent and well attended .
the base of the tree.
State parks, picnic areas, fairgrounds,
school-yards all have the potential of
many feet compacting clay soils. Although this does not normally result in direct damage
to trees, it indirectly weakens trees by adversely changing soil moisture and oxygen
availability, and reduces the ability of trees to recover from wounds and other site stresses
or attacks from insects and diseases .

Planting trees in groupings rather than as specimens can reduce the site stresses that
weaken individual trees. Especially where groupings are mulched or understory planted,
the trees are much less susceptible to unintentional vandalism , soil, and exposure stresses.
The beauty of the planting becomes more important than the beauty of the individual
trees.

Space Limitations

The most common space-limiting sites are the areas that occur between street curbs and
sidewalks (e.g., tree lawns, boulevards, parkways, ormedians), sidewalk planting pits ,
and plazas. Tree lawns usually offer the most confining situations for trees: limited root
volumes, limited canopy width , greatest minimum height to the first set of branches
( if over hanging an arterial street), and limits to height ( if above -ground utilities are
present). Other variables that further limit the success of a tree in a tree lawn include
de-icing salt spray or deposits in the soil, buried utility lines within the rooting area, and
highly altered soils.

Tree lawnsmust be at least 10 feet in width to support a large tree through maturity at
an accepted level of risk to public safety. Large trees (>60 feet in height) are more prone
to windthrow during wind loading events. This becomes more of a problem when the
inevitable root cutting takes place during installation or repair of streets, sidewalks,
curbs, and buried utilities (Figure 4.2 ). The problem is further compounded if the trees
in question have dense canopies, which offer significant resistance to wind and make the
already unstable trees even more likely to fail .

Plant small- and medium - sized trees in tree lawns that are less than 10 feet wide.
The rooting volume afforded by tree lawns less than 10 feet in width is more in scale

Prevention ofHazardous Tree Detece

with supporting the growth of
small- to medium - sized trees. In
these narrow planting spaces, tree
species with smaller crowns and
root systems are the best planting
choices. Examples of trees suitable
for these sites include crabapple
(Malus), hawthorn (Crataegus),
ironwood (Ostrya virginiana),
silverbell (Halesia ), and water-ash
(Ptelea ). These trees are more likely
to be healthier in these root-limited
environments, and therefore better
able to recover from both above Figure 4.2. Tree with excessive root severing caused by
curb and sidewalk reconstruction damage. Root severing can
and below ground wounding . They compromise the structureof a sound, healthy tree and increase
will also compartmentalize wounds its susceptibility to windthrow during wind loading events.
more effectively and limit the
amount of potential wood decay.

Small- to medium -sized trees also create fewer problemswith above ground utility line
conflicts. For example, tree species that do not exceed 30 feet in heightat maturity are
the best choices for locations with overhead wires.

Trees planted in tree lawns should also have a growth form that allows them to be pruned
up to a height that allows pedestrian and vehicular traffic to safely pass under their
branches. Further, species that do not require excessive amounts of pruning to maintain
a safe height of the lowest branches are the best choices. Trees that require excessive
pruning are likely to be poorly maintained . Even if the trees are regularly maintained ,
the frequent pruning operations will create excessive amounts of pruning wounds and
increase the potential for wood decay problems to develop .

Do not plant trees where conditions exist that prevent the use of smaller trees (e.g., de
icing salt spray, truck traffic that limits the height of the lowest branches to 12 to 14
feet above ground ). If trees must be planted in these areas, they should be planted on
the property -side of the public sidewalk . Planting on the property-side of the sidewalk
may require that the community pass a “ green easement” ordinance, and develop a
memorandum of understanding regarding tree maintenance with the property owner.
Alternatively , tree lawns can be designed so that they are greater than 10 feet in width .
This design approach will greatly reduce the incidence of tree roots causing sidewalk
buckling or curb damage. Reciprocally, if sidewalk or curb repair is needed, damage to
tree roots will be reduced in larger sized tree lawns, and tree mortality or growth rates
should not be adversely affected .

Sidewalk and plaza planting pits may present the same limitations on tree selection
that tree lawns do, but normally they are most restrictive in termsof rooting volume.
Generous planting pits are 5 feet square by 3 feet deep, providing only 75 cubic feet of
rooting volume. A healthy small- to medium -sized tree requires 300 to 1,000 cubic feet
of rooting volume to reach maturity (Urban , 1992 ). Planting pits must provide adequate
soil drainage to sustain tree health . If larger planting pits cannot be incorporated into
current streetscape planning and design , consider fewer but larger planting islands. These
islands would have a larger volume of soil that could successfully support a group (copse)
of trees that would share the larger rooting volume. Structural soils are also an option
 to increase soil rooting volume in downtown and parking lot situations. Structural soils
are a combination of crushed stone, clay loam , and hydrogel (a copolymer that helps
hold the stone and loam together) that can be used under pavement such as sidewalks
(Bassuk et al. 1997 ). These soils allow for suitable compaction under sidewalks while still
providing a root-friendly environment.

Sidewalk or plaza trees also need to be tall enough that the lowest branches can be
removed to allow pedestrians safe passage under them , usually a minimum of 8 feet
above ground. Island plantings, especially if the planting is slightly elevated, reduce the
need for pruning all trees in the group . Only the edge trees would require elevation
pruning (pruning for clearance).

As discussed , the presence of overhead utility wires and limited space for planting sites
are two common factors that restrict the choices of tree species that are suitable for use in
community tree planting programs. A publication entitled Compatible Tree Factsheets
for Electric Lines and Restricted Spaces compiles information that will aid communities
in the selection of trees for planting sites under electric wires, in narrow tree lawns,
and other places where small crowns and root systemsare advantageous (Gerhold et al.
2001). This publication focuses on tree species suitable for planting in USDA Hardiness
Zones 3-6 . It is available from the Municipal Tree Restoration Program at 109 Ferguson
Building, The Pennsylvania State University , University Park , PA 16802.

Park trees generally experience fewer pressures resulting from space restrictions. Parks are
the best location for large trees since the rooting volumes are not limited and utility lines
are rare. Themost common space restriction in parks is the distance from the ground to
the first set of branches. Trees selected for planting in parks should be species that mature
to a height that proportionately allows the lower branches to be pruned up to provide
human traffic clearance (minimum of 8 feet), or unrestricted light diffusion from street/
park security lights (usually, at least 12 feet above ground ).

Urbanization of Woodlands

Forest trees that have been in relatively protected and undisturbed environments for all of
their lives become very vulnerable to exposure when these forests are urbanized , that is,
when residential or commercial subdivisions are built in or around the forests . Suddenly,
the trees thatwere once protected from wind and sun are exposed , in particular those
that have now become edge species. Typically, these trees are tall and slender, with very
high canopies and very shallow root systems, and are more prone to windthrow .

Roots of the new edge species are commonly lost during development of wooded areas,
either directly through cutting, or indirectly through exposure, loss of soil moisture,
and subsequent death of the shallow network of supportive, fine roots. As a result , they
becomeless stable and more vulnerable to winds and windthrow . In addition , they
produce more dead wood in the canopies as a result of defensive dieback in reaction to
the root loss and death . So even if they are able to remain vertical despite the increasing
wind loads, they often produce a significant amount of deadwood high in the canopies
that presents a threat to people and structures below .

Root loss can be prevented during the design stages ofwoodland development by
avoiding injury to the critical root area of the edge trees, or at the very least, by not
cutting any roots within the dripline. Construction activities should be avoided within
the CRR (Figure 4.3 ) to ensure the tree's root zone is adequately protected .
 Indirect root death as a result of
forest floor exposure to wind and
sun can be minimized by keeping
the area mulched with an organic
DBH x 1.5 = CRR
mulch , irrigating during and
after construction activities, and
underplanting the areaswhere
DBH CRR sun and wind are more pervasive.
5 inches 7.5 feet
10 15 Understory shrubs and small trees
15 22.5
20 30 will help reduce the amount of
drying wind and sunlight that reach
DBH the forest floor, that area where
the shallow , fine roots proliferate .
CRR Under no circumstances should
the forest floor be " cleaned up” and
converted to a competitive, turf
grass groundcover.
Figure 4.3 . Critical Root Radius (CCR ) and critical
rooting area .

Purchasing High Quality Nursery Stock

Just as it is important to select the right trees for the right places, it is equally as
important that the trees selected for planting are ofhigh quality. Planting unthrifty
planting stock is money wasted , and sets the stage for future tree health problems and
unsuccessful streetscape designs. Communities that invest in high quality trees and
proper planting and maintenance practices will enjoy the benefits of a tree resource that
increases in aesthetic and economic value, possesses fewer hazardous defects, and lives
longer.

What Determines Tree Quality ?

Industry standards for nursery stock have been established by the American
Association of Nurserymen and are published in the American Standard for Nursery
Stock , ANSI Z60.1 (ANSI 1996 ). These standards cite height/caliper relationships
for shade trees, and a recommended minimum root ball size based on tree caliper.
These standards were established to help ensure that nursery stock would have
enough sound roots present to support healthy tree growth . Community program
managers responsible for community tree planting should be familiar with these
industry standards. Implementation of these standards is voluntary, and communities
may opt to establish their own set of standards. A copy of The ANSI 260.1 standards
can be purchased from the American Nursery & Landscape Association , 1250 I
Street NW , Suite 500,Washington D.C. 20005-3922 or through their publications/
generalbusiness link at [Link] .

When communities purchase trees for planting along streets or sidewalks, quality
specifications are different than those for trees used in other landscape situations.
For example, street trees should have a single, straight trunk that is free of branches
to a height where limbs will not obstruct pedestrian or vehicle traffic or block the
line of sight to traffic signs and [Link] should ensure that bidding
specifications state the height to which the tree should be free ofbranching, at the
time of planting. Specifications will vary according to individual community bidding
guidelines, however, a height of6 to 8 feet is commonly cited. If the community is
 able to perform frequent pruning (every 3 years), pruning up at the timeof planting
can be delayed . If low -branched trees are planted , tree establishment and growth is
improved , stem taper is increased , and trees require staking less frequently, however,
the community must have in place a follow -up pruning schedule to raise the crown
over time.

Here are some tree quality characteristics that communities should look forwhen
purchasing nursery stock for tree planting operations:

Single, straight trunk that

is free of branches below
6 to 8 feet (for trees to be
planted within a few feet of
a sidewalk or street)

• AA strong form with well

spaced , firmly attached
branches

A trunk free of stem defects

such asmechanical wounds,
Figure 4.4 . Avoid purchasing nursery stock with
Alush cut pruning wounds, codominant leaders (more than one leader), or select
cankers, insect injuries, or stock that can be successfully pruned back to a single
cracks leader. Even though these branch attachments are not
weak, this codominance began 3 feet above ground, far
too low for a tree that willmature to 40 to 50 feet in
Adequate root ball/ height.
container/root spread size
in relation to tree caliper see American Standard for Nursery Stock , ANSI
Z60.1.

Inspect Nursery Stock to Verify Quality

Retain the right to inspect trees at the time of
delivery and reject those that fail to meet stated
specifications. Consider rejecting treeswith the
following problems:

• Trees with double ormultiple leaders:

Trees with double or multiple leaders and
included bark in the attachments have an
increased likelihood of stem failure, and
often suffer the greatest damage during and
after storm events ( Figure 4.4 ).

Trees with weak branch unions ( e.g.,

narrow , V -shaped ) and included bark in
branch unions: Branches with included
bark in their attachments are always
weak and are one of the primary causes
of branch failure. If they are not pruned
Figure 4.5 . Branch with included
out when the branches are small, even
bark that failed and caused extensive
minor thunderstorm loading events can
damage to the stem .
 cause premature failure of
branches with included bark
and extensive damage to the
stem (Figure 4.5) . Two types
of branch attachments are
shown in Figure 4.6 : The
branch attachment to the
left is strong and the branch
attachment to the right is
weak , with included bark .

Trees with defects on the

main stem : Common stem Figure 4.6 . The branch attachment to the left
defects includemechanical is strong, with the branch bark ridge pushing up.
The attachment to the right is weak , with extensive
injuries, flush cut pruning included bark. This attachment (to the right) targets
wounds, cankers , insect the branch that should be removed.
injuries, or cracks ( Figure
4.7 ). Tree wraps can conceal
stem defects, so remove tree
wraps to inspect the trunk.

. Trees with serious root

related problems: Such
problemsmay predispose
trees to opportunistic
root pathogens or the
development of stem
girdling roots. Examples
include:
Figure 4.7 . Don't buy this plant! That wound on
the stem is extensive and decay has already entered the
• Balled -and-burlapped wood . Even if thewound is sealed by new wood , the
and tree-spaded trees stem wood can continue to discolor and decay.
with root collars that
are deeply buried within
the root ball (> than 4
inches). With balled and
burlapped plants that are
buried too deeply in the
soil ball, there are two
problems: 1) the risk that
they willbe planted too
deeply in the landscape
which may lead to
development of stem
girdling roots , and 2 ) the
limited amount of roots Figure 4.8 . This hackberry was buried by 12 inches
ofsoil in the soil ball, and had very few roots to support
that may be in the soil the tree after the excess soilwas removed .
ball (Figure 4.8 ).
 The location of the root
collar can be determined
by inserting a steel wire
( coat hanger gauge) or
metal probe into the
root ball (at several
points) and measuring
the depth at which the
first primary root(s)
attach to the stem
( Figure 4.9) .

Figure 4.9. The location of the root collar can be

• Bare- root trees with determined by inserting a metalprobe into the root ball
moderate to severe (at several locations) and measuring the depth at which
the first primary root(s) attaches to the stem .
amounts of “ J” roots or
encircling roots (Figure
4.10 ).

• Container grown trees

that are root bound and
have moderate to severe
amounts of encircling
roots (Figure 4. 11). If
only a few non -woody
roots are encircling, cut
them away with a sharp
tool.
Figure 4.10 . Avoid purchasing bare-rooted nursery
stock that has extensive J-root problems. If left
Container grown untreated, these root systemswill continue to develop as
trees that have root dysfunctional root systems.

collars that are deeply

planted in the container
or within plastic or
fabric bags (> than 4
inches deep ) or have
incomplete or poorly
developed root systems.

• Trees with moderate

to severe amounts of
crushed or torn roots.
If only a few roots are Figure 4.11. Encircling roots from pot-bound ,
crushed or torn , use containerized trees do not self-straighten . If correction
a sharp tool to prune of the root system is notmade atplanting time, the
them to remove the dysfunctional root system will remain and only worsen
with time.
injured tissues. Make
the cuts immediately
before planting and
watering .
Proper Tree Planting Techniques
Trees can be purchased as bare
root, containerized, or balled
and-burlapped specimens. Basic
planting methods are the same for
all specimen types, but handling
and special considerations apply,
depending on the size and type of
tree. A checklist of basic planting
guidelines for all tree types, and
Vic
planting guidelines for special
situations is provided below .
These guidelines are provided as a
handy reference for communities
to use as they implement their
tree planting programs and
develop contract and bidding
specifications for tree planting
projects .

Root collar Primary root

Basic Planting Guidelines for All
Tree Types
Match the tree species to site
conditions. Base this on the soil
type, soil pH , surface and sub-soil
drainage, growing space , exposure
factors (e.g., sun , wind, ice and
snow, and de- icing salts ), and the
tree's cold hardiness . Figure 4.12 . Make sure the root collar (arrow ) is at the
soil surface or slightly above (e.g., 1-2 inches) when the tree
is planted.
Prepare the site by removing the
sod. Loosen the soilby tilling or
spading an area three- to five
times wider in diameter than the
width of the root system , and only
to the depth of the root system .

Dig a hole in the center of this

circle that is 1 to 2 feet larger in
diameter than the root ball and
deep enough so the root collar is
at the soil surface when the tree is
planted . The root collar is the base Figure 4.13. Back fill the planting hole half way with the
of the stem where the primary original soil that was removed and water.
roots first begin to branch away
from the stem (Figure 4.12 ) The root collar may be buried in balled and burlapped ,
container grown, or tree spade dug trees. If you find the root collar is buried 3 inches
deep in the rootball, dig the planting hole 3 inches shallower than the depth of the
root ball.

Maintain undisturbed (not loosened ) soil beneath the root ball to prevent the tree
from settling
Carefully place the tree in the center of the hole and gently remove any excess soil to
expose the root collar flare. Double -check that the root collar (base of the stem where
the primary roots first begin to branch away from the stem ) is at the soil surface or
slightly above (e.g., 1 to 2 inches). Planting trees at the proper depth , and not too
deeply, is a critical step that can help to prevent the development of stem girdling
roots and premature tree failure . Stem girdling roots can compress and kill trunk
tissue, and cause trees to decline 10 to 20 years after planting or suddenly failduring
storms by snapping off at the stem /root compression area.

Backfill around the roots with the soil that was removed. Lightly pack or water the
soil during this process to eliminate air pockets (Figure 4.13). Backfill the planting
hole to the heightof the root collar,butno higher.

Mulch with 4 to 6 inches of coarse

wood chips or shredded bark . Pull
the mulch back from the trunk
to prevent direct contact with the
root collar and trunk . Be sure to
avoid creating a mulch volcano
by applying themulch too deeply
and placing it right up to the stem
( Figure 4.14 ).

Water is very important to a newly

planted tree. Newly transplanted
trees will benefit from daily watering Figure 4.14 . Avoid mulch [Link] heaped
for the first 1 to 2 weeks, applying too deeply and too close to the base of the stem can lead
approximately 1 to 3 gallons-per to stem girdling roots and decay.

caliper- inch at each watering.

Thereafter ,water trees every 2 to 3 days for the next 2 to 3 months and then weekly
until established . Newly transplanted trees are absorbing water from a diminished
root area. Apply water directly to the root ball at first. Roots must generate and grow
into surrounding soils before a larger soil volume can be tapped for moisture. This
watering regime should provide the new roots
with sufficient moisture without drowning
them . Roots need oxygen , too ! Adjust the
watering schedule accordingly for rain or very
dry conditions.

Don't Forget To:

Inspect containerized and container- grown
trees prior to planting to see if the roots are
pot-bound or encircling. (Avoid the purchase
ofmoderately- to severely- pot-bound plants).
If the roots are slightly pot bound , remove the
pot and make a vertical slice up each quarter
of the root ball to a depth ofabout 1 inch .
Cut an X across the bottom of the soil ball
to a depth ofabout 1 [Link] loosen
Figure 4. 15. If the tree is pot bound,
some of the roots, then plant ( Figure 4.15). If
score the root ball with a knife to a depth
encircling roots are flexible, it may be possible
of 1 inch, as shown.

azardous meet
to straighten and orient them in a radiating direction outward from the trunk , rather
than cutting them .

Inspect bare root trees for broken or encircling roots, and all trees for broken or
damaged branches prior to planting. Remove any broken or encircling roots and
broken or damaged branches with a sharp hand pruner. Also , remove crossing or
rubbing branches.

Keep all types of root systems moist prior to planting. For bare root trees , placing
moist straw or sawdust around the roots works well.

Soak bare root trees in water 1 hour prior to planting.

Sweat bare root trees in a shaded place such as a garage and keep them moist until
the buds open . Sweating is a process that creates favorable conditions necessary for
bud break and development on certain tree species , such as oaks and hackberries.

Remove all containers prior to planting, including biodegradable , papier -mâché

pots. If the roots and soil are loose in the container, then place the container in the
planting hole and carefully cut away the container as you backfill with soil.

Be sure all roots extend away from the trunk to prevent future problems with
encircling and stem girdling roots.

Remove at least the upper two rungs on wire baskets before completely backfilling.
Typically it is best not to remove any portion of the wire basket before the tree is
safely placed in the planting hole and is partially backfilled.

Remove the nails holding the burlap together, then cut away as much of the burlap
as possible after the plant has been partially backfilled . Never allow any burlap to
remain above the soil surface.

Cut and remove all twine and rope from around the soil ball and tree trunk .

Prevent animaldamage to young trees, if needed , by placing a 12- to 24 -inch -tall

cylinder of 1 /4 -inch mesh hardware cloth around the trunk, leaving 2 to 3 inches
between the wire and the trunk .

Provide follow -up care during the establishment period to ensure tree survival and
success . Recent research suggests watering frequency is very important to facilitate
rapid and successful establishment. See the suggested watering schedule mentioned
above . Successful establishment and tree survival rates will decrease total costs of a
tree planting project when tree removaland replacement costs are factored into the
total budget.
 Figure 4.16 . For heavy or poorly drained soils, plant the root collar slightly higher than the soil
surface (e.g., 1 to 2 inches), and mound the soil to cover the root ball.

Planting Guidelines For Special Situations:

For heavy and/or poorly drained soils , plant slightly higher than normal and mound
the soil up to cover the root ball (Figure 4.16 ) .

Do not add peat to poorly drained , heavy clay soils , as it can act as a sump and draw
water into the root zone.

Do not add rocks or gravel to the bottom of a planting hole to improve drainage
unless drain tiles are installed .

When using tree spades ,water the trees thoroughly before moving them . Rough
up the sides of the planting holes with a shovel or rake, then place the trees slightly
higher than the original grade to allow for settling.

If using a weed control barrier, use a

porous landscape fabric. Do not use
plastic around trees.

Staking is generally not necessary

unless the tree is unstable. Stakes
and strapping should be applied
to support the tree, yet allow the
tree to move and sway. Stakes and
strapping should be REMOVED
within one year. Connect the tree
to the stakes with wide ( two inches
or wider), flexible materials, such
as strips of canvas,mesh or burlap
or old bicycle inner tubes (Figure
4.17 ). Avoid ropes, strings or wires
in garden hose sections since these
materials can compress and girdle Figure 4.17 . Stake if necessary, for nomore than 1
stem tissue. year.
Proper Tree Pruning Techniques
Sound arboricultural practices will prevent development ofmany hazardoustree
defects. Investing community resources in proper tree pruning techniques is one
of the most effective tree risk management strategies. Early formative pruning and
ongoing maintenance pruning will prevent the development or eliminate many tree
defects that are leading causes of tree failure. Early and regular tree pruning will also
reduce the costs of subsequent pruning, tree removal, and replanting .

Industry standards for pruning trees are published by the American National
Standards Institute in The American National Standard for Tree Care Operations
Trees, Shrubs and other Woody Plant Maintenance- Standard Practices: ANSI A300
- 1995 (ANSI 1995 ). The A300 (Part 1) standards currently address tree pruning
practices only, and provide guidelines for young tree,mature tree, and utility pruning
operations. The American National Standards Institute has also published a standard
reference for safety requirements forworkers and the public who are engaged in tree
care operations entitled The American National Standard for Tree Care Operations -
Pruning, Trimming, Repairing, Maintenance , and Removing Trees, and Cutting Brush -
Safety Requirements: ANSI Z1331.1-2001 (ANSI 2001). The purpose of this standard
is to provide safety criteria for workers and the public, and to serve as a guide to
federal, state, and municipal authorities in the drafting of their regulations.

These industry standards can help communities develop pruning specifications and
safety regulations. Community tree care managerswho write contracts and bidding
specifications for tree maintenance work projects should be familiar with them .
Both publications are available from the American National Standards Institute,
National Arborist Association , and the International Society of Arboriculture at their
respective websites as follows:

[Link] [Link] [Link]

Pruning Schedules

Trees should be pruned regularly during their early formative years to improve tree
structure and promote tree health .Good structure of primary, scaffold branches
should be established while the tree is young. The scaffold branches provide the
framework of the mature tree, and properly trained young trees will develop a
strong structure and require less corrective pruning as they mature. Early formative
pruning is “ good preventivemedicine” that will help to avoid the development
of many tree defects, or eliminate them before they become hazardous to public
safety . For example , early formative pruning that removes weakly attached branches
will improve tree structure, and can preventmajor branch failures in subsequent
years. The elimination of codominant stems, early in the tree's life, will prevent the
development of defects that could lead to stem failure such as included bark and/or
cracks at the stem union .

Many pruning schedules have been published , and the recommended interval
between pruning activities varies. The ANSI A300 pruning standards provide
guidelines for pruning young trees at the timeof planting, 1 to 3 years after
planting , and 4 to 6 years after planting. Here are some tips to remember when
pruning young trees. These tips incorporate the ANSI A300 pruning standards and
recent research findings:
Pruning Young Trees
At Planting

Little , if any, pruning should be needed at the timeof planting. This is especially
true if high quality nursery stock has been selected for planting. Any pruning
performed on newly planted trees should be limited to corrective pruning . Several
studies have shown that pruning the crown at planting to achieve a better balance
between roots and foliage does not enhance establishment and can actually increase
the time required for establishment. This phenomenon occurs because the food
manufacturing capacity of the foliage is needed to produce new roots and shoots.

Corrective pruning to be done at planting

Remove diseased , dead, or broken branches
Eliminate double leaders ( The top of a tree should never be pruned except
to remove a double leader)
Remove branches with included bark in their attachments
Do not remove lower branches or thin the crown at planting

1-3 Years After Planting

Never remove more than one quarter of the foliage or live branches of a
tree per year
Remove branches that are dead , broken , or rubbing
Select primary scaffold branches that are well spaced along the tree trunk
as follows:
18 inches apart for tree species that will reach > 40 feet at maturity
6-8 inches for tree species that will reach < 40 feet at maturity
Remove branches with included bark in their attachments

4-6 Years after Planting

Never remove more than one quarter of the foliage or live branches of a
tree per year
Remove branches that are dead ,broken , rubbing
Selectively thin to promote a structurally sound scaffold branch system and
strong branch unions
Eliminate codominant stems. Codominant stemsare a leading cause
of tree failure
Remove branches that interfere with proper spacing of scaffold
branches
Remove branches with weak branch attachments and included bark
Retain branches with strong U -shaped angles of attachment
Prune lower branches to prevent interference with site lines, pedestrian
traffic, and other clearance issues

Basic Pruning Methods

Pruning cuts should always follow the guidelines provided in Appendix 3 : How
to Prune Trees. Proper training and experience is needed , particularly for large
limb removal and the removal of highly hazardous trees. Communities should
hire experienced and insured arborists, if the public works staff are not trained or
experienced in these procedures.
 Wound Dressings

Wound dressings are not necessary or recommended for most pruning cuts. Research
has shown that dressings do not hasten wound closure or reduce wood decay. The
application of dressings can effectively reduce sap flow from wounds, and in this
capacity can help prevent the transmission of certain diseases such as oak wilt and
Dutch elm disease. If oaks or elmsare wounded or must be pruned during active
disease transmission periods, use a latex rather than oil-based or asphalt-based paint.

Timing of Pruning
Try to schedule pruning activities during the late dormant season . Pruning in late
winter, just before spring growth starts , leaves fresh wounds exposed for only a short
length of timebefore new growth begins the wound sealing process. Pruning trees
during the dormant season can help to avoid certain diseases such as oak wilt, Dutch
elm disease, and fireblight. Another advantage of dormant pruning is that it is easier
to make pruning decisions without leaves obscuring branch structure.

Ideally, it is best to avoid pruning trees when leaves are forming and until they are
fully mature. This is true because much of the tree's energy reserves are being used to
support leaf expansion and growth , and only limited energy reserves are available for
defensive activities like wound sealing and compartmentalization .

Protection of Trees From Construction Damage

Construction activities impact trees and can create or exacerbate hazardous situations.
Protecting tree health and mitigating high-risk situations on a construction site is a
matter of recognizing the potential impacts of construction activities , and identifying
hazardous trees or defects that exist on the site. Avoiding orminimizing construction
damage is a critical step in preventing the development of many hazardous tree defects ,
and eliminates the costs of treating construction damaged trees. Advanced planning and
simple mitigation steps can minimize the risks associated with trees during and after
construction . These include:

Protecting healthy, structurally sound trees

Protecting trees from direct injury

Protecting the structural integrity of trees

• Protecting the overall health of trees throughout construction

Although they are not discussed here, there are significant tree risk management issues
that should be considered along with the risk of structural tree failure during and after
construction ( Johnson 1999). These issues include creating a structure and site that are
defensible against wildfire, providing adequate visibility at roadway intersections, and
providing visibility for security and surveillance.

Protect Healthy, Structurally Sound Trees – " Save the Best - Chip the Rest "
In areas where trees will impact people and structures, trees should be assessed to
ensure that they are healthy and structurally sound . Trees that are unhealthy and/or
structurally weak will only get worse following construction activities. No efforts
 Steps for a successful tree protection plan :

Mark construction zone boundaries

Inventory trees on the site
Train contractors and sub contractor crews
. Design the site to accommodate construction activities :
Vehicle movement and parking
Material storage
- Vehicle cleaning
Select the trees to be saved
. Protect the trees you plan to save
Prepare the trees for construction disturbance
.
Protect and preserve the soil for future tree planting
. Monitor the construction process and hold periodic meetings with
contractors
. Enforce penalties for non -compliance
Make a final inspection of the site
. Commit to long-term maintenance

should be made to save these trees. A tree specialist can inventory and inspect trees
and provide a report of potential problems. The specialist should review construction
plans to see if the proposed construction or subsequent landscaping activities will
create new target areas. Eliminate or correct hazardous situations, or exclude people
from hazardous areas.

Protect Trees From Direct Injury

Trees can be damaged or killed by a wide variety of construction activities.

Construction practices can result in obvious damage such as torn bark and less
obvious damage to roots. Any injury to the wood or bark of a tree is a potential
long- term problem . Open wounds deplete a tree's energy resources and provide entry
points for insects, diseases, and decay. Decay is the leading indicator of potential
tree failure and is always the result of wounds. The worst damage ,however, often
remains hidden underground . Roots that lie within the path of construction must be
protected because they are so important for anchoring the tree.

Approximately 90 to 95 percent of a tree's root system is located in the top 3 feet of

soil, and more than half is in the top 1 foot. Avoid construction activities within the
CRR to ensure the tree's root zone is adequately protected .

When you remove a large number of trees, you change the site conditions for the
remaining trees . Sudden increases in amounts of sunlight and wind may shock trees.
It is not uncommon to find scorched leaves, broken branches, and uprooted trees
after a site is cleared. Although some of these problems are temporary, they may
compromise tree health when coupled with additional construction damage.
Protect the Structural Integrity of Trees
Trees acclimate to the conditions of the site where they grow . Mature trees have less
ability to adapt to changes in the environment than younger trees . Construction
activities can change soilmoisture,wind exposure, and sunlight, requiring trees to
acclimate to new conditions. The shape of a tree's trunk and root system reflect the
tree's adaptation to environmental conditions that existed prior to construction . For
example, forest or plantation trees have trunks with less taper and few lower branches
than open grown and exposed trees. Collectively , they protect each other from most
wind damage. Once exposed along the edges of openings created by construction
activities, individual trees may not have the strength to withstand increased wind.
This problem can be mitigated by selectively thinning the woodland or plantation
several years prior to construction activities. You can avoid sun and wind stress and
improve tree survival by preserving trees in groups rather than as individuals.

Root loss not only affects the health of trees but also their condition and stability.
Any tree that experiences significant root loss will have a different center of gravity
as a result . This shift in balance often results in less stable trees especially the large,
mature trees and leaves them more vulnerable to toppling over, especially during
high wind. Construction activities that sever more than 40 percent of roots located
within the CRR will result in a tree that is in imminent danger of falling over,with
orwithout the help of wind. Trees growing in tree lawns or near streets typically
have an unbalanced and restricted root distribution . Therefore, any root removal or
damage during construction is a more significant loss to trees growing in tree lawns
as compared to trees growing in more open areas.

Protect the Overall Health of Trees Throughout Construction

In addition to protecting the CRR , there are other ways in which you can reduce the
impact of construction activities on your trees. Some of these are relatively simple;
others are complex and expensive. Carefully consider the importance of each tree to
the future appearance of the site and consult a tree specialist before deciding whether
protective measures are worth the cost.

Soil compaction is the single largest killer of trees in construction areas. Tree roots
need loose soil to grow , obtain oxygen , and absorb water and nutrients . Stockpiled
building materials, heavy machinery, and excessive foot traffic all damage soil
structure. Lacking good soil aeration , roots suffocate and tree health declines.
Prevent soil compaction by establishing storage areas and traffic routes safely away
from the CRR of trees, and installing protective fences and signs. If traffic cannot
be rerouted , apply several inches of protective mulch (6 inches ormore) within the
CRR of affected trees to reduce soil compaction .Mitigating existing soil compaction
problemsis rarely effective, so careful planning will help avoid the expense and labor
of corrective treatments or removal of damaged trees.

Improper handling or disposal ofmaterials used during construction also can harm
roots. Fill gas tanks, clean paintbrushes and tools, and repair mechanical equipment
well outside the CRR of trees to prevent chemical spill damage. Finally , avoid
changes to native soil pH by not cleaning out concrete mixers ormortar boxes on
site or burying concrete materials within the CCR of existing trees or in areas where
future plantings are planned. Alkaline clays or limestone should not be used for fill
or paving.
Grade changes within the CRR usually kill a tree. This happens either directly, or by
changing soilmoisture and oxygen availability within the root zone. Except where
absolutely necessary, avoid disruptions to the natural contour of the site or shift them
well outside the [Link] disruption to the CRR with techniques such as use
of porous fill, mulch and non -turf groundcover, and constructing retaining walls at
or beyond the CRR .

As much as 40 percent of tree's root

of a tree's root system can be
can be cut during the installation of a
nearby utility line. This reduces water and nutrient uptake and may compromise the
stability of the tree. If it is notpossible to relocate the utility line outside the tree's
CRR , you can reduce root damage by tunneling under the tree's root system (Figure
4.18 ).

Tunneling Trenching

Figure 4.18 . Underground utilities installed via a tunneling system cause less root
damage than convention trenching operations.

Avoid soil tunneling (augering) too close to the tree's stem in order to minimize
injury to tree roots . The diameter of the tree can be used as a guide to determine the
minimum distance from the tree where tunneling should occur ( Table 4.2).
Table 4.2 Minimum distance ( feet) from the tree's stem that soil augering/ tunneling
should occur, based on tree diameter.

Auger distance from tree stem

Tree diameter (dbh , inches)
(radius, feet)

1
0-2

3-4 2

5-9 5
10-14 10

15-19 12

> 19 15

Source: Morell 1984

Trenching for building foundations also poses a danger to nearby trees. Posts, pillars,
or I-beams sometimes can be substituted for foundation walls and footers on homes.
Drilling single holes as opposed to cutting deep trenches saves critical roots .

Street Trees and Construction Damage

Established street trees are subjected to damage from construction activities more
frequently than forest trees. The infrastructure of any community (e.g. , streets ,
sidewalks, curbs, and buried utilities) is continually updated , repaired , or expanded ,
and trees growing in tree lawns (e.g., tree lawns) or close to these public services
are vulnerable to construction activities. A community can minimize construction
damage to public trees by adopting a tree preservation policy that establishes tree
preservation guidelines.

Root loss is the most common type of construction damage that street trees
suffer. This is particularly harmful because these trees already are growing in root
limited spaces, and are often less healthy than other landscape trees due to other
environmental stresses posed by tree lawns. Stresses include reduced soil volume,
poor quality soil, accumulation of de-icing salts, and characteristically drier
conditions than other landscape sites.

Minimize root loss to minimize construction damage to street trees. Most healthy
trees can tolerate one-sided root cutting and recover from the loss with long-term
after care (Johnson 1999). Trees that have roots cut on two sides usually suffer much
more damage and are less stable . It is questionable whether to save trees that suffer
root loss on three or more sides.

Damage to sidewalks, curbs, and gutters near trees is costly and the damage is
frequently listed as a tree problem . In California over $ 70 million dollars in damage
to these grey infrastructure components has been reported (McPherson 2000 ) .
Nationally, it is likely then that billions are spent annually repairing damage to curbs,
gutters , and sidewalks. But is the tree 100 percent of the problem ? Some evidence
suggests that defects in sidewalks and natural expansion and contraction of soils
account for sidewalk damage. In other cases attempting to grow a tree too close to
infrastructure is theproblem .
Damage to sidewalks, curbs and gutters becomes less frequent the farther away tree
stemsare form the edge of these structures. Damage becomes infrequent in tree
lawnsthat are approximately 8- to 10 -feet wide or greater. Also, in the cases where
damage does occur, the repair process and subsequent damage to tree roots systems
on average does not cause any greater tree mortality than normally occurring nor a
detectible reduction in tree condition (Hauer et al. 1994 ) .

The amount of root cutting near street trees may be reduced by a variety of methods
and compromises :

• Plant smaller stature trees (Remember, doing so will also reduce the
ecological benefits that larger stature trees can produce).

Move the sidewalk away from the tree.

Plant trees on the sidewalk side opposite of the tree lawn (If this area is
private property a green easement could be developed to allow tree planting
on private property and future care by a municipality ).

• Ramp the sidewalk to minimize trip and fall events.

Grind down the raised sidewalk to increase the time period before
infrastructure replacement is needed and the subsequent root damage will
Occur.

• Evaluate soil texture when designing sidewalk projects .

Avoid widening streets or sidewalks when they are replaced .

Narrow the width of the street when possible to lessen the amount of root
damage and provide more area for future root growth .

Use air or water tools to expose main structural roots to facilitate clean
cutting of roots rather than ripping them from soil excavation with a
backhoe.

.
If curbs are need to be replaced, hand form the curbs adjacent to tree roots,
rather than excavating with machinery. Excavation with machinery destroys
major branch roots, even if the new curb remains in the same position as the
old curb .

Consolidate utilities into common trenches whenever possible , and tunnel

under tree root systems. Laying several utilities in a common trench
minimizes the number of trenches and root cuts.

• Avoid regrading the surface of the tree lawn . Although it is not trenching,
it still cuts and removes roots, usually the fine roots that absorb most of the
water and nutrients for the tree. If regrading must be done and creates a
mowing/maintenance problem , consider the installation of retaining walls at
the curb line, or remove the turfgrass from the tree lawn and replace it with
mulch and landscape plantings.
 When tree lawns are greater than 10 feet wide, take steps to plant trees to avoid
future damage. Placement of trees in the center of the tree lawn rather near the
sidewalk or curb side is important. Simple centering of the tree in the tree lawn in
wide tree lawnswillhelp prevent future tree and infrastructure conflicts.

Authors

Richard J. Hauer
Plant Health Specialist
Minnesota Department of Agriculture

Dr. Gary R. Johnson

Professor, Urban and Community Forestry
University ofMinnesota

Jill D. Pokorny
Plant Pathologist
USDA Forest Service
State & Private Forestry, Northeastern Area

Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank Cynthia L. Ash for providing assistance in the text
development for the section on proper tree planting practices.

Literature Cited

American Association of Nurserymen (AAN ). 1997. American standard for nursery

stock: ANSI Z60.1- 1996. Washington D. C .: American Nursery & Landscape
Association . 57 p .

American National Standards Institute (ANSI) . 1995. The American national standard

for tree care operations - tree, shrub , and other woody plant maintenance -
standard practices: ANSI A300-1995. New York : National Standards Institute. 8 p .

American National Standards Institute (ANSI) . 2001. The American national standard

for tree care operations - pruning, trimming, repairing , maintenance, and

removing trees, and cutting brush - safety requirements : ANSI Z1331.1-2001.
New York : American National Standards Institute. 22 p .

Bassuk, N .;Grabosky, J.; Trowbridge, P.; Urban , J. 1997. Structural soil: An innovative
medium under pavement that improves street tree vigor. Ithaca , NY: Cornell
University Urban Horticulture Institute. Updated December 12 , 2000 , < http ://
[Link]/department/faculty/bassuk/uhi/[Link]> .

Burns, R. M .; Honkala , B. H., tech . coords. 1990. Silvics of North America . Volume 1 ,

Conifers . Agric. Handb . 654. Washington D. C .: U.S. Department of Agriculture,

Forest Service .675 p . 2 vol.
 Burns, R. M .; Honkala , B. H., tech. coords. 1990. Silvics of North America . Volume

2, Hardwoods. Agric. Handb.654. Washington D. C .: U. S. Department of

Agriculture, Forest Service. 877 p . 2 vol.

Demsey, G. 1994. Notes from hurricane Andrew . In : Burban , L. L.; Andersen , J. W.,
eds. Storms over the urban forest, 2nd Edition . Radnor, PA: U. S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Area, State and Private Forestry : 105-133.

Gerhold , H. D .; Lacasse, N. L .; Wandell, W. N , eds. 2001. Compatible tree factsheets

for electric lines and restricted spaces. University Park, PA : Pennsylvania State
University, College of Agricultural Sciences. 156 p .

Hauer, R. J.; Miller, R. W .; Ouimet, D.M. 1994. Street tree decline and construction
damage. Journal of Arboriculture. 20 (2 ): 94-97 .

Johnson , G. R., 1999. Protecting trees from construction damage: A homeowner's

guide. FO -6135 -S (revised ). St. Paul: University ofMinnesota Extension Service.
16 P. (also available at web address:[Link]

housingandclothing/[Link])

Johnson , G. R., Sucoff, E. [Link] de-icing salt injury to trees. FO - 1413. St.
Paul: University ofMinnesota Extension Service. 8 p .

McPherson , E. G. 2000. Expenditures associated with conflicts between street tree root
growth and hardscapes in California. Journal of Arboriculture . 26 (6 ): 15-18 .

General Reference

Cervelli, J. A. 1984. Container tree plantings in the city. Journal of Arboriculture. 0 ( 3):
83-86 .

Fazio , J. R., ed . 1988. Resolving tree-sidewalk conflicts (No. 3). Nebraska City : Tree
City USA , National Arbor Day Foundation . 8 p .

Fazio , J. R., ed. 1989. How to save trees during construction (No. 7 ). Nebraska City :
Tree City USA , National Arbor Day Foundation . 8 p .

Harris, R. W .; Clark , J. R .;Matheny, N. P. 1992. Arboriculture: Integrated management

of landscape trees, shrubs, and vines. 2nd Edition . Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice
Hall Inc. 687 p .

Hightshoe, G. L. 1988. Native trees, shrubs, and vines for urban and rural America.
New York : Van Nostrand Reinhold . 819 p .
Kuser, J. E., ed . 2000. Handbook of urban and community forestry in the northeast.
New York : Kluwer Academic/ Plenum Publishers. 444 p .

Matheny, N. P.; Clark , J. R. 1991. A photographic guide to the evaluation of hazard

trees in urban areas, 2nd edition . Urbana, IL : International Society of Arboriculture.
85 p .

Matheny, N. P.; Clark , J. R. 1998. Trees and development: a technical guide to

preservation of trees during land development. Urbana , IL : International Society of
Arboriculture . 184 p .

Miller, F. D .; Neely , D. 1993. The effect of trenching on growth and plant health of
selected species of shade trees. Journal of Arboriculture. 19( 4): 226-229 .

Minnesota Association of Soil and Water Conservation Districts Forestry Committee.

[Link] tree handbook. Staples,MN : Adventure Publication . 408 p .

Moll, G. A., ed . 1990. Community forests get a check up . Urban Forest Forum 9 (6 ) :
10-12 .

Perry, T. O. 1982. The ecology of tree roots and the practical significance thereof.
Journal of Arboriculture . 8 (8 ): 197-211 .

Swanson , B. T.; Rosen , C. 1990. Tree fertilization . FO -2421. St. Paul: University of
Minnesota Extension Service. 4 p .

Urban , J.1992 . Bringing order to the technical dysfunction within the urban forest.
Journal of Arboriculture. 18 : 85-90 .

Watson,G. W .; Neely, D., eds. 1995. Trees and building sites. Champaign , IL :
International Society of Arboriculture. 191 p .
 CHAPTER 5

Correction of Hazardous Defects in Trees

By Martin MacKenzie , Tom T. Dunlap , Barbara J. Spears, and Joseph G. O'Brien

Introduction

Every tree in the urban landscape will

eventually fail regardless of care. Whilemany
trees in an urban environment remain sound

and present low risks to public safety until

they die from other causes, some trees break
apart from accumulated defects and diseases
while they are still alive (Fig 5.1). If a target
is present near where a tree is growing,
there is always a risk that falling limbs or
a catastrophic failure of the stem or roots
may result in harm to people or damage to
property. When any tree in a community
accumulates defects that exceed a certain
level, the tree becomes an unacceptable
risk , and must be corrected or removed . Of
course, dead trees and branches present an
especially imminent hazard , and should be
removed as soon as practical after they are
discovered . Pruning or cabling and bracing
can correct many defects thatmake a tree a
hazard . This chapter outlines the strategies
that communities can adopt to correct trees
that develop hazardous defects, along with
some ideas for converting dead or dying Figure 5.1. This tree was previously topped, and
trees into desirable wildlife habitat . extensive wood decay has developed as a result. Two
major branches have already failed . This tree will
continue to decline at a rapid rate and should be
removed.
While the bulk of this manual deals with
the recognition of hazard trees and the

development of a community tree risk management program , one of the most important
aspects of such a program is the implementation of effective corrective actions in a timely
manner. Although the goal of risk management is preventing injury and damage, avoiding
litigation is also important to communities, because of the potential costs involved . Evidence
that a community has exercised “reasonable care” in regard to maintaining its trees lies in
its ability to produce documentation that proves that not only are trees inspected , but that
hazardous trees are corrected in a timely manner.

Strategies for Corrective Action

Procedures to correct hazardousdefects in trees range from simply pruning out defective
branches, to applying simple or complex cabling and bracing systems, to taking the ultimate
step of removal and replacement of the tree. The use of cabling and bracing to correct
 There are many ways to reduce the risk
to the public posed by a hazardous tree ,
and many times more than one solution
is possible .

Corrective action strategies to manage

hazardous trees include :

• Moving the target

Correcting the tree

Pruning

Cabling and bracing

Converting the tree to a wildlife tree

Closing the area to the public

• Removing the tree Figure 5.2 . Hazard Tree: Structurally

defective tree with a target within
striking range.

defective trees is such an important, controversial , and technical subject that it was decided
to devote a major portion of this chapter to this subject alone. See the cabling and bracing
section below . The rest of this chapter focuses on the other means of correcting hazardous
trees: pruning, conversion to non-hazardous wildlife habitat, or removal. Strive for the
treatment that results in the least impact on the site while eliminating the immediate hazard .

Moving the Target

As defined in Chapter 1, a “hazard tree” is a structurally defective tree that has a target
within range (Fig 5.2). If the target is moved out of range of the defective tree, then the
tree is no longer a hazard ,but is still a defective tree. Because it is difficult to predict the
direction of fall of a defective tree or tree part, and because most people are poor judges
of the actual heights of trees, it is recommended that a “target” be defined as any object
within a specified distance (1.5 times the estimated tree height) of the defective tree.

Moving the target away from a defective tree can also be an important way of “ buying
time.” If a hazardous tree is identified but corrective action cannot be taken immediately,
consider moving the target first. For example, if a picnic table or bench is the target
beneath a highly defective tree, but corrective actions cannot be taken for several days
or more,move the table or bench away from the [Link] the target in most urban
situations is probably a temporary measure; in most cases it reduces risk, but does not
eliminate it entirely.

Wherever people congregate or spend significant amounts of time in one place, the
potential for a hazardous situation exists. For example , one of the categories of users of
urban parks is the [Link] homeless people will seek shelter for the night under
a tree in a park, even if the tree is dangerously defective. Other users of urban parks seek
solitude, and go to great lengths to get away from their fellow visitors. For this reason ,
it should be assumed that if a tree within an urban park is surrounded by mown grass it
should be considered as having potential targets. An area of mown grass without nearby
 picnic tables, benches, or paved paths (i.e., “ targets”) can probably be considered a low
risk area ,but the trees in such an area should still receive periodic inspections, even if
the intensity and frequency is less rigorous than that afforded other, more intensively
used areas. However, if it is known that people regularly sleep or congregate under a tree
or group of trees in a park, even if such use is technically illegal, increased vigilance is
required .

Correcting the Tree

Pruning
Pruning out the defective parts of a tree is by far the most common means of
correcting defects and minimizing the chance of tree failure. Pruning is described
fully in Chapter 4 (Prevention of Hazardous Tree Defects). Always follow industry
standards for pruning (ANSI 300 – 1995 and ANSI Z1331.1 – 2000 ) as described
in Chapter [Link] are also provided in Appendix 2 : How to Prune Trees.

Examples of tree
defects that often
can be corrected
using proper
pruning techniques
include:

Cracks: For a
large branch with
a major crack ,
removal of the
entire branch back
to its junction with
the main stem is
usually the most
effective remedy
( Fig 5.3 ). However,
cabling and bracing
is an option
Figure 5.3 . Remove the entire Figure 5.4 . Remove large branches
that should be
branch back to its junction for large that are broken or lodged in the
considered in some
branches that are cracked . crown.
circumstances.

Dead Branches: Remove large

branches (> 4 inches) that are
broken or lodged in the crown .
At the same time, remove the
remaining stub , using good
pruning techniques ( Fig 5.4 ).

Weak Branch Unions with

included bark : Where a tree has a
weak branch union with included
bark , remove the affected branch
(Fig 5.5 ) . As with most corrective Figure 5.5 . Remove branches with weak branch unions
actions, they are more likely to be and included bark.

Correction of Hazardous Defects in Trees - 145

Figure 5.6 . Remove all large branches that are decayed (A ) or dead (B ).

effective if implemented while the

tree is young. See the cabling and
bracing section for other options.

Decayed branches: Remove all

large branches (> 4 inches) with
evidence of decay, and all large
dead branches (Fig 5.6 A and
B ). The pruning procedure must
remove the branch back to live ,
sound wood , but should not
necessarily cut into live wood.
Proper pruning cuts, even for large Figure 5.7 . Remove all branches that have highly
branches, are made just outside abnormal branching habits such as sharp bends or twists.
the branch -bark ridge, without
injuring the branch collar.

Unsound Architecture : Prune

branches that have a sharp angle ,
bend, or twist (unless such growth
is characteristic of the tree species)
‫| د‬
( Fig 5.7) . These are “architecturally
unsound trees.” As with weak
unions early intervention is
always better than removing large
branches later in the tree's life .

Visual Obstructions: Remove Figure 5.8 . Remove all branches that obstruct street
signs, signals, street or security lighting or that limit
branches that obstruct street signs,
visibility of approaching traffic.
signals, street or security lighting,
or branches that limit visibility of
approaching traffic (Fig 5.8 ).

Physical Obstructions: Remove branches that impair pedestrian or vehicular traffic.

Interference with Utility Lines: Prune trees that interfere with overhead utility
lines to eliminate the interference. Topping trees for utility clearance is no longer
considered an acceptable pruning practice (Fig 5.9 ).Maintenance of such trees
is usually the responsibility of the utility company that owns the lines. Special
 training and certification for
maintenance workers who do this
work is mandated by the federal
Occupational Safety and Health
Act (OSHA), and should be
required by all communities .

Cabling and Bracing

Wedo not recommend cabling
and bracing as a treatment for
hazardous trees unless the tree has
significant historic or landscape
value. The decision to apply Figure 5.9. Trees that interfere with overhead utility
lines should be pruned . But not this way! Tree topping is
cabling and bracing procedures to not an acceptable pruning practice.
trees should not bemade lightly .
Because it is critically important
that such procedures be done correctly, the following section provides information
that communities can use to make informed decisions regarding when and how to
use these tools in their tree risk management programs.

Industry Standards. Industry standards for installing support systems in trees are
published by the National Standards Institute in The American National Standard
for Tree Care Operations- Tree, Shrub, and Other Woody PlantMaintenance-Standard
Practices - Part 3 - Tree Support Systems (ANSI 2000 ). This publication includes
sections on hardware selection and requirements , installation practices, cabling and
bracing requirements, and guying techniques. The ISA has published a companion
publication , Best Management Practices: Tree Support Systems," to serve as a “how to"
guide for defining cabling, bracing, and guying procedures and methods (Smiley
et al. 2001). Community tree care managers who write contracts and bidding
specifications for tree maintenance work projects should be familiar with these
standards and best management practices. Communities should hire arborists
who are experienced and will agree in writing to perform all cabling and bracing
operations in accordance the ANSI A300 - Part 3 - Standards.

History of Cabling and Bracing. Cabling and bracing of trees has been practiced
for many years. There are obscure references to bracing done in the early 1800s, but
bracing trees, as we know the practice today, can be traced back to the early twentieth
century. Some of the first bracing systemsused chains and other rigid materials such
as rods, flat straps, and tubing. Cable and eyebolts came into use after 1910 and have
been widely accepted , with some modifications, as new materials were developed .
During the 1930's the National Park Service published guidelines for material sizes
and strengths that have been followed since that time. Modern materials used in
cabling and bracing systems include rigid material such as threaded rod or bolts or
flexible material such as metal or synthetic fiber cable.

Cabling and bracing systems are very similar to the standing rigging on sailing ships.
The use of flexible and rigid braces between masts and spars onboard sailing ships
to support huge loads is very similar to the goals of bracing trees to themselves (Fig
5.10 ). Proper selection , sizing, and placing of support materials can be expected to
add to the life expectancy of trees.

Correction of Hazardous Defects in Trees - 147

 Cabling and bracing has extended the life of
many trees and reduced the risk from failure to an
acceptable level. But the design and installation
of a proper system of cabling and bracing requires
professional judgment and experience. When
hiring an arborist to install a cabling and bracing
system , look for an experienced arborist who has
observed tree failures and worked in trees that
have been saved by proper cabling and bracing
systems.

Cabling and Bracing Defined

Cabling and bracing is the practice of adding a
support system to a tree to reduce the stress on
weak branch [Link] trees have acute, V
shaped branch unions that form included bark .
Included bark acts as a wedge that weakens and
separates branch unions that join at too sharp an
Figure 5.10. H.M.S. Victory, the flag angle. A similar situation occurs when two equal
ship of Vice- Admiral Lord Nelson at sized stemsform off themain bole of a tree after
the Battle of Trafalgar, illustrating the the loss of the main leader. The bark of the two
use of flexible and rigid braces between stemspush against each other and the two leaders
masts and spars.
do not have a strong connection to the main bole
(Fig 5.11). As the tree grows, these structural
defects can lead to failure of one of the two stems. Adding properly installed cabling
and bracing will reduce the strain on the branch union , and extend the life of the
tree .

Cabling and bracing can also be

used to correct trees with poor
architecture . Typically , as trees
grow , the trunks and limbs taper
toward the ends. This tapering
reduces the strain on the higher
and outer limbs in the tree. If
limbs and trunks do not taper, a
large amount of leverage acts on
the point of attachment where the
branch meets the stem , which can
lead to failure. Improper pruning
can also place strain on branch Figure 5.11. The through boltwas installed to add
unions. The inner branches of support to a weakened codominant branch .
some trees have been removed
because of the mistaken belief that
such hyper-thinning eliminates the possibility of wind failure. Actually , by removing
these inner branches, the tree will put on more length and less bulk in its limbs. This
leads to the condition referred to as “ lion's tailing.” Because the limbs are long and
thin ,but still maintain a full complement of foliage, the limbs will whip severely and
possibly fail, instead of swaying naturally .
Analysis of Tree Condition. There are many considerations thatmust be addressed
before a cabling and bracing system is installed in a tree. The tree may have a
high value in a particular landscape, or it might be a historic or unique specimen .
Before investing in a cabling and bracing system , the cost of installation and future
maintenance must be balanced against the risk of failure and possible loss of aesthetic
value during the tree's extended life.

Carefully assess the tree to determine if it is a reasonable candidate for the investment
in cabling and bracing. Consider the whole tree during this assessment. The roots
mustbe strong enough to support the tree . If there is decay in the main trunk or
branches, factor that information into the decision to remove or save the tree. If the
tree has cracked already, the arborist must know how well the tree species in question
is able to compartmentalize decay. Some trees can isolate decay better than others .
The outcome of a decision to apply a cabling and bracing procedure to a white oak
( Quercus alba) may be completely different than if the tree in question is a basswood .
Remember that cabling and bracing does not repair a tree. Cabling will add a level of
security and risk reduction , and can help to affect the direction of failure if a branch
should fail. When designed properly and installed by a trained arborist, proper use of
cabling and bracing will extend the life of a tree and reduce the risk to an acceptable
level.

If the decision is made to use cabling and bracing to extend thelife of a tree, it mustbe
understood that such treatments are [Link] consideration to plantinga younger
tree or trees to be used as replacements if the cabled and braced tree is removed .

Some trees will benefit from having weight removed from thebranches before the
installation of cabling and bracing hardware. Therefore, do all necessary pruning before
the tree is cabled .Remember, removingmajor lateral limbs creates large wounds that can
lead to extensive decay on the main bole of the tree. Ifweight reduction is determined
to be necessary, a slight crown reduction by using proper thinning cuts in the crown
is the safest course of action . The possible harm from over-pruning a tree to remove a
significant amountofweightmust also be [Link] trees will need only routine
pruning to remove dead limbs and other material in accordance with accepted pruning
standards as discussed in Chapter 4 .

Inspection Schedule. Once a tree has been cabled and braced it is necessary to inspect
the tree on a routine schedule. The size , age, site, and risk potential of the tree will
determine the inspection schedule. However, no cabling orbracing installation should
ever go more than two yearswithout inspection , and annual inspections are a good idea .
Some inspections can be done from the ground. Binoculars can be used to make a more
thorough inspection ofthe tree without having to climb it , or use an aeriallift to inspect
the crown. As time passes, it will be necessary to have an arborist inspect the anchor
points and any changes in the tree's growth from within the tree. There may comea time
when a new cabling and bracing system will be necessary. Again , this assessment will
need to be done by an experienced arborist following the same procedures as in the first
installation .

As the tree grows taller, the timewill come when a new system should be added ,
higher in the tree. Do not remove the old , lower system before thenew system is
completed . Do not attempt to remove old hardware imbedded in the tree. That will
unacceptably damage the tree. Cut such hardware flush and leave it in place.
 The Wye Oak :
A case study of corrective actions
including cabling and bracing

The Wye Oak was recognized as

America's largest white oak for more
than 60 years . Located in the village
ofWye Mills on the Eastern Shore of
Maryland, the Wye Oak was 96 feet tall
with a crown spread of 119 feet and a bole
circumference, at 4.5 feet above ground ,
of more than 31 feet (Fig 5.12). It has been
estimated that the acorn that gave rise
to this tree germinated around the year
1540. The Wye Oak was one of only two
National Champion trees that remained on
the American Forestry Association's list
of champions since the list's inception in
[Link] enabled this tree to survive for
more than 460 years , despite injuries and
defects , was a conscientious effort on the
part of managers to preserve the tree with
corrective treatments , including application
of fertilizer and insecticides, pruning, and
cabling and bracing.

The Wye Oak was the focalpoint for Figure 5.12. The Wye Oak, formerly known as the
largest white oak in the United States. It was located
the four-acre Wye Oak State Park ,
in thevillage ofWye Mills,MD and was estimated to
established in 1939. At the time the park be 460 years old. Deeded to the state of Maryland on
was established , the tree had marked September 20, 1939 and made into a State Park. The
buttressing at its base (Fig 5.13 ). Themost end for this urban monarch came when a thunderstorm
common theory is thatin the past, riders on June 6 , 2002 felled the tree.
tied their horses to the tree while visiting
nearby stores or taverns, and that damage
caused by these actions resulted in the
malformations. Also , the inner portion of
the lower trunk had been severely decayed
to a height of eight [Link] today's
arborists would never recommend filling a NE
tree cavity with concrete or any other rigid ENTER
material, filling cavities was an accepted
practice in the past, and at some time, the
bole cavity in the Wye Oak was partially
filled with concrete . The lowermost piece
ofthe concrete filler can be seen in Figure
5.14 .Cavity filling treatments like this one Figure 5.13 . Buttressing knees were present on the
do not delay the decay process in the tree, Wye Oak. The most likely theory of their origin is
that horses tied to itwhile their riders visited a nearby
do notmake the tree less likely to fail, and
store or tavern, damaged the tree, and initiated the
can considerably complicate the removal malformations
process . The tree has been fertilized
annually, and treated with insecticide if gypsy moth
or other insect damage was predicted .

By the 1980s, the tree was in the declining phase of

its life . In 1984, a large limb, weighingmore than 35
tons, fell from the [Link] more equally massive
limbs were losing the mechanical flexibility needed
to withstand the stress loading placed upon them
by wind. For this reason , the tree received frequent
pruning to remove dead limbs and excessive new
growth that would produce wind resistance. In the Figure 5.14 . Cavity treatments donot delay
1950's the State Park began using cabling and the decay process in the tree, do not make the
bracing to support the old tree. More than 100 load tree less likely to fail, and can considerably
complicate the removal process when it is
sharing cables intertwined throughout the crown .
finally time to take the tree down.
The cables had a combined length of more than
3,500 feet (Fig 5.15 ). As can be seen in Figure 5.16 ,
in a leaf-off setting, the cables had some slack in
them . Once the tree came into full leaf, these cables
would be taut. Each cable was equipped with an
adjustable turnbuckle that was checked every two
years.

The addition of this amount ofmetal cable into the

crown of the tree increased the risk of a lightning
strike. For this reason , four highly conductive,
braided copper leads were grounded on each of four Figure 5. 15. Looking up into the crown
sides of the tree. Every cable in the tree was joined of the Wye Oak, some of the over 100 load
to every other cable by short braided copper jumper sharing cables could be seen. The cables have a
combined length of over 3,500 feet.
cables . Despite being an open grown tree and
having a significant amount of metal in its crown the
tree was neverbeen damaged by lightning.

In addition to the actions described above , the state of

Maryland worked to mitigate the increased liability this
large old tree and the addition ofhardware in the tree
created. A fence was erected around the tree ( Fig 5.17 ).
This fence effectively moved the target (the public ) away
from the tree, eliminating the risk of damage caused by a
falling 35 -ton (or heavier) [Link] people could not walk
under the dripline of the tree, they could still use the area
outside the fence for viewing the tree close up . All major
limbs had been trimmed back to the fence line.

While the cables mightnot have held up a limb if it failed,

they would influence the direction the limb fell in , swinging
the failing limb inside the fence line. As an added benefit,
the fence protected the roots of the tree from being
Figure 5. 16. In this leaf-off view ,
trampled.
some slack can be seen in the cables
due to the reduced weight of the
branches.
 What eventually felled this gianttree was fungal decay.
For decades, possibly centuries, fungihad been
recycling the heartwood of the Wye Oak . For several
years, it was known that brown cubicalbutt rot fungus
(Laetiporus sulphureus, previously known as Polyporus
sulpureus) was attacking the root crown of the tree.
What was not fully appreciated was the extent to
which the sapwood had decayed. On June 6 , 2002, a
thunderstorm felled the giant tree. After the Wye Oak
fell, park employees discovered the tree was hollowed
to about 10 feet and the cavity was about eight feet
across . In addition , there was a shell thickness of only
2 to 4 inches on a radius of more than 15 feet. As
described in Chapter 3, the shell thickness guidelines
for this tree would have required a 60 -inch shell
[Link] is even more amazing than the fact
that the tree was standing at all, is the fact that when it
J03 died, it was bearing a maturing crop of acorns. Thus, a
2- to 4 -inch shell of functional sapwood was sufficient to
maintain but not structurally support its crown.
Figure 5.17 . All major limbs of theWye
Oak were trimmed back to the fence line.
Should a limb fail, the cables might not When the thunderstorm of June 6 , 2002 felled the tree
hold it up; they would, however, influence it imploded upon its butt shell, the main stem falling
the direction of its fall and swing the straight down into the void above the partial concrete
failing limb inside the fence line. filling, and then toppled over into the street. That the
tree was standing at all is a testimony to how well it
had been cabled and braced . The judicious use of pruning and heavy application of cabling
and bracing extended the useable life of this historic and culturally significant urban tree to
more than 460 years . However, urban trees are not immortal and even the largest of them
eventually succumb to wood decay fungi if not to an accident or to the accumulation of a
lifetime of injuries .

Liabilities. Cabling and bracing is a practice that,when properly applied , can extend
the life of a tree. In addition , cabling and bracing can reduce the potential for failure
to an acceptable level. Once a tree comes under an arborist's care, the arborist is
obligated to follow accepted trade practices. During the inspection , the arborist may
determine that the removal of part of the tree is a better option than cabling and
bracing. Care must be exercised in this case since the removalof large portions of the
tree can lead to conditions that could lead to tree failure. If the risk of failure is too
high , then removal of the tree may be the best option .

Since cabling and bracing has a long history of use and is an accepted , standard
practice, the concern for additional liability should be little different than if the tree
were being pruned . However, correction of defectsby cabling and bracing requires
additional inspection and maintenance thatmust be performed regularly to ensure
the integrity of the procedure. Failure to perform regular inspections, and to correct
any problems thatmay arise,may indicate negligence. Choosing not to install a
cabling and bracing system because of a fear of liability is not a good decision . The
best procedure is to follow a plan that reduces the risk of failure to an acceptable
level.

152 - Correction ofHazardous Defects in Trees

Converting Hazardous Trees Into Wildlife Trees

Although tree risk management often involves the complete removal of dead or dying
trees, some defective trees can be treated to reduce the threat to human life and property
to an acceptable level,while leaving a portion of the tree intact to provide wildlife
habitat. This approach has been coined converting board feet into bird feet (Ostry and
Nicholls 1998 ). Several techniques exist for converting hazardous trees into good wildlife
habitat in a safe and environmentally responsible fashion . These techniques ensure that if
a tree falls (orwhen it falls ) there are no targets within striking range.

Not all defective trees are good candidates for providing wildlife habitat,nor can all good
candidates be safely converted to wildlife trees. For example , converting hazardous trees
into wildlife trees is not recommended for street trees, and should be reserved for use in
parks and natural areas. We will describe the wildlife cycle of a tree, and discuss criteria
to determine if a tree can be safely converted into a wildlife tree. We will introduce a
decision -modeling tool that provides a logical approach to deciding whether to convert a
defective tree into a wildlife habitat tree .

Communities often overlook the environmental benefits that a tree risk management
program can provide, especially as it relates to creating wildlife habitat. A community
tree risk management program that helps to create wildlife habitat will nurture public
interest in the program . People value a variety of wildlife in and around the places where
they live and work , from inner city to rural communities. The 1996 National Survey of
Fishing, Hunting and Wildlife- Associated Recreation reports that 62.9 million people
intentionally fed , observed , or photographed wildlife around their homes and on trips
away from home (USDI 1996 ). Other studies have shown that in urban areas 93 percent
of residents want to know how to attract wildlife and support habitat components.

Wildlife in cities and rural communities Birds 120 species

offer greater opportunities for
may
environmental education and non Mammals 140 species
consumptive recreation than remote
Reptile
locations because of the proximity to large
numbers ofpeople (Shaw et al. 1985). Amphibians
Demonstrations sites, located in parks,
270 species
nature areas and on school properties , can Fish
be very effective teaching tools and serve as
Insects
living laboratories to display and interpret
the wonders of nature. Demonstration
Plants
sites, showcasing wildlife habitat areas as
a managed component of the community Fungi
forest, can also encourage the observer to
think beyond the individual tree and gain a
greater understanding of natural systems.

How Trees Benefit Wildlife

Standing dead trees and dead or dying
parts of live trees are beneficial to
wildlife for foraging and food storage,
nesting and den sites, shelter and cover, Figure 5.18 . Over 120 species ofbirds, 140
bridges, perches, and roost sites. Over species of mammals, and 270 species of reptiles and
120 species of birds, 140 species of amphibians depend on standing dead and dying
mammals, and 270 species of reptiles tree ofall sizes
 and amphibians depend on standing dead and dying trees of all sizes (Ackerman
1993) (Fig 5.18 ). In addition , many species of insects , spiders, mites, millipedes,
centipedes, slugs, and fungi use these trees for the completion of their life cycle
and in turn provide a food source for many other species. For example, the white
breasted nuthatch , common in urban forests, is a cavity nester that prefers mature
stands with large decaying trees, and feeds its young an animal-based diet consisting
of many of the arthropod species listed above.

Wildlife Cycle of a Tree

A tree's capacity to provide wildlife habitat changes over time. As a tree matures and
begins to decline (due to insects, diseases, injury or old age), the tree enters into a
"wildlife cycle” and plays a vital role in providing habitat and promoting ecosystem
biodiversity. Even when a tree dies, its usefulness does not end; it continues to
provide valuable habitat formany species of [Link] evaluating a tree as a
possible wildlife tree , certain characteristics make them suitable for different types
of wildlife habitat, depending on what phase of the “wildlife cycle” they are in . The
“wildlife cycle” can be simplified into three identifiable phases, each phase being
unique and adapted for different types of wildlife:

Phase 1: The first phase in the “wildlife cycle” of a tree involves standing dead
or dying trees that initially attract non -cavity nesting species and primary cavity
excavators (e.g., woodpeckers). These trees contain sound wood and the branches
are intact (Fig 5.19). Trees in this initial phase provide foraging sites and perches
for insect-feeding birds and raptors, singing perches formany songbirds, nest sites
for species such as great blue herons, osprey, hawks and eagles, and nesting sites for
primary cavity excavators such as woodpeckers, nuthatches, chickadees, and others.

Phase 2: The second phase

in the “wildlife cycle” of
a tree involves increased
decay. The tree is still
standing, but the wood
is no longer sound. The
branches and bark are shed
and the top and larger
portions of the stem break
off . During this phase, the
tree becomes attractive to
secondary cavity users that
colonize existing cavities,
excavated and abandoned
Figure 5.19. Example ofa Phase 1 Wildlife Tree: a standing
by primary cavity nesting dead tree that initially attracts non -cavity nesting species. Here, it
species or formed when serves as a nesting site for a bald eagle.
branches are shed or when
tops are broken off. (Fig
5.20 ). Secondary cavity users include owls, some species of ducks,birds (e.g.,
bluebirds, swallows,wrens and Alycatchers ), raccoons, flying squirrels, bats, and some
amphibians. These species use the tree for nesting, foraging, roosting , and perching .
 Phase 3 : In this third and final phase
of a tree's "wildlife cycle,” decay has
reduced the tree to a stump and
debris pile (Fig 5.21) . Woody debris
is important habitat formany wildlife
species such as salamanders, toads,
mice, grouse, and woodpeckers. It is
used for nesting and shelter, as a source
of and place to store food, as a lookout
site, for drumming, sunning , and
preening sites, and as a natural bridge or
highway across streams. Decaying logs
also serve as nurse-trees for seedlings
and contribute to nutrient cycling.

Criteria for Selecting Wildlife Trees

Within community parks and other Figure 5. 20. Example of a Phase 2 Wildlife Tree:
natural areas, a variety of wildlife trees a tree with existing cavities that is attractive to
should be selected for use , ranging secondary cavity dwellers. Here, a boreal owl has
from trees suited for long-term discovered a cavity and established a nesting site .
management to trees suited for short
term management. Phase 1 trees will
be the most valuable trees for providing
long -term wildlife habitat since they will
remain standing for an extended period
and will likely develop a large number
of cavities over time. Trees greater than
15 inches in diameter, and more than
50 feet tall, are considered the most
valuable to wildlife. These trees should
be slow decaying tree species such as
oak and pine. Phase 2 trees provide
immediate habitat for secondary cavity
users and serve as foraging, roosting ,
and perching sites. To identify Phase
2 trees, look for existing cavities, dens
or foraging holes; existing nesting or
roosting sites; and/or the presence
of fresh scats or bird droppings.
Phase 3 trees provide immediate
habitat for wildlife and contribute to
nutrient recycling . Selecting trees that
are currently inhabited or used by
wildlife has the obvious advantage for
educational purposes and demonstration
projects.
Figure 5.21. Fallen, decayed logs provide nesting
and shelter, a source and a place to store food,
When to Consider Converting a Defective lookout sites, drumming, sunning and preening
Tree into a Wildlife Tree sites, and as a naturalbridge or highway across
streams.
Only consider establishing wildlife
trees when human safety will not be
compromised or damage to property

Correction of Hazardous Defects in Trees - 155

 is not imminent, and when the defective tree is a good candidate for wildlife
habitation . For these reasons, it is not a recommended corrective action for street
trees, and the establishment of wildlife trees should be reserved for parks and natural
areas.

Reduction of risk may be as simple as moving targets such as picnic tables, benches ,
or kiosks out of striking distance of the defective tree. If the target can be moved ,
risk to public safety is mitigated, and the tree can be preserved for wildlife habitat.
If it is not feasible to move the target, other corrective actions such as pruning
to remove defective branches or to reduce tree height should be considered . For
example, wildlife trees that are located along high - use urban trails and in parks
will often require corrective pruning to reduce tree height to a level where the tree
will no longer strike a target, should it fail. Placing a nesting box near the location
where a cavity has been lost through tree or limb removalmay be a successful habitat
replacement. If it is not feasible to perform corrective actions that will reduce risks
to public safety with minimal impact to wildlife, closing the area to pedestrian traffic
is a final option . Closing the site temporarily (such as during the breeding season )
is often a possibility. With proper fencing and interpretive signing, a site closed to
pedestrian traffic may still be valuable as an educational/demonstration area .

The Wildlife Habitat/Defective Tree Decision Model, developed by the U.S. Forest
Service, provides a logical approach to deciding whether to convert a defective tree
into a wildlife tree (Fig 5.22 ). Themodel operates under two assumptions: 1) a
defective tree exists and various corrective actions can be performed to reduce the
public safety risks to an acceptable level, and 2) wildlife is using or could potentially
use the tree. This simple tool poses basic questions to help determine what corrective
action (s) could be implemented that will reduce risk to public safety and preserve as
much of the tree as possible for wildlife habitation . Corrective management strategies
include: 1) removing targets within striking distance of a wildlife tree, 2) performing
corrective pruning , 3) closing off the site, with fencing or signs, to restrict pedestrian
traffic within striking distance of a wildlife tree and, 4 ) removing the tree and leaving
the felled tree on site.

Closing the Area

Closing an area and denying the public access to a

portion of the urban forest is an extremeaction that
should be considered only in the direst situations.
However, there are times when closing an area,
either temporarily or permanently , is the only option
available (Fig 5.23 ). One example of the effective
use of temporary closures is a situation where an
adverse weather event such as an ice storm or tornado
has left so many hazardous trees in an area that it is
impossible to guarantee public safety . Closing a public
area temporarily until the needed tree maintenance
is done should be an option that is available to tree
maintenance workers in communities.

In more permanent or sensitive situations, judicious use

of a “close the area” approach can also be an effective
tool for managing risk. As an example, placing a fence Figure 5.23. Place a Do Not Enter
around a large tree to keep the public from compacting sign to close the site to visitors.
 Wildlife Habitat/Hazardous Tree Decision Model
This decision modelprovides a logicalapproach to deciding whether to convert a hazardous
tree into a wildlife habitat tree. The model's function is to help maintain and create wildlife
habitat and reduce public safety risks associated with trees with hazardous defects.
Assumptions ofthe model are :
1. A hazardous tree exists and various mitigation actions can be performed to
reduce public safety risks to an acceptable level.

2. Wildlife is using or could potentially use the tree.

Move
YES target
1 Is it possible to move the target?

NO Perform
actions

YES
Can you perform mitigative actions
2 that will reduce risks to public
safety with minimum impact to
wildlife (i.e. pruning, partial removal) ?

NO
PS Close site

YES

Is closing the site possible ?

3
( either temporarily or permanently ) ?

NO

4 Remove the tree

Can the felled tree be left on Felled trees or logs are important
5 to insects, mice, salamanders,
site to create a wildlife habitat ?
schuius essayer de parler bears
bears,, grouse,
grouse,and
and woodpeckers
woodpeckers. .

Placing a nestingbox (Screech Owl, Northern Flicker, squirrel) on a site can be a successful
replacement for cavities that are lost through tree or limb removal.
2 Ifitis not possible to move a target, prune the tree or conduct a partial removal, consider closing the site . This mitigative
action can prevent disturbance to wildlife during the most critical(breeding ) time. Remember, risk and values must be
balanced with common sense when making decisions about hazard trees.
Textprepared by:Mary Torsello and ToniMcLellan, USDA Forest Service. Illustration by Julie Martinez
Figure 5.22. Wildlife Habitat/Hazardous Tree Decision Model.

Correction of Hazardous Defects in Trees - 157

 the soil over tree roots, or from being at risk from falling branches is in many ways
equivalent to closing the area. For large trees of significant cultural heritage, placing a
fence around them is often the only acceptable way to mitigate a hazard . Alternatively,
planting wide, fenced , or densely continuous beds of flowers around an architecturally
unsound tree may be an acceptable way of retaining an otherwise hazardous tree in the
urban landscape. This will keep the public at a safe distance, and will also prevent the
trampling of roots and soil compaction around the hallowed monarchs ofthe urban
forest. But at the same time the hazardous situation is being resolved , consider eventual
replacement of the defective tree. Wise management can extend the lifetime of a tree by
only so long. Communities need long-term strategies for tree removal and replacement
to achieve sustained development of the urban forest.

Removing the Tree

Removing a hazardous tree is the option of last resort. Implement this action only when
other corrective actions cannot reduce the level of risk to an acceptable level. Before
removing the tree, consider and balance all options, including the possibility of cabling
and bracing, against the opportunity that removing a tree provides in the development
of the overall community tree risk management plan . The effects of removing a tree,
including visual impact on the site, and emotional impacts to people who value
a particular tree, can be substantial. While removing a tree is not an option to be
considered lightly , it is sometimes an unavoidable cost to abate a hazard . Always couple
the removal of a tree with a community tree planting program that includes strategies to
reestablish trees that are best suited for the urban landscape and the site on which they
will grow . For example, plant small-stature trees under utility lines, and consider trees
with smaller crowns and root systems for narrow lawn extensions and other places with
restricted root [Link] educating the public about the benefits of matching trees to
specific sites a goal of every tree risk management plan . See Chapter 4 (Prevention of
Hazardous Tree Defects) formore information on proper species selection .

Following are some examples of high-risk tree defects that warrant tree removal. Refer
to Chapter 3 (How to Detect and Assess Hazardous Tree Defects) for additional
photographic examples of all the tree defects listed below .

Bole Decay : Trees that do notmeet theminimum sound shell thickness guidelines
described in Chapter 3 must be removed (Fig 5.24 ). There is no other remedy for a tree
that lacks the necessary amount of sound wood . Filling cavities or other methods for
bracing or cabling such trees are not effective.

Leaning Trees: Trees with an excessive lean , as described in Chapter 3,must be removed .
Trees that have evidence of soil mounding on the side away from the lean are particularly
dangerous. Such mounding indicates that the roots on that side of the tree are failing,
and usually mean that the tree has recently begun to lean . A tree that has grown for a
long time with a lean less than 45 degrees may not be a significant hazard ,but should be
monitored closely for evidence of an increase in the lean angle .

Dead Trees: Dead trees are at great risk of failure, and should be considered highly
hazardous in all situations. These trees should receive priority attention by the
maintenance crew , and should be removed as soon as they are found.

Cankers on the Main Stem : Trees with cankers that affect 40 percent ormore of the
tree's circumference or are associated with decay or other defects should be considered
hazardous and removed ( Fig 5.25 ) .
Figure 5.24 . This tree has a large cavity with Figure 5.25 . This tree has a canker and associated decay
extensive wood decay that affects >40 percent of that affects > 40 percentof the tree's circumference. This
the tree's circumference. This tree does not meet safe tree does not meet safe shell requirements and should be
shell requirements and should be removed. removed.

Unsound Architecture : Some trees with a

tendency to form multiple upright branches can
becomedangerously defective if timely pruning
is not provided over the life of the tree (Fig 5.26 ).
Other trees, particularly conifers, can develop
" twin stems” if the leader is killed and two
branches assume dominance. The branch unions
of these trees tend to form " included bark ” as
described in Chapter 3, which acts as a wedge
to force such branches apart. If it is feasible to
remove one branch in such a tree to correct the
problem or to buy timewhile other nearby trees
grow larger, the trees might be pruned .

Severe Root Injury : Trees where root damage

such as root decay or root severing affect more
than 40 percent of its critical rooting area (Fig
5.27 ).

Figure 5.26 . This tree has experienced

major crown failure. The remaining,
branches are declining as evidenced by poor
leaf development, and the overall health
of the tree is very poor. This tree should be
removed.

Figure 5. 27. This tree has experienced damage to two sides

of the root system and surface root loss due to re-construction
activities. An older sidewalk restricts the roots on a third side
of the root system , making this tree a prime candidate for
failure.

Correction of Hazardous Defects in Trees - 159

Implementing Corrective Actions

Just as it may take severaldecades for trees in an urban setting to accumulate the injuries
and structural defects that make them hazardous, it may take decades of carefulmaintenance
and planning to develop an urban tree population into the ultimately desired condition .
However, individual corrective actions must be completed in a timely manner . When a
community first establishes a tree risk management program , the number ofmaintenance
activities that seem necessary can be overwhelming. Aside from the removal or corrective
treatmentof very high -risk trees,which must be a top priority, a community has many
options available to dealwith correctible trees that pose a low ormoderate hazard .

One strategy available to communities to help control the initial costs and visual impacts of
mitigating hazardous trees lies in spreading correctivemaintenance and planting over several
years. This strategy requires ranking the corrective maintenance needs of all defective trees,
and identifying those trees that require immediate attention as well as those with problems
that can safely be put off for future correction . Be prepared to explain the rationale used
for assigning or delaying treatments for all trees with identified defects, preferably with
guidelines that are consistently used by tree inspectors and maintenance workers. Carefully
consider benefits, risks, costs , and visual impacts when making decisions regarding tree risks.

Consider the tree shown in Figure 5.28. It is clear from the photo that a large and
presumably defective limb was removed some years ago. The photograph clearly shows that
there was a target within range. At the time the photo was taken the tree does not appear to
create an imminent hazard , yet as an urban tree it is not in the desired condition. The storm
damaged tree had a defective limb that was removed , eliminating the immediate hazard .
However, the resulting wound is so large that there is a high probability that it will become
invaded by decay fungi before the tree has time to seal over the branch stub . There is also a
high probability that the decay process will
result in a cavity developing in themain
stem that will one day violate theminimum
"shell thickness guidelines” discussed in
Chapter 3. Prudent hazard tree management
dictated that the storm -damaged limb be
removed ; however the corrective action
resulted in the creation of a tree that was

not in its ultimately desired condition ,

which is a tree with only small wounds, or
no wounds at all. Although the immediate
hazard was corrected, the action itself has

likely contributed to the development of

a future hazard . In this case, the usable
lifespan of this tree in the urban setting has
Figure 5.28 . This tree has a very large wound thatwas
been extended , and the community has created when a large branch was previously removed .
bought some time in which to defer removal
costs and plan for the replacement of this
wounded tree.
Always include tree risk inspections and maintenance as part of the overall vegetation
management strategy of a community , including plans for replacing trees that will be
removed . For example , trees with large defective branches can be pruned , but preparations
should be made to replace trees that require drastic corrective actions with young, defect- free
trees. Cabling and bracing a defective tree can also extend its lifetime in an urban setting, but
a tree that requires such treatment most often is a prime candidate for replacement. Young
trees can be planted near older ones that will require removal in the near future, and the
removal and planting schedules can be coordinated so that marginal trees can be replaced
over timewith younger, vigorous trees.

Authors
Martin MacKenzie
Forest Pathologist
USDA Forest Service
State & Private Forestry, Northeastern Area

Tom T. Dunlap
President
Canopy Tree Care
Minneapolis, MN

Barb J. Spears
Urban Forester
Community Forestry Resource Center
Minneapolis , MN

Joseph G. O'Brien
Plant Pathologist
USDA Forest Service
State & Private Forestry , Northeastern Area

Literature Cited

Ackerman , J. 1993. When the bough breaks. Nature Conservancy. 43(3): 8-9.

American National Standards Institute (ANSI). 1995. The American national standard
for tree care operations- tree, shrub , and other woody plant maintenance -
standard practices: ANSI A300. New York : National Standards Institute. 8 p .

American National Standards Institute (ANSI). 2000. The American national standard
for tree care operations - tree, shrub , and other woody plant maintenance -
standard practices- part 3 – tree support systems: supplement to ANSI A300-1995 .
New York : American National Standards Institute. 29 p .

American National Standards Institute (ANSI). 2001. The American national standard
for tree care operations - pruning, trimming, repairing, maintenance , and
removing trees, and cutting brush - safety requirements: ANSIZ1331.1-2001.
New York : American National Standards Institute. 22 p .
Smiley, E.T; Lilly, S. 2001. Best management practices: Tree support systems: Cabling,
bracing , and guying. Champaign , IL : International Society of Arboriculture. 30p .

Ostry, M. E .; Nicholls, T. H. 1998. The forest beyond the trees: Beneficial roles of
disease in forest health . In : Proceedings of the 1997 Society of American Foresters
National Convention . SAF- [Link], TN : Society of American Foresters.
422p.

Shaw , W. W .; Mangum , R .; Lyons, J. R. 1985. Residential enjoyment of wildlife

resources by Americans. Leisure Sciences. 7 (3 ): 361-375.

Torsello , M .;McLellan , T. 1996. There's life in hazard trees. Durham , NH : U. S.

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Area, State and Private
Forestry. 2 p .

United States Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service ; United States
Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. 1996 National survey of fishing,
hunting, and wildlife -associated recreation . Washington D. C .: USDI, Fish and
Wildlife Service. 176 p .
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Tom
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Ralph ISA Albers
Jana Ed
Hayes

P 04-588-1150
:7 P:970-221-6302 P 18-327-4234
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APPENDIX I - 165
APPENDIX 1. Summary of survey responses , as provided by the authors of urban tree risk rating manuals or
APPENDIX 2. California Tree Failure Report Form

Accession # Date ofReport

CALIFORNIA TREE FAILURE REPORT University of California, Davis , CA 95616
Tree Genus Tree Owner
Species Site : County
Cultivar (if known) City
Common name Address/Park
Approx. age yrs ., Height ft., DBH in . Site category ( choose one ): 1 -Residential 2 -Street
Crown spread 3 -Park 4 -School 5 -Highway 6 -Parking lot 7 -Mall 8 -Other

DETAILS OF TREE FAILURE MAINTENANCE HISTORY

-1 Date of failure : (Mo/Day/Yr) -13 Pruning at failure location (Choose up to three )
-2 Time of failure : (Hr/AM or PM ) 1-Heading cuts -moderate - cut diameter in .
-3 Location of failure on tree (choose one) 2-Heading cuts - severe - cut diameter in .
1 -Trunk: _ft. above ground, inches break diam . 3 -Thinning cuts (or drop -crotching) 6 -Root pruning
at ground level? (Y /N ) 4-Lion-tailing 7 -No pruning
2 -Branch : _ft. from attachment, in . break diam . 5 -Flush cuts 8 -Other (p . 2 )
at point of attachment? (Y /N ) - 14 Pruning on entire tree (Same choices as 13)
branch attachment ft. high on trunk (Choose up to three )
estimated branch angle at point of failure
weight concentrated at end of branch ? (Y /N ) -15 Othermaintenance (Choose up to two )
3 -Root (including uprooting) 1 -Cable /hardware failure 4 -Cavity treatment
-4 Site use (choose one) (Explain on p.2 Additional Info ) 2-Staking/props 5 - Injections
1-Undeveloped 3-Girdling wire , rope, etc. 6 -None
2 -Low use (intermittentvehicles and/or people ) SOIL AND ROOT CONDITIONS AT SITE
3 -Medium use (permanent structures, intermittent vehicles and/or people ) -16 Restricted roots (Choose up to two)
4 -High use (permanent structures, frequentvehicles and/or people) 1 -Raised planter orbed 4 -Root cutting
-5 Stand type: 2 -Container or boxed tree 5 -Not applicable
1 -Natural 2 -Planted 3 -Mixed 3 -Root barriers 6 -Other (p . 2 )
-6 Tree occurring -17 Irrigation
1-Alone (at least one crown diameter apart) 1 -None 3-More than once per mo.
2 -In a group (less than one crown diameter apart) 2 -Less than once per mo. 4 -More than 3X permo.
3-Altered stand (trees removed from stand) -18 Ground cover under tree (Choose up to two )
TREE STRUCTURAL DEFECTS 1-Bare soil 6 - Shrubs
-7 Choose up to three, in the order of importance 2 -Mulch 7 -Mixed planting
1 -Failed portion dead 8-Embedded bark in crotch 3 - Turf 8 -Paving
2 -Multiple trunks/codom . stems 9 -Crook or sweep 4 -Native cover 9 -Other
3 -Dense crown 10-Leaning trunk 5 -Herbaceous plants
4 -Heavy lateral limbs (describe p . : 11-Cracks or splits -19 Soil in tree vicinity (Choose one )
5 -Uneven branch distribution: (one 12 -Kinked or girdling roots 1 -Good condition 3 - Saturated 5 -Shallow
6 -Uneven branch distribution: (top. 13-None apparent 2 -Compacted 4 -Dry 6 -Other (p . 2)
7 -Multiple branches at samepoint 14-Other (describe p . 2 ) -20 Site topography/soil changes (Choose up to two)
TREE DECAY OR INJURY 1 -Excavation -depth ft., distance from trunk ft.
-8 Type of decay at failure location (choose one ) 2 -Grade change - cut 5 -Streambank erosion
1 -Root rot 3-Grade change - fill 6 -Not applicable
2-Heart rot 4 -Slope erosion
3-Sap rot WEATHER AT TIME OF FAILURE
4 -Heart rot and sap rot -21 Wind speed :
5 -No decay noted 1 -Low (less than 5 mph )
-9 Extent of decay or cavity ( % cross -sectional area ) 2 -Moderate (5-25 mph )
(For root failure estimate % structural roots decayed ) 3-High (25+ mph )
1 - 25 % or less 4- 75-100 % -22 Wind
2- 25-50 % 5 -Unknown 1-Gusty
3- 50-75 % 6 -None 2 -Steady
## Fungal sporophores or conks found near failure location ? -23 Wind in prevailing direction for season ?
1 -Yes 2 -No 1-Yes
## Other injury at failure location 2 -No
(Choose up to three, in order of importance) -24 Ifbranch failure , was wind direction (Omit ifno wind)
1 -Mechanical 4 -Animal 7 -Fire 1 -Parallel to
2 -Lightning 5 - Chemical 8 -None 2 -At right angles to branch direction ?
3 - Insect 6 - Vehicle 9-Other (p . 2 ) -25 Temperature : degrees F
## Other injury , entire tree (same choices as 11) -26 Precipitation (Choose one)
(Choose up to three, in order of importance ) 1 -Rain 4 -Fog ormist
2 -Snow 5 -None
3 -Ice

166 - APPENDIX II
Appendix 2. California Tree Failure Report Form - continued

1. Briefly , in your own words, why did this tree failure occur?

II. Results of this tree failure ( i.e.,property damage, personalinjury, etc.):

III. Damage estimate (costs for clean -up; indicate other costs ifknown):

IV . Additional information and comments :

Person reporting Date

Title Agency
Address
)
.

Telephone FAX ( )

Please complete this report to the fullest extent, include any available photographs, and send to TREE FAILURE REPORT, UCCE, 625 Miramontes, Suite 200 ,
Half Moon Bay, 94019-1942. This form may be photocopied. Directany questions to Larry Costello or Katherine Jones,Cooperative Extension, San Mateo
County (650) 726-9059, or to Alison Berry (530) 752-0130 .
Additional copies of this form and return envelopes can be requested from Katherine Jones, UCCE , 625 Miramontes Suite 200, Half Moon Bay , CA 94019 .
The information in this report will remain confidential, and will only be used to develop statistical and general information about tree failures by species and type
of failure.
A.M. Berry , L.R. Costello , [Link]
Revised 9/22/93

APPENDIX II - 167
168 - APPENDIX II
APPENDIX 3

HOW to Prune Trees

United States Prepared by Northeastern Area

Department of Forest Service State & Private
Agriculture Forestry

NA -FR -01-95

(adapted version - February 2003)

APPENDIX III - 169

 Table of Contents

Introduction 171

Reasons for pruning 171

Pruning approaches 172

Crown thinning 173

Crown raising 174

Crown reduction 174

Pruning cuts 175

Pruning living branches 175

Pruning dead branches 176

Drop crotch cuts 176

Pruning practices that harm trees 177

When to prune 177

Pruning tools 178

Treating wounds 179

Pruning guidelines 180

General 180

Crown thinning 180

Crown raising 180

Crown reduction 180

Glossary 181

References 182

Northeastern Area Offices 183

The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Forest Service

is a diverse organization committed to equal opportunity in employ
ment and program delivery. USDA prohibits discrimination on the
basis of race, color, national origin , sex , religion , age, disability, politi
cal affiliation and familial status. Persons believing they have been
discriminated against should contact the Secretary, U.S. Department
of Agriculture ,Washington , DC 20250, or call 202-720-7327 (voice),
or 202-720-1127 (TTY ).

170 - APPENDIX III

Introduction

The objective of pruning is to produce strong, healthy, attractive plants . By understanding

how ,when and why to prune, and by following a few simple principles, this objective can be
achieved .

Reasons For Pruning

Themain reasons for pruning ornamental

and shade trees include safety , health ,
and aesthetics. In addition , pruning can
be used to stimulate fruit production
and increase the value of timber. Pruning
for safety (Fig. 1A ) involves removing
branches that could fall and cause injury
or property damage, trimming branches
that interfere with lines of sight on streets
or driveways, and removing branches that
A. Safety
grow into utility lines. Safety pruning can
be largely avoided by carefully choosing
species that will not grow beyond the
space available to them , and have strength
and form characteristics that are suited to
the site.

Pruning for health ( Fig. 1B) involves

removing diseased or insect-infested wood,
thinning the crown to increase airflow and
reduce some pest problems, and removing
crossing and rubbing branches. Pruning
can best be used to encourage trees to
B. Health
develop a strong structure and reduce
the likelihood of damage during severe
weather. Removing broken or damaged
limbs encourages wound closure.
Pruning for aesthetics (Fig. 1C ) involves
enhancing the natural form and character
of trees or stimulating flower production .
Pruning for form can be especially
important on open - grown trees that do
very little self-pruning.

All woody plants shed branches in

response to shading and competition .
Branches that do not produce enough C. Aesthetics

carbohydrates from photosynthesis to Figure 1. Reasons for pruning

sustain themselves die and are eventually

APPENDIX III - 171

 shed ; the resulting wounds are sealed by woundwood (callus). Branches that are poorly
attached may be broken off by wind and accumulation of snow and ice. Branches removed
by such natural forces often result in large, ragged wounds that rarely seal. Pruning as a
cultural practice can be used to supplement or replace these natural processes and increase
the strength and longevity of plants.

Trees havemany forms,but the most common types are pyramidal (excurrent) or spherical
(decurrent). Trees with pyramidal crowns, e.g.,most conifers, have a strong central stem and
lateral branches that are more or less horizontaland do not compete with the central stem for
dominance. Trees with spherical crowns, e.g., most hardwoods, have many lateralbranches
that may compete for dominance.

To reduce the need for pruning it is best to consider a tree's natural form . It is very difficult
to impose an unnatural form on a tree without a commitment to constantmaintenance.
Pollarding and topiary are extremeexamples of pruning to create a desired , unnatural effect.
Pollarding is the practice of pruning trees annually to remove all new growth . The following
year, a profusion of new branches is produced at the ends of the branches. Topiary involves
pruning trees and shrubs into geometric
or animal shapes. Both pollarding and
topiary are specialized applications that
involve pruning to change the natural
form of trees. As topiary demonstrates ,
given enough care and attention , plants
can be pruned into nearly any form . Yet
just as proper pruning can enhance the
form or character of plants , improper
pruning can destroy it.

Pruning Approaches
Producing strong structure should be the
emphasis when pruning young trees. As
trees mature, the aim of pruning will shift
to maintaining tree structure, form , health
and appearance.

Proper pruning cuts are made at a node,

the point atwhich one branch or twig
attaches to another. In the spring of the
year growth begins at buds, and twigs
grow until a new node is formed . The
length of a branch between nodes is called
an internode.
Figure 2. Crown thinning - branches to be removed are
shaded in blue; pruning cuts should be made at the red
lines. No more than one-fourth of the living branches
should be removed at one time.

172 - APPENDIX III

The most common types of
pruning are:
1. Crown Thinning ( Fig . 2 )
Crown thinning ,
primarily for hardwoods,
is the selective removal
of branches to increase
light penetration and air
movement throughout
the crown of a tree. The
intent is to maintain
or develop a tree's
structure and form . To
avoid unnecessary stress
and prevent excessive
production of epicormic A. U - shaped strong B. V - shaped weak
union union
sprouts , no more than
one - quarter of the living Figure 3. Type of branch unions.
crown should be removed
at a time. If it is necessary to
remove more, it should be done
over successive years .

Branches with strong U -shaped

angles of attachment should
be retained (Fig 3A). Branches
with narrow , V -shaped angles retain
of attachment often form
67 %
included bark and should be
crown
removed (Fig . 3B ). Included
bark formswhen two branches
grow at sharply acute angles to
one another, producing a wedge
of inward -rolled bark between
them . Included bark prevents
strong attachment of branches,
often causing a crack at the point
below where the branches meet.
Codominant stems that are prune
33 %
approximately the same size and
arise from the same position often
form included bark . Removing
some of the lateral branches from
a codominant stem can reduce its Figure 4. Crown raising - branches to be removed are
growth enough to allow the other shaded in blue; pruning cutsshould be made where
indicated with red lines. The ratio of live crown to total
stem to become dominant.
tree heightshould be at least two-thirds.

Lateral branches should be no

more than one-half to three- quarters of the diameter of the stem at the point of
attachment. Avoid producing “ lion's tails,” tufts ofbranches and foliage at the ends
of branches, caused by removing all inner lateral branches and foliage. Lion's tails
can result in sunscalding, abundant epicormic sprouts , and weak branch structure

APPENDIX III - 173

 and breakage. Branches that rub
or cross another branch should be
removed .

Conifers that have branches in

whorls and pyramidal crowns
rarely need crown thinning
except to restore a dominant
leader. Occasionally , the leader
of a tree may be damaged
and multiple branchesmay
become codominant. Select the
strongest leader and remove
competing branches to prevent
the development of codominant
stems.

2. Crown Raising (Fig. 4 )

Crown raising is the practice
of removing branches from the
bottom of the crown of a tree to
provide clearance for pedestrians,
vehicles, buildings, lines of site, or
to develop a clear stem for timber
production. Also , removing lower
branches on white pines can
prevent blister rust. For street trees
the minimum clearance is often
specified by municipal ordinance .
Figure 5. Crown reduction - branches to be removed
After pruning, the ratio of the
are shaded in blue; pruning cuts should bemade where
living crown to total tree height indicated with red lines. To prevent branch dieback, cuts
should be at least two-thirds (e.g., should bemade at lateralbranches that are at least one
a 12 m tree should have living third the diameter of thestem at their union .
branches on at least the upper 8
m ).

On young trees “ temporary” branches may be retained along the stem to encourage
taper and protect trees from vandalism and sun scald . Less vigorous shoots should
be selected as temporary branches and should be about 10 to 15 cm apart along the
stem . They should be pruned annually to slow their growth and should be removed
eventually.

3. Crown Reduction ( Fig. 5 )

Crown reduction pruning is most often used when a tree has grown too large for its
permitted space. This method , sometimes called drop crotch pruning, is preferred
to topping because it results in amore natural appearance, increases the timebefore
pruning is needed again , and minimizes stress (see drop crotch cuts in the next section).

Crown reduction pruning, amethod oflast resort, often results in large pruningwounds
to stems that may lead to decay. This method should never be used on a tree with a
pyramidal growth form . A better long term solution is to remove the tree and replace it
with a tree that will not grow beyond the available space .

174 - APPENDIX III

Pruning Cuts

Pruning cuts should be made so that only branch tissue is removed and stem tissue is not
damaged . At the point where the branch attaches to the stem ,branch and stem tissues remain
separate, but are contiguous. If only branch tissues are cut when pruning, the stem tissues of
the tree will probably not become decayed, and thewound will seal more effectively .

1. Pruning living branches (Fig. 6 )

To find the proper place to cut
a branch , look for the branch branch
collar that grows from the stem bark branch bark
ridge ridge
tissue at the underside of the
base of the branch ( Fig . 6A ).
On the upper surface, there is
usually a branch bark ridge that dead living
runs (more or less) parallel to branch branch
the branch angle, along the stem
of the tree . A proper pruning
cut does not damage either the
branch collar branch collar
branch bark ridge or the branch
collar.

A proper cut begins just outside

the branch bark ridge and angles
final 2nd cut
down away from the stem of
cut
the tree, avoiding injury to the
branch collar (Fig .6B ).Make
the cut as close as possible to 1st
the stem in the branch axil, but cut
outside the branch bark ridge ,
so that stem tissue is not injured
and the wound can seal in the
final
shortest time possible. If the cut cut
is too far from the stem , leaving B. Cutting a small c . Cutting a larger
a branch stub , the branch tissue branch branch
usually dies and woundwood Figure 6A , B , C. Pruning cuts.
forms from the stem tissue.
Wound closure is delayed
because the woundwood must seal over the stub that was left.

The quality of pruning cuts can be evaluated by examining pruning wounds after
one growing season . A concentric ring ofwoundwood will form from proper
pruning cuts (Fig. 6B ). Flush cuts made inside the branch bark ridge or branch
collar, result in pronounced development of woundwood on the sides of the
pruning wounds with very little woundwood forming on the top or bottom ( Fig .
7D ). As described above, stub cuts result in the death of the remaining branch and
woundwood forms around the base from stem tissues.

When pruning smallbranches with hand pruners,make sure the tools are sharp enough
to cut the branches cleanly without tearing. Branches large enough to require saws
should be supported with onehand while the cuts are made. If the branch is too large to
support, make a three-step pruning cut to prevent bark ripping (Fig . 6C ).

APPENDIX III - 175

 1. The first cut is a shallow notch made on the underside of the branch , outside
the branch collar. This cut will preventa falling branch from tearing the stem
tissue as it pulls away from the tree.

2. The second cut should be outside the first cut, all the way through the
branch , leaving a short stub .

3. The stub is then cut just outside the branch bark ridge/branch collar,
completing the operation .

2. Pruning dead branches ( Fig . 6 )

Prune dead branches in much the sameway as live [Link] the correct
cut is usually easy because the branch collar and the branch bark ridge can be
distinguished from the dead branch because they continue to grow (Fig.6A ). Make
the pruning cut just outside of the ring of woundwood tissue that has formed , being
careful not to cause unnecessary injury (Fig. 6C ). Large dead branches should be
supported with one hand or cut with the three-step method , just as live branches.
Cutting large living branches with the three step method is more critical because of
the greater likelihood of bark ripping.

3. Drop Crotch Cuts (Fig. 6D )

A proper cut
begins just above 2nd cut
the branch bark
ridge and extends 1st cut
final
through the stem cut
parallel to the
branch bark ridge.
Usually, the stem
being removed
is too large to be
supported with one
hand , so the three
cut method should
be used .

1. With the
Figure 6D . Pruning cuts.
first cut,
make a
notch on the side of the stem away from the branch to be retained , well
above the branch crotch .

2. Begin the second cut inside the branch crotch , staying well above the branch
bark ridge, and cut through the stem above the notch .

3. Cut the remaining stub just inside the branch bark ridge through the stem
parallel to the branch bark ridge.

To prevent the abundant growth of epicormic sprouts on the stem below the cut, or
dieback of the stem to a lower lateral branch , make the cut at a lateral branch that is
at least one- third of the diameter of the stem at their union .

176 - APPENDIX III

Pruning Practices That Harm Trees

Topping and tipping (Fig. 7A , 7B) are

pruning practices that harm trees and
should not be used . Crown reduction
pruning is the preferred method to reduce
the size or height of the crown ofa tree ,
but is rarely needed and should be used
infrequently.

Topping , the pruning of large upright

branches between nodes , is sometimes
done to reduce the height of a tree (Fig .
7A ). Tipping is the practice of cutting A. Topping B. Tipping
lateral branches between nodes (Fig. 7B )
to reduce crown width .

These practices invariably result in the

development of epicormic sprouts, or in
the death of the cut branch back to the
next lateral branch below . These epicormic
sprouts are weakly attached to the stem
and eventually will be supported by a
decaying branch .

Improper pruning cuts cause unnecessary

injury and bark ripping (Fig.7C ). Flush
cuts injure stem tissues and can result in
C. Bark ripping D. Flush cutting
decay (Fig. 7D ). Stub cuts delay wound
closure and can provide entry to canker
fungi that kill the cambium , delaying or
preventing woundwood formation (Fig.
7E ).

When to Prune

Conifers may be pruned any time of year,

but pruning during the dormant season

may minimize sap and resin flow from cut
branches.

Hardwood trees and shrubswithout

showy flowers: prune in the dormant
E. Stub cutting
season to easily visualize the structure
of the tree , to maximize wound closure Figure 7. Practices that harm trees.

in the growing season after pruning, to

reduce the chance of transmitting disease , and to discourage excessive sap flow from wounds.

APPENDIX III - 177

 Recentwounds and the chemical scents they emit can actually attract insects that spread tree
disease. In particular,wounded elm wood is known to attract bark beetles that harbor spores
of the Dutch elm disease fungus, and open wounds on oaks are known to attract beetles that
spread the oak wilt fungus. Take care to prune these trees during the correct time of year to
prevent spread of these fatal diseases. Contact your local tree disease specialist to find out
when to prune these tree species in your area. Usually, the best time is during the late fall and
winter.

Flowering trees and shrubs: these should also be pruned during the dormant season for
the samereasons stated above; however, to preserve the current year's flower crop , prune
according to the following schedule :

Trees and shrubs that flowerin early spring (redbud, dogwood ,etc.) should be pruned
immediately after flowering (flower buds arise theyear before they flush , andwill form
on the new growth ).

Many flowering trees are susceptible to fireblight, a bacterial disease that can be
spread by pruning . These trees, including many varieties of crabapple , hawthorn ,
pear,mountain ash , flowering quince and pyracantha , should be pruned during the
dormant season. Check with your county extension agent or a horticulturist for
additional information.

Trees and shrubs that flower in the summer or fall always should be pruned during the
dormant season (flower buds will form on new twigs during the next growing season ,
and the flowers will flush normally) .

Dead branches: can be removed any timeof the year.

Pruning Tools

Proper tools are essential for satisfactory pruning (Fig.6 ). The choice of which tool to use
depends largely on the size of branches to be pruned and the amount of pruning to be done.
If possible , test a tool before you buy it to ensure it suits your specific needs. Aswith most
things, higher quality often equates to higher cost.

Generally speaking, the smaller a branch is when pruned , the sooner the wound created
will seal. Hand pruners are used to prune small branches (under 2.5 cm diameter) and
many different kinds are available . Hand pruners can be grouped into by -pass or anvil
styles based on the blade configuration. Anvil style pruners have a straight blade that cuts
the branch against a small anvil or block as the handles are squeezed . By- pass pruners use a
curved cutting blade that slides past a broader lower blade, much like scissors. To prevent
unnecessary tearing or crushing of tissues, it is best to use a by -pass style [Link]- or
right-handed types can be purchased .

Slightly larger branches that cannot be cut with a hand pruner may be cutwith small
pruning saws(up to 10 cm ) or lopping shears (up to 7 cm diameter ) with larger cutting
surfaces and greater leverage. Lopping shears are also available in by-pass and anvil styles.
For branches too large to be cut with a hand pruner or lopping shears, pruning sawsmust
be used . Pruning saws differ greatly in handle styles, the length and shape of the blade, and

178 - APPENDIX III

 the layout and type of teeth .Most have tempered metal blades that retain their sharpness for
many pruning cuts. Unlike most other saws, pruning saws are often designed to cut on the
“ pull -stroke.

Chain sawsare preferred when pruning branches larger than about 10 cm . Chainsaws should
be used only by qualified individuals. To avoid the need to cut branches greater than 10 cm
diameter, prune when branches are small.

Pole prunersmust be used to cut branches beyond reach .Generally , pruning heads can cut

branches up to 4.4 cm diameter and are available in the by -pass and anvil styles. Once again ,
the by-pass type is preferred. For cutting larger branches, saw blades can be fastened directly
to the pruning head, or a separate saw head can be purchased. Because of the danger of
electrocution , pole pruners should not be used near utility lines except by qualified utility
line clearance personnel.

To ensure that satisfactory cuts are made and to reduce fatigue, keep your pruning tools
sharp and in good working condition . Hand pruners, lopping shears , and pole pruners
should be periodically sharpened with a sharpening stone. Replacement blades are available
for many styles . Pruning sawsshould be professionally sharpened or periodically replaced . To
reduce cost,many styles have replaceable blades.

Tools should be clean and sanitized as well as sharp. Although sanitizing tools may be

inconvenient and seldom practiced , doing so may prevent the spread of disease from infected
to healthy trees on contaminated tools. Tools become contaminated when they come into
contact with fungi, bacteria , viruses and other microorganisms that cause disease in trees.
Most pathogens need some way of entering the tree to cause disease, and fresh wounds are
perfect places for infections to begin. Microorganismson tool surfaces are easily introduced
into susceptible trees when subsequent cuts are made. The need for sanitizing tools can be
greatly reduced by pruning during the dormant season .

If sanitizing is necessary it should be practiced as follows: before each branch is cut, sanitize
pruning tools with either 70 % denatured alcohol, or with liquid household bleach diluted
1 to 9 with water ( 1 part bleach , 9 parts water). Tools should be immersed in the solution,
preferably for 1-2 minutes, and wood particles should be wiped from all cutting surfaces .
Bleach is corrosive to metal surfaces, so tools should be thoroughly cleaned with soap and
water after each use .

Treating Wounds

Tree sap , gums, and resins are the natural means by which trees combat invasion by
pathogens. Although unsightly , sap flow from pruning wounds is not generally harmful;
however, excessive “ bleeding” can weaken trees.

When oaks or elmsare wounded during a critical time of year (usually spring for oaks, or
throughout the growing season for elms) either from storms, other unforeseen mechanical
wounds, or from necessary branch removals some type of wound dressing should be applied
to the wound. Do this immediately after the wound is created . In most other instances,
wound dressings are unnecessary, and may even be detrimental. Wound dressings will not

APPENDIX III - 179

 stop decay or cure infectious diseases. They may actually interfere with the protective benefits
of tree gums and resins, and prevent wound surfaces from closing as quickly as they might
under natural conditions. The only benefit of wound dressings is to prevent introduction of
pathogens in the specific cases of Dutch elm disease and oak wilt.

Pruning Guidelines

To encourage the development of a strong, healthy tree, consider the following guidelines
when pruning
General

Prune first for safety, next for health , and finally for aesthetics.

Never prune trees that are touching or near utility lines; instead consult your local
utility company.

Avoid pruning trees when you might increase susceptibility to important pests (e.g.
in areaswhere oak wilt exists, avoid pruning oaks in the spring and early summer;
prune trees susceptible to fireblight only during the dormant season).

Use the following decision guide for size ofbranches to be removed : 1) under 5
cm diameter - go ahead , 2 ) between 5 and 10 cm diameter - think twice, and 3 )
greater than 10 cm diameter - have a good reason .

Crown Thinning
down .
Assess how a tree will be pruned from the top

Favor branches with strong, U -shaped angles of attachment. Remove branches

with weak , V -shaped angles of attachment and /or included bark .

• Ideally, lateralbranches should be evenly spaced on themain stem of young trees.

Remove any branches that rub or cross another branch .

Make sure that lateral branches are no more than one-half to three-quarters of the
diameter of the stem to discourage the development of co - dominant stems.

Do not remove more than one- quarter of the living crown of a tree at one time. If
it is necessary to remove more, do it over successive years.

Crown Raising
Always maintain live branches on at least two-thirds of a tree's total height.
Removing too many lower branches will hinder the development of a strong stem .

Remove basal sprouts and vigorous epicormic sprouts.

Crown Reduction
Use crown reduction pruning only when absolutely necessary. Make the pruning
cut at a lateral branch that is at least one- third the diameter of the stem to be
removed.

If it is necessary to removemore than half of the foliage from a branch , remove the
entire branch .

180 - APPENDIX II .
Glossary

Branch Axil: the angle formed where a branch Excurrent: amajor tree form resulting from
joins another branch or stem of a woody strong apical control. Trees with this form
plant. have a strong central stem and pyramidal
shape. Lateral branches rarely compete
Branch Bark Ridge: a ridge ofbark that forms for dominance .Most conifers and a few
in a branch crotch and partially around the hardwoods, such as sweetgum and tuliptree ,
stem resulting from the growth of the stem have excurrent forms.

and branch tissues against one another.

Flush Cuts: pruning cuts that originate inside
Branch Collar: a “shoulder” or bulge formed the branch bark ridge or the branch collar,
at the base of a branch by the annual causing unnecessary injury to stem tissues.
production ofoverlapping layers ofbranch
and stem tissues. Included Bark : bark enclosed between
branches with narrow angles of attachment,
Crown Raising: a method of pruning to forming a wedge between the branches.
provide clearance for pedestrians, vehicles,
buildings, lines of sight, and vistas by Pollarding the annual removal of all of the
removing lower branches. previous year's growth , resulting in a flush of
slender shoots and branches each spring.
Crown Reduction Pruning: a method of
pruning used to reduce the height of a tree. Stub Cuts: pruning cuts made too far outside
Branches are cut back to laterals that are the branch bark ridge or branch collar, that
at least one-third the diameter of the limb leave branch tissue attached to the stem .
being removed .
Tipping: a poor maintenance practice used to
Crown Thinning: a method of pruning to control the size of tree crowns; involves the
increase light penetration and air movement cutting of branches at right angles leaving
through the crown of a tree by selective long stubs.
removal of branches.
Topping : a poor maintenance practice often
Callus: see woundwood . used to control the size of trees; involves

the indiscriminate cutting of branches and

Decurrent: a major tree form resulting from stems at right angles leaving long stubs.
weak apical control. Trees with this form Synonyms include rounding-over, heading
have several to many lateral branches back , dehorning, capping and hat-racking.
that compete with the central stem for Topping is often improperly referred to as
dominance resulting in a spherical or pollarding.
globose crown. Most hardwood trees have
decurrent forms. Topiary: the pruning and training of a plant
into a desired geometric or animal shape.
Epicormic Sprout: a shoot that arises from
latent or adventitious buds; also known Woundwood: lignified , differentiated tissues
as water sprouts that occur on stems and produced on woody plants as a response to
branches and suckers that are produced wounding (also known as callus tissue ).
from the base of trees. In older wood ,
epicormic shoots often result from severe
defoliation or radical pruning.

APPENDIX III - 181

Authors

Peter J. Bedker, Plant Pathologist , USDA Forest Service, Northeastern Area State and Private
Forestry

Joseph G.O'Brien , Plant Pathologist , USDA Forest Service, Northeastern Area State and
Private Forestry

Manfred [Link], Forest Health Specialist, USDA Forest Service, Northeastern Area State
and Private Forestry

Illustrations by:

Julie Martinez, Scientific Illustrator,Minneapolis, Minnesota

References

ANSI Z133.1. 1994. Safety standards. American national standard for tree care operators.
Washington , DC : American National Standards Institute.

ANSI A300 . 1995. Standard practices for tree, shrub , and other woody plantmaintenance.
Washington , DC: American National Standards Institute .

Fazio, J. R. ed . 1992. Don't top trees. Tree City USA Bulletin No. 8. Nebraska City, NE: The
National Arbor Day Foundation .

Harris , R.W. 1994. Clarifying certain pruning terminology : thinning ,heading, pollarding.
Journal of Arboriculture 20 :50-54 .

ISA Performance Guidelines Committee. 1994. Tree -pruning guidelines. Savoy, IL :

International Society of Arboriculture.

Ryan , H.D.P. III. 1994. Arboricultural pruning methodologies. Arborist News Volume 3 (4 ):
33-38 .

Shigo , A. [Link] arboriculture. Durham ,NH : Shigo & Trees, Associates.

Shigo , A. 1989. Tree pruning: a worldwide photo guide . Durham ,NH : Shigo & Trees,
Associates.

182 - APPENDIX III

Northeastern Area State and Private Forestry Offices
Headquarters Office
Northeastern Area State & Private Forestry
USDA Forest Service
11 Campus Boulevard , Suite 200
Newtown , PA 19073

Durham Field Office

Northeastern Area State & Private Forestry
USDA Forest Service
Louis C. Wyman Forest Services Laboratory
P.O. Box 640
Durham , NH 03824-0640

Morgantown Field Office

Northeastern Area State & Private Forestry
USDA Forest Service
180 Canfield Street
Morgantown, WV 26505-3101

St. Paul Field Office

Northeastern Area State & Private Forestry
USDA Forest Service
1992 Folwell Avenue
St. Paul,MN 55108-1099

HOW TO Prune Trees was written to help people properly prune the trees they care about.
If you doubtyour ability to safely prune large trees, please hire a professional arborist.
Information in this publication can be used to interview and hire a competent arborist.

APPENDIX III - 183

184 - APPENDIX III
Glossary

Balled -and-burlapped = Trees and shrubs Canker = Area of dead bark and cambium
harvested with the root system enclosed anywhere on the tree's surface . Cankers
in a soilball that is held together with can be caused by fungi, insects,
burlap and twine, a wire basket, or weather, or mechanical damage such as
both . lantern -burns or mowers .

Bare - root = Trees and shrubs harvested with Canker-rot = Fungal infection that causes an
an exposed root system and with no soil external canker and extensive internal

covering their roots . decay.

Barrier zone = An anatomical and chemical Canopy = The topmost layer of twigs and
wall formed by the cambium tissue as foliage in a tree or group of trees.
part ofthe compartmentalization of
decay within trees. It separates wood Cavity = Hollow area in stem , branch , or
formed before wounding from wood root where the wood has decayed and is
that will form after wounding . now missing

Bole = ( Trunk) Themain stem of a tree Codominant stems = Stems that are equal in
below its first major branch . size and relative importance.

Branch bark ridge = Ridge of bark that Compartmentalization = A physiological

formsat the junction of the branch and process which creates chemical and

stem . An upturned branch bark ridge mechanical boundaries to resist

indicates a strong branch union . An organisms, such as decay fungi. It
inrolled branch bark ridge indicates a results in the separation of healthy
weak branch union . tissues and infected tissues by reaction
and barrier zones.
Branch collar = A “shoulder” or bulge
formed at the base of a branch by the Conk = Fruiting body of a fungus. Fruiting
annual production of overlapping layers bodies on trees indicate advanced decay.
of branch and stem tissues.
Container-grown = Plant material grown
Cabling and bracing = The practice of in a nursery and placed in a container
adding a support system to a tree before shipping
to reduce the stress on weak branch
unions. Materials used include both Crack = Separation of thewood , a fissure, or
flexible and rigid braces, metal cables, a deep split in the bark and wood of a
synthetic- fiber rope , and metal tree .

anchoring devices.
Critical root radius (CRR ) = Defines the

Cambium = Layer of living cells between the area of the root system nearest the
bark and wood surface that produces a stem that is critical for the stability
new layer ofwood each year. and vitality of the tree . The area is
determined by allowing 1.5 feet of root
radius for each inch of stem diameter at

breast height (d.b.h.).

Glossary - 185
Crown = Portions of the tree above the main Dripline = The area directly below the
branches of a tree.
stem or trunk; the branches, twigs and
leaves .

Epicormic branch = Branches that form on

Deadwood = Non-living wood within a tree. large, old stemsor branches as a result
Deadwood is structurally unsound of a serious disturbance , such as ,
because of pre- existing defects and/or improper pruning, disease or extensive
rapid decomposition of the wood. dieback in the crown. Epicormic
branches usually form weak unions
Decay = Fungal and bacterial decomposition with their stems.
of woody tissues. The decay process
reduces structural soundness and Failure = Breakage of stemsor branches or
stability over a period of years. loss of mechanical support in the root
system . Trees can fail due to defects or
Decayed wood = Wood that has rooted or is during severe storms.
missing
Fire scar = Triangular scar at the base of a tree
Decline = General loss of vigor. It is usually due to a past fire. A cavity is generally
accompanied by crown symptoms, associated with a fire scar.
such as branch dieback .

Fracture = Cracking or breakage of wood in

Defect = Any structural weakness or branches , stemsor roots.
deformity in the tree's branches, stem ,
or root system . Tree defects can be Fruiting bodies = Structures where fungal
of two kinds: injury or disease that spores are produced . Examples are
seriously weakens the stems, roots, mushrooms, conks, and shelf fungi.
or branches or trees, predisposing They are indicators of advanced decay.
them to fail or structural problems
arising from poor tree architecture, Hazard tree = A tree that has structural
including V -shaped crotches in stems defects in the roots , stem , or branches
and branches that lead to weak unions, that may cause the tree or tree part
shallow rooting habits, inherently to fail, where such failure may cause
brittle wood , etc.
property damage or personal injury.

Defective tree = Tree with one or more Improper pruning = When removing
defects. branches, cutting into the branch
collar, cutting flush to the stem ,
D.B.H. = Diameter of the tree measured leaving long branch stubs, or removing
at breast height, 4.5 feet from the too many branches at one time.
ground.
Included bark = Layers of bark that have
Dieback = Death of a branch or branches, formed inside the tree at a branch

generally from the tip towards the union or fork between codominant
main stem . stems. These ingrown layers of bark
make a branch union weak .

186 - Glossary
Increment core = Sample of wood extracted Seam = Evidence that a tree has successfully
from a tree by an increment borer. The closed over a wound. Wound margins
core shows the annual rings. meet and grow together. In time,
seams become indistinct and less
Inrolled bark or wood - Bark or wood tissues hazardous.
that have turned inward and continue
to grow inside the tree. See rams Shell = In trees with wood decay, the shell
horning. is the newest and outermost layers of
wood that are decay free. Safe shell
Inrolled crack = See Rams-horning. limits require 1 inch of sound shell for
each 6 inches of stem diameter.

Inspection = Systematicmethod of examining

trees for visible defects and assessing Snag tree = A dead , usually hollow or
risk of potential failure. limbless , tree that is left on the site for
wildlife habitat purposes.
Lean = Describes a tree trunk that is not
growing perpendicular to the ground. Stem girdling roots ( SGR) = Roots that
If the angle is greater than 45 degrees, encircle or run tangentially to a tree's
it may be hazardous. stem , eventually compressing the
woody and non -woody tissues of the
Natural target pruning = Method of stem .
removing branches that preserves the
tree's natural defenses. Only branch Target = A person or object within 1.5 times

tissue is removed leaving thebranch the tree height of a defective tree.

collar intact. See diagrams for conifers
and hardwoods in the Appendix 3 . Tipping = Removal ofbranch tips, usually to
decrease the tree's width .
Poor architecture = Growth pattern indicates
structural imbalance and weakness in Topping = Removal of the top portion ofa
the branch , stem , or tree. tree's live crown , usually to decrease
the tree's height.
Rams-horning = Process that occurs when
two wound margins grow together and Tree architecture - Natural growth habit or
their bark and wood layers begin to branching pattern that is characteristic
turn inward . The inrolling tissues curl for each tree species.
and form the rams-horn over a period
of years. Tree lawns - The planting area that occurs
between street curbs and sidewalks.
Root collar = The base of the stem where the Also commonly referred to as
primary roots first begin to branch boulevards, parkways, ormedians.
away from the stem . Normally, this
area appears swollen or flared and is
located near or at the soil level.

Glossary - 187
Tree risk management plan = A management
plan that focuses on the prevention
and correction of hazardous tree

defects, and provides a written ,

systematic procedure for inspecting
and evaluating hazardous trees and
correcting them before they become
unacceptable risks.

Uneven -aged management system = A

management system where trees of
varying species and with different life

expectancies are planted as replacement

trees.

Weak branch union = An epicormic branch or

branch union with included bark .

Windthrow = Failure of the root system in

anchoring the tree to the ground.

Often trees are blown over by winds
during severe storms.

Wound = Any injury to the bark, cambium ,

or wood .

Woundwood = Lignified , differentiated

tissues produced on woody plants as a
response to wounding (also known as
callus tissue ).

188 - Glossary
 Index

black ash , 68 , 118

Acer platanoides, 120
black cherry, 44, 68, 120
Acer rubrum , 120
Acer saccharinum , 120 black cottonwood, 95

adaptive growth , 55 black locust,69, 120

alder, 118, 120 black oak, 69

Alnus, 118, 120 black spruce, 68

Alnus glutinosa , 120 black willow ,69

American Association of Nurserymen , 124 black walnut, 69, 120

American basswood , 118 , 149 bladdernut, 119

American elm , 68, 120 blue beech , 68 , 120

American linden , 120 boxelder, 44, 68 , 76

American sweetgum , 120 branch bark ridge , 75 , 146

American National Standards Institute, 132 branch collar, 146

Amur maple , 76 budget, 15 , 16 , 17, 18 , 29, 31, 130

animal damage, 130 bur oak , 69, 119, 120

arborist , 2 , 34, 148 , 149, 152 butternut, 68

Arborsonic Decay Detector, 94

C
Arborvitae , 120

ash , 44 cabling and bracing 8, 143, 145, 146 , 147, 148,

aspen , 44, 68 149, 152 , 158, 161

assessing tree risk , 10 California Tree Failure Reporting Program , 36

augering, 137 cambium , 49, 98, 101

campsites, 1
B
canker(s), 41, 42, 44, 46 , 55 , 56 ,79-80

balled -and-burlapped nursery stock , 17, 126 , 128 canker rot, 56

baldcypress, 120 canopy dieback , 15 , 16 , 17

balsam fir, 44, 68 Catalpa ,68, 120
bare-root nursery stock, 17 , 127 Celtis, 118, 120
barrier zone, 91 Ceris, 119
basswood , 44 , 68 , 118 , 149 cherry, 76
beech , 120 City Forester, 20 , 33, 34
benefit -cost ratio , 6
clay, 42 , 118 , 121, 123, 131
bicolor oak ,69 coast redwood , 95
birch , 44 , 68
coffeetree, 118
black alder, 120
Colorado spruce, 68

Index - 189
community support, 18 , 28
E
community tree risk evaluation form , 105

compartmentalization , 50,51, 134 eastern hemlock , 120

conifers , 44 Eastern redcedar, 68

construction , 3 , 13 , 17 , 23 , 26 , 42 , 117 , 118 , 123 , Eastern white pine, 120

124 , 134 , 135 , 136 , 138 electrical conductivity meter, 90 , 93

electrical resistance, 93
container grown nursery stock , 127 , 128
corktree, 118 elm , 44 , 93, 118

correction , 2 , 8 , 10, 11, 12 , 20, 21, 34 , 45, 99, 104 , emergency access routes, 14 , 17 , 23, 24 , 104

143, , 144, 145, 152, 160, emergency facilities, 24, 104

cost-Benefit Analysis, 8 , 36 emergency response, 2 , 11, 14 , 18

costs, 8 , 15 , 16 , 19, 27 epicromic branch, 77

cottonwood, 44 , 68 European mountain ash , 76

F
Council of Tree and Landscape Appraisers, 5 , 18

crabapple, 118 , 122

crack (s), 41, 42, 44, 55, 59-64, 102 , 103, 145 Fagus, 120

Crataegus, 119 , 122 fireblight, 134

fractometer, 90 , 95
crown vigor, 97 , 101
CRR, 67 , 73 , 90, 102, 103, 123 , 124 , 135, 136 , Fraxinus nigra, 118

137 , 159

Cupressusmacrocarpa , 95
G
curbs, 122 , 140

Geographic Information Systems, 25

D
ginkgo , 118 , 120

de-icing salt, 118 , 120 , 121, 122 , 128 , 138 Ginkgo biloba , 118
dead branch , 28 , 103, 146 Gleditsia , 119

dead tree, 2 , 14, 28 , 41, 42, 44 , 46 , 87-98 , 103, 143, goals, 2 , 3 , 9 , 11 , 14 , 15 , 18, 19 , 20, 21 , 32, 147
153 , 158 green ash , 68 , 76,120

decay, 1, 7 , 16 , 23 , 27 , 36 , 41, 42 , 44 , 46 , 47 , 52 , Gymnocladus dioicus, 118

54, 55 , 56 , 89, 90, 91, 92, 93 , 94, 95 , 96 ,

H
102 , 103, 119, 120 , 122, 134 , 135, 146 , 149,
154 , 156 , 158 , 159, 160 hackberry, 44,68, 76 , 118, 120
decayed wood , 41, 42, 46 , 47-58 Halesia , 122

demonstration projects, 21, 156 Harp tree, 83

densitomat, 90 hawthorn , 44 ,68, 119, 122

Douglas fir, 95 hemlock , 119

drive-by inspections, 26 , 27, 28 , 29 hickory, 44 , 68

Dutch elm disease , 117 , 134 honeylocust, 44,68, 119 , 120
Hurricane Andrew , 12

190 - Index
Hurricane Hugo , 6 mountain ash ,69

mulch , 118 , 124, 129, 136 , 137

municipal working group , 19

ice, 6 , 12 , 41, 118 , 119, 128 , 157
N
ice storms, 6 , 12

in -depth assessment, 45 , 56 , 89 National Arborist Association , 132

included bark , 55, 76 , 102 , 119 , 125 , 132 , 133 , 145 , National Park Service, 30 , 147
148 , 159 northern red oak , 120

increment borer, 56 , 90 , 91, 95 northern pin oak ,69, 120

inrolled crack , 46 , 55 , 56 , 96 northern white cedar,68

International Society of Arboriculture, 14 , 18 , 132 , Norway maple, 120

147 numeric risk rating, 32, 101, 102, 104
ironwood , 44 , 68, 119, 120 , 122 nursery stock, 3 , 17 , 21, 33, 117 , 124 , 125 , 133
J

Jack pine, 44, 68 oak wilt , 134

Japanese tree lilac, 120 occupancy patterns, 22, 23

Ohio buckeye, 68
K
Ostrya virginiana , 119, 122
out-sourcing, 34
Kentucky coffeetree, 68, 120 outcome-based evaluations, 36
outreach , 21

oxygen availability, 121, 137

L
P

Larix laricina , 118

liability, 7 , 9 , 10 , 29 , 34 , 152 parks, 2 , 8 , 11, 104, 120 , 123, 144

littleleaf linden , 76 , 120 pear, 44
low -light, 119 penetrometer, 90, 91, 93, 96 , 118
personal injury, 30 , 36 , 7 , 8 , 11,, 1,6
Phellodendron, 118
M
physical obstruction, 103
maintenance pruning, 17, 132 Picea, 119
Malus, 118, 122
pin oak , 69, 120
Master Gardeners, 35
Pinus ponderosa , 95
Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, 30, planting pit, 43, 121, 122
31 ,> 97
ponderosa pine, 95
Monterey cypress, 95
poor architecture, 41, 42 , 44 , 46 , 81-85 , 148

Index - 191
poplar, 95 , 120 risk , 1, 2 , 3 , 5 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11, 13, 14, 15, 16 , 17, 18 ,

Populus, 95, 120 19, 20 , 21, 22, 23 , 24 , 25 , 26 , 27, 28 , 29 , 30,

Populus trichocarpa , 95 31, 32, 33, 34 , 35 , 36 , 37, 41, 43, 45, 56 , 89,

portable drill, 90 , 91, 92, 93, 96 90 , 97 , 98 , 99 , 101, 102, 104, 105, 121, 126 ,

prevention , 2 , 3 , 8 , 9, 10 , 11, 13 , 14 , 17, 20 , 21, 93 , 134, 143, 144 , 145 , 148 , 149, 152, 153 , 156 ,

117 , 121, 122, 128 , 129, 130 , 132 , 133, 134, 157 , 158 , 160

136 , 140 , 143, 145 , 158 risk management, 2 , 3 , 5 , 7 , 8 , 10 , 11, 13, 14 , , 15 ,

primary support roots, 89 17 , 18 , 19 , 21, 22 , 26 , 30, 32, 33, 36 , 143,

program effectiveness, 14 153 , 158

property values, 5 risk zones, 22, 23 , 25 , 26 , 27 , 28, 29, 32

pruning, 2 , 3 , 8 , 9, 11, 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 , 21, root collar, 27 , 56 , 89, 97 , 101, 126 , 127, 128, 129

22, 26 , 29, 33, 36 , 47 , 117 , 121, 122 , 123 , root collar examinations, 89

124 , 125 , 126 , 132, 133 , 134 , 143, 145 , 146 , root loss, 123, 136 , 138

148 , 149, 156 , 157 , 159 root problems, 41, 42, 44 , 46 , 65-73

Pseudotsuga menziesii, 95 root severing , 26 , 159

Ptelea, 122 rubber mallet, 90

public safety, 1 , 8 , 9 , 11, 12, 13, 14 , 15 , 17 , 18, 19,

20 , 21, 22, , 22, 23, 29, 32, 35 , 36 , 89 , 97 ,
117 , 121, 132 , 143 , 156 , 157 safety, 5 , 7 , 9 , 11, 13, 17 , 20 , 21, 22, 33 , 36 , 93, 96 ,

public use, 22, 23 , 25, 26 , 103 102 , 103, 132, 147, 156 , 157

Salix , 118
Q
sapwood , 98, 101

quality control, 34, 37 Scotch pine ,68

Quercus alba, 149 Sequoia sempervirens, 95

Quercusmacrocarpa , 119 Serviceberry , 69
Quercus rubra , 120 SGR , 72 , 89, 102, 126 , 129, 130
shell, 53-57, 89, 90 , 91, 94 , 96 , 102 , 103, 158 ,
R
160 ,

reasonable care, 9, 11, 21, 30, 32, 143 shell thickness, 53 , 54, 55 , 56 , 102, 158, 160

recreation , 1 , 2 , 19, 26 , 30, 153 Shigo, A. L , 93

recreation site , 1 , 31 Shigometer, 90 , 93
redbud, 119 Siberian elm , 120

red maple, 44 ,69, 76 , 120 Sibert Decay Detecting Drill, 90 , 92

red oak , 44 , 69, 120 sidewalks, 23, 26 , 43, 120, , 139 , , 121, 122, 123,

red pine, 44,68 125 , 138, 139, 140,

red -osier dogwood , 68 silverbell, 122

replanting, 15 , 21, 132 silver maple , 69, 76 , 104, 120

Resistograph , 90 , 91, 92 , 93 Silvics Manual of North America, 117

snow , 6 , 29 , 97 , 101, 118 , 119 , 128

192 - Index
soil compaction , 118, 136 , 158 Tree Keepers, 35

soil drainage, 122, 128 tree maintenance, 15, 16 , 17 , 18, 19, 22 , 28, 43,

soil moisture, 121, 123, 136 , 137 122 , 132 , 147 , 157 ,

soil pH 118 , 128 , 136 tree ordinances, 18 , 33

soil tunneling, 137 tree planting, 2 , 3, 6 , 8, 11 , 14, 15, 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 ,
sonic detectors, 90 , 94 21, 26 , 29, 33, 36 , 43, 117, 118 , 120 , 121,
species composition, 12, 15 , 117 122 , 123 , 124 , 125 , 127 , 128 , 129 , 130 , 131,

spruce, 44, 119 132 , 133 , 139 , 149 , 158 , 160 , 161

Staphylea , 119 tree removal, 7 , 8 , 9 , 15 , 16 , 18 , 21, 35 , 130 , 132 ,

stem girdling roots, 72 , 89 , 102, 126 , 129, 130 158

storm damage, 22 , 26 tree risk inspections, 18 , 19 , 22, 23 , 26 , 28 , 29 , 31 ,

storm events, 11, 12, 125 32 , 34 , 35 , 89, 97 , 161

storm surveys, 11, 14 tree risk management, 147, 153, 158 , 160 ,, 1, 2 , 3 ,

streets, 18 , 20, 33, 100 , 104 , 120 , 121, 123, 124, , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11, 13, 14 , 15 , 17 , 18, 19, 20 , 21,
2 , 5 , 11, 14, 15 , 16 , 17, 124, 125, 138, 146 , 22, 26 , 28 , 29 , 30 , 31,> 32, 33, 34 , 35 , 36 , 89,

153 , 156 , 104 , 117, 132, 134 , 143

street plans, 2, 14 , 18 Tree Trust , 33

strong branch union , 133 tree value, 18

structural soil 122 tree wrap , 126
sugar maple, 44,69, 120 trenching , 138
sycamore , 120 Tsuga, 119
Syringa reticulata , 120 tuliptree , 120

U
T
U.S. Forest Service, 1, 30 , 31, 97 , 101, 157
tamarack , 44 , 68 , 118 Ulmus, 118

target, 8 , 21, 23, 26 , 29, 97 , 98 , 99, 101, 102, 103 , ultrasonic detectors, 90 , 94 , 96
135, 143, 144, 156 , 160 urbanization , 123

target area , 97 , 98 , 99, 101, 135 Ustilina deusta , 94

therapeutic pruning, 17 utilities, 5 , 18 , 21, 121, 138

Tilia , 118 utility line, 21,22 , 23 , 33 , 121, 122 , 123 , 137 , 146 ,
traffic patterns, 26 158
traffic volume, 16 , 17 , 22, 23, 25
V
trails, 22 , 99, 103, 104, 156

training, 1 , 7 , 9 , 16 , 21, 31 , 34, 35 , 37 , 133, 147 V - shaped branch union , 148

TREEORD , 33 visual obstruction , 103
Tree Care Advisors, 35 Vitalometer, 90 , 93

tree condition , 22 , 23, 120, 139 volunteers, 34 , 35, 37

tree inventory, 15 , 17, 18, 19, 22, 29, 31, 32

Index - 193
 W

walnut, 44

walk -by inspections, 26 , 27 , 29 , 89

water-ash , 122

weak branch union , 41, 42, 44 , 46 , 75-78, 102, 103,

104 , 125 , 145, 148
wetlands, 22
white ash , 68 , 120

white fir, 68

white spruce, 68
white oak , 69 , 149

white pine, 44,68

wild plum ,69

wildlife, 3, 8 , 143, 144, 153, 154 , 156 , 157

wildlife cycle, 153, 154 , 156

Wildlife Habitat/Defective Tree Decision Model, 157
willow , 44 , 76 , 118

wind, 6 , 12, 41, 118, 119, 121, 123, 124, 128 , 135 ,
136 , 148

Woodland Keepers, 35

wound dressing, 134

Wye oak , 150, 151, 152

194 - Index
3 1951 D02 336 205 O
UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA

3 1951 D02 336 205 O