Revision Notes

Chapter - 1
Power Sharing

1. With this chapter, we resume the tour of democracy that we started last year.

2. An intelligent sharing of power among a legislature, executive and judiciary is very

important to the design of a democracy.

3. We start with two stories from Belgium and Sri Lanka.

4. Both these stories are about how democracies handle demands for power sharing.

Belgium and Sri Lanka:

1. Belgium is a small country in Europe.

2. It has borders with Netherlands, France and Germany.

3. 59% in the Flemish region speaks Dutch.

4. Another 40% people live in Wallonia region and speaks French.

5. Remaining 1% of the Belgians speak Germany.

6. In the capital city Brussels, 80% people speak French while 20% are Dutch – speaking.

7. The minority French – speaking community was relatively rich and powerful.

8. This was resented by the Dutch-speaking community who got the benefit of the economic
development and education much later.

9. The tension between two communities was acuter in Brussels.

10. Like other nations in the south Asia region, Sri Lanka has a diverse population.

11. The Sinhala speaks are 74% and Tamil speakers are 18%
12. Among Tamils, there are two sub groups, Tamil natives of the country are called “Sri
Lankan Tamils”; the rest whose forefathers came from India as a population workers during
the colonial period, is called ‘Indian Tamils’.

Majoritarianism in Sri Lanka:

1. Sri Lankan emerged as an independent country in 1948.

2. The leaders of the Sinhala community sought to secure dominance over the government
by virtue of their majority.

3. In 1956, an Act was passed to recognize Sinhala as the only official language, thus
disregarding Tamil.

4. A new constitution stipulated that the state shall protect and foster Buddhism.

5. All these coming measures, coming one after the other, gradually increased the feeling of
alienation among the Sri Lankan Tamils.

6. As a result, the relations between the Sinhala and Tamil communities strained over time.

7. The Sri Lankan Tamils launched parties and struggles.

8. But their demand for more autonomy to provinces populated by the Tamils was repeatedly
denied.

9. The distrust between the two communities turned into widespread conflict. It soon turned
into CIVIL WAR.

10. The civil war caused a terrible setback to the social, cultural and economic life of the
country.

Accommodation in Belgium:

1. Belgium recognized the existence of regional differences and cultural diversities.

2. Between 1970 and 1993, they amended their constitution four times so as to work out an
arrangement that would enable everyone to live together within the same country.

3. Here are some of the elements of the Belgian model:

a. Constitution prescribes that the number of Dutch and French-speaking ministers shall be
equal in the central government.
b. Many powers of the central government have been given to states government of the two
of the regions of the country.
c. Brussels has separated government in which both the communities have equal
representation.
d. Apart from the central and state government, there is a third kind of government. This is
community government.

4. In Belgium, the leaders have realized that the unity of the country is possible only by
respecting the feelings and interests of different communities and regions.

5. Sri Lanka shows us a contrasting example. It shows us that if a majority community wants
to force its dominance over others and refuses to share power, it can undermine the unity of
the country.

Why is power sharing desirable?

1. Thus, two different sets of reasons can be given in favor of power sharing.

2. Firstly, power sharing is good because it helps to reduce the possibility of conflict between
social groups.

3. There is a second, deeper reason why power sharing is good for democracy. Power sharing
is very spirit of democracy. A democratic rule involves sharing power with those affected by
its exercise, and who have to live with it effects.

4. Let us call the first set of reasons PRUDENTIAL and the second moral.

5. While prudential reasons stress that power sharing will bring out better outcomes, moral
reasons emphasizes the very act of the power sharing as valuable.

Forms of power sharing:

1. The idea of power sharing has emerged in opposition to the notions of undivided political
power.

2. For a long time, it was believed that all power of a government must reside in one person
or group of a person located at one place.

3. One basic principle of power sharing is that people are the source of all political power.

4. In a good democratic government, due respect is given to diverse groups and views that
exist in a society.

5. Everyone has a voice in the shaping of public politics.

6. Therefore, it follows that in a democracy political power should be distributed among as

many citizens as possible.

Let us look at some of the most common arrangements that we have or will come
across.

1. Power is shared among different organs of the government, such as the legislature,
executive, and judiciary. Let us call this horizontal distribution of power because it allows
different organs of the government placed at the same level to exercise different powers.

2. Power can be shared among governments at different levels – a general government for
the entire country and governments at the provincial or regional level. The division of higher
and lower levels of government is called the vertical division of power.

3. Power may also be shared among different social groups, such as the religious and
linguistic groups. ‘Community government’ is a good example of this arrangement.

4. Power sharing arrangement can also be seen in the way political parties, pressure groups
and movements control or influence those in power.
 Revision Notes
Chapter - 1
Power Sharing

1. With this chapter, we resume the tour of democracy that we started last year.

2. An intelligent sharing of power among a legislature, executive and judiciary is very

important to the design of a democracy.

3. We start with two stories from Belgium and Sri Lanka.

4. Both these stories are about how democracies handle demands for power sharing.

Belgium and Sri Lanka:

1. Belgium is a small country in Europe.

2. It has borders with Netherlands, France and Germany.

3. 59% in the Flemish region speaks Dutch.

4. Another 40% people live in Wallonia region and speaks French.

5. Remaining 1% of the Belgians speak Germany.

6. In the capital city Brussels, 80% people speak French while 20% are Dutch – speaking.

7. The minority French – speaking community was relatively rich and powerful.

8. This was resented by the Dutch-speaking community who got the benefit of the economic
development and education much later.

9. The tension between two communities was acuter in Brussels.

10. Like other nations in the south Asia region, Sri Lanka has a diverse population.

11. The Sinhala speaks are 74% and Tamil speakers are 18%
12. Among Tamils, there are two sub groups, Tamil natives of the country are called “Sri
Lankan Tamils”; the rest whose forefathers came from India as a population workers during
the colonial period, is called ‘Indian Tamils’.

Majoritarianism in Sri Lanka:

1. Sri Lankan emerged as an independent country in 1948.

2. The leaders of the Sinhala community sought to secure dominance over the government
by virtue of their majority.

3. In 1956, an Act was passed to recognize Sinhala as the only official language, thus
disregarding Tamil.

4. A new constitution stipulated that the state shall protect and foster Buddhism.

5. All these coming measures, coming one after the other, gradually increased the feeling of
alienation among the Sri Lankan Tamils.

6. As a result, the relations between the Sinhala and Tamil communities strained over time.

7. The Sri Lankan Tamils launched parties and struggles.

8. But their demand for more autonomy to provinces populated by the Tamils was repeatedly
denied.

9. The distrust between the two communities turned into widespread conflict. It soon turned
into CIVIL WAR.

10. The civil war caused a terrible setback to the social, cultural and economic life of the
country.

Accommodation in Belgium:

1. Belgium recognized the existence of regional differences and cultural diversities.

2. Between 1970 and 1993, they amended their constitution four times so as to work out an
arrangement that would enable everyone to live together within the same country.

3. Here are some of the elements of the Belgian model:

a. Constitution prescribes that the number of Dutch and French-speaking ministers shall be
equal in the central government.
b. Many powers of the central government have been given to states government of the two
of the regions of the country.
c. Brussels has separated government in which both the communities have equal
representation.
d. Apart from the central and state government, there is a third kind of government. This is
community government.

4. In Belgium, the leaders have realized that the unity of the country is possible only by
respecting the feelings and interests of different communities and regions.

5. Sri Lanka shows us a contrasting example. It shows us that if a majority community wants
to force its dominance over others and refuses to share power, it can undermine the unity of
the country.

Why is power sharing desirable?

1. Thus, two different sets of reasons can be given in favor of power sharing.

2. Firstly, power sharing is good because it helps to reduce the possibility of conflict between
social groups.

3. There is a second, deeper reason why power sharing is good for democracy. Power sharing
is very spirit of democracy. A democratic rule involves sharing power with those affected by
its exercise, and who have to live with it effects.

4. Let us call the first set of reasons PRUDENTIAL and the second moral.

5. While prudential reasons stress that power sharing will bring out better outcomes, moral
reasons emphasizes the very act of the power sharing as valuable.

Forms of power sharing:

1. The idea of power sharing has emerged in opposition to the notions of undivided political
power.

2. For a long time, it was believed that all power of a government must reside in one person
or group of a person located at one place.

3. One basic principle of power sharing is that people are the source of all political power.

4. In a good democratic government, due respect is given to diverse groups and views that
exist in a society.

5. Everyone has a voice in the shaping of public politics.

6. Therefore, it follows that in a democracy political power should be distributed among as

many citizens as possible.

Let us look at some of the most common arrangements that we have or will come
across.

1. Power is shared among different organs of the government, such as the legislature,
executive, and judiciary. Let us call this horizontal distribution of power because it allows
different organs of the government placed at the same level to exercise different powers.

2. Power can be shared among governments at different levels – a general government for
the entire country and governments at the provincial or regional level. The division of higher
and lower levels of government is called the vertical division of power.

3. Power may also be shared among different social groups, such as the religious and
linguistic groups. ‘Community government’ is a good example of this arrangement.

4. Power sharing arrangement can also be seen in the way political parties, pressure groups
and movements control or influence those in power.
 Revision Notes
Chapter - 2
Federalism

1. In the previous chapter, we noted that vertical division of power among different levels of
government is one of the major forms of power sharing.
2. In this chapter, we focus on this form of power sharing. It is most commonly referred to as
federalism.
3. We begin by describing federalism in general terms. The rest of the chapter tries to
understand the theory and practice of federalism in India.
4. Towards the end of the chapter, we turn to the local government, a new and the third tier
of Indian federalism.

What is federalism?

1. Federalism is a system of government in which the power is divided between a central

authority and various constituent units of the country.
2. Federalism has two levels of government:
a. One is the government for the entire country that is usually responsible for a new subject
of common national interest.
b. The others are governments at the level of provinces or states that look after much of the
day-to-day administering of their state.
3. Federations are contrasted with unitary governments.
4. Under the unitary system, either there is only one level of government or the sub-units are
subordinate to the central.
5. In a federal system, the central government cannot order the state government to do
something.

Let us look at some of the key features of federalism:

(i) There are two or more levels (or tiers) of government.

(ii) Different tiers of government govern the same citizens, but each tier has its own
JURISDICTION in a specific matter of legislation, taxation and administration.
(iii) The jurisdictions of the respective levels or tiers of government are specified in the
Constitution.
(iv) The fundamental provisions of the Constitution cannot be unilaterally changed by one
level of government.
(v) Courts have the power to interpret the Constitution and the powers of different levels of
government.
(vi) Sources of revenue for each level of government are clearly specified to ensure its
financial autonomy.
(vii) The federal system thus has dual objectives: to safeguard and promote the unity of the
country, while at the same time accommodate regional diversities.
(viii) There are two kinds of routes through which federations have been formed.
a) The first route involves independent States coming together on their own to form a bigger
unit so that by pooling sovereignty and retaining identity they can increase their security.
This is ‘coming together’ federations.
b) The second route is where a large country decides to divide its power between the
constituent States and the national government. This is ‘holding together’ federations.

What makes India a federal country?

1. The constitution declared India as the Union of States.

2. The Constitution originally provided for a two-tier system of government, the Union
Government or what we call the Central Government, representing the Union of India and
the State government.
3. Later the third tier of federalism was added in the form of Panchayats and municipalities.
4. The Constitution contains three lists:
I) Union Lists includes subjects of national importance such as defence of the country,
foreign affairs, banking, communications and currency.
II) State Lists contains subjects of States and local importance such as police, trade,
commerce, agriculture and irrigation.
III) Concurrent List includes subjects of common interest to both the Union Governments,
such as education, forest, trade unions, marriage, adoption and succession.

How is federalism practiced?

1. Constitutional provisions are necessary for the success of federalism but these are not
sufficient.
2. The real success of federalism in India can be attributed to the nature of democracy
politics in our country.

Linguistic States:
1. The creation of linguistic states was the first and a major test for democratic politics in our
country.
2. Many old States have vanished and many new States been created.
3. In 1947, the boundaries of several old states of India were changed in order to create new
States.
4. This was done to ensure that people who spoke the same language lived in the same States.
5. When the demand for the formation of States on the basis of language was raised, some
national leaders feared that it would lead to the disintegration of the country.

Language Policy:

1. The second test for Indian Federation is the language policy.

2. Our Constitution did not give the status of national language to any one language.
3. Hindi was identified as the official language.
4. According to the Constitution, the use of English for official purposes was to stop in 1965.
5. The central government responded by agreeing to continue the use of English along with
Hindi for official purposes.
6. Promotion does not mean that the Central Government can impose Hindi on states where
people speak a different language.

Centre-state relation:

1. Restructuring the centre-state relations is one more way in which federalism has been
strengthened in practice.
2. In 1990 there was the rise of regional political parties in many States of the country.
3. This was also the beginning of the era of COALITION GOVERNMENT at the Centre.
4. Since no single party got a clear majority in the Lok Sabha, the major national parties had
led to enter into an alliance with many parties.
5. This led to a new culture of power sharing and respect for the autonomy of State
Government.
6. Thus, federal power sharing is more effective today than it was in the early years after the
Constitution came into force.

Decentralization in India:

1. We noted above that federal government has two or more tiers of government.
2. But a vast country like India cannot be run only through these two-tiers.
3. Federal power sharing in India needs another tier of government
4. This resulted in a third-tier if the government called local government.
5. When power is taken away from Central and State government, it is called
decentralisation.
6. As the local level, it is possible for the people to directly participate in decision making.
7. A major step towards decentralisation was taken in 1992.
8. The rural local government is popularly known by the name panchayati raj.
9. This is a council consisting of several ward members, often called panch, and a president
or sarpanch.
10. They are directly elected by all the adult population living in that ward or village.
11. It is the decision-making body for the entire village.
12. All the panchayat Samiti or mandals in a district together constitute the Zilla Parishad.
13. Local government bodies exist for urban areas as well.
14. Big cities are constituted into municipal corporations.
15. This new system of local government is the largest experiment in democracy conducted
anywhere in the world.
 Chapter 4
Gender, Religion and Caste

 Gender and Politics

 Gender Division refers to the discrimination against women that considers women as
inferior to men and incapable of doing certain tasks considered to be the preserve of men.
 A sexual division of labour is experienced in human society. Very little contribution of
women is seen in public life, especially politics.
 Political expression of gender division and political mobilisation has helped improve
women’s role in public life.
 Women in India face disadvantage, discrimination and oppression in various ways.
 The literacy rate among women is only 54% compared to 76% among men. Similarly,
a smaller proportion of girl students go for higher studies.
 The proportion of women among the highly paid and valued jobs is still very small.
 The Equal Wages Act provides that equal wages should be paid for equal work.
However, in most areas of work, women are paid less than men, even when both do
exactly the same work.
 Sex-selective abortion in India has led to a decline in child sex ratio (number of girl
children per thousand boys) in the country to merely 927.
 Various kinds of harassment, exploitation and violence against women is reported in
both the public and the private sphere.
 Women’s Political Representation
 In India, the proportion of women in legislature has been very low. The percentage of
elected women members in the Lok Sabha is 10 % of its total strength. Their share in the
state assemblies is less than 5 %.
 Under the Panchayati Raj system, one-third of seats in panchayats and municipalities are now
reserved for women.
 Women organizations and activists have been demanding a similar reservation of at least
one-third seats in the Lok Sabha and the State Assemblies for women. This proposal has
been pending before the government for more than a decade.
 Religion and Politics
 Religious differences are often expressed in the field of politics.
 Gandhi believed that religion can never be separated from politics. Most victims of
communal riots in our country are people from religious minorities. They have demanded
that the government take special steps for protecting religious minorities.
 Women’s movement demands that the family laws of all religions should not discriminate
against women.
 People should be able to express in politics their needs, interests and demands as a member
of a religious community.
 Communalism
 Is based on the idea that religion is the principal basis of social community.
 Followers of a particular religion must belong to one community with the same
fundamental interests.
 Communalism can take many forms in politics.
 Religious prejudices, stereotypes of religious communities and belief in the
superiority of one’s religion over other religions are commonly experienced.
 Communalism demands dominance of one’s own religious community. For those
belonging to majority community, this takes the form of majoritarian dominance.
For those belonging to the minority community, it can take the form of a desire to
form a separate political unit.
 Political mobilization on religious lines that involves special appeal to the interests
or emotions of voters of one religion in preference to others.
 Communalism can take the form of communal violence, riots and massacre.
 Secular State
 India is a secular state because:
 There is no official religion of the Indian State
 The Constitution provides to all individuals and communities freedom to profess,
practice and propagate any religion, or not to follow any
 The Constitution prohibits discrimination on grounds of religion
 The Constitution allows the state to intervene in the matters of religion in order
to ensure equality within religious communities
 Caste Inequalities
 Caste division is special to India. Caste system was based on exclusion of and discrimination
against the ‘outcaste’ groups. They were subjected to the inhuman practice of
untouchability.
 With economic development, large scale urbanisation, growth of literacy and education,
occupational mobility and the weakening of the position of landlords in the villages, the old
notions of caste hierarchy are breaking down.
 The Constitution of India prohibited any caste-based discrimination and laid the foundations
of policies for reversing the injustices of the caste system.
 Even now most people marry within their own caste or tribe. Untouchability has not ended
completely, despite constitutional prohibition.
 Caste in Politics
 Caste can take various forms in politics.
 When parties choose candidates in elections, they keep in mind the caste
composition of the electorate and nominate candidates from different castes so as
to muster necessary support for winning elections.
 When governments are formed, political parties usually take care about the
representatives of different castes and tribes to find a place in it.
  During elections, political parties and candidates make appeals to caste sentiment
to muster support. Some political parties are known to favour some castes and are
seen as their representatives.
 Universal adult franchise and the principle of one-person-one-vote compelled
political leaders to gear up for the task of mobilising and securing political
support. It also brought new consciousness among the low caste people.
 The Indian Constitution is however not caste biased.
 No parliamentary constituency in the country has a clear majority of one single
caste. Hence, every candidate and party needs to win the confidence of more than
one caste and community to win elections.
 No party wins the votes of all the voters of a caste or community. Caste as a ‘vote
bank’ of one party usually means that a large proportion of the voters from that
caste vote for that party.
 Many political parties may put up candidates from the same caste (if that caste is
believed to dominate the electorate in a particular constituency). Some voters
have more than one candidate from their caste, while many voters have no
candidate from their caste.
 The ruling party and the sitting MP or MLA frequently lose elections in our
country. That could not have happened if all castes and communities were frozen
in their political preferences.
 Politics in Caste
 Each caste group tries to become bigger by incorporating within it neighbouring castes or
sub-castes which were earlier excluded from it.
 Various caste groups enter into coalitions with other castes or communities and thus enter
into a dialogue and negotiation.
 New kinds of caste groups have come up in the political arena such as the ‘backward’ and
‘forward’ caste groups.
 Revision Notes
Chapter - 6
Political Parties

Overview

1. In class IX, we noticed the role of political parties in the rise of democracies, in the
formation of constitutional designs, in electoral politics and in the making and working of
government.
2. Before we concluding this tour, let us take a close look at the nature and working of
political parties, especially in our country.

Why do we need political parties?

1. Political parties are easily one of the most visible institutions in a democracy.
2. Parties have become identified with social and political divisions.
3. About hundred years ago there were a few countries of the world that had any political
party: Now there are few that do not have parties.

Meaning:

1. A political party is a group of people who come together to contest elections and hold
power in the government.
2. They agree on some policies and programs for the society with a view to promoting the
collective good.
3. Parties reflect fundamental political divisions in a society. Parties are a part of the society
and thus involve PARTNERSHIP.
4. A political party has three components:
I) The leaders,
II) The active members and
III) The followers

Functions:
Basically, political parties fill political offices and exercise political power. Parties do so by
performing a series of functions:
(i) Parties contest elections. In most democracies, elections are fought mainly among the
candidates put up by political parties.
(ii) Parties put forward different policies and programmes and the voters choose from them.
(iii) Parties play a decisive role in making laws for a country. Formally, laws are debated and
passed in the legislature.
(iv) Parties form and run the government. As we noted last year, the big policy decisions are
taken by the political executive that comes from the political parties.
(v) Those parties that lose in the elections play the role of opposition to the parties in power,
by voicing different views and criticizing the government for its failures or wrong policies.
(vi) Parties shape public opinion. They raise and highlight issues. Parties have lakhs of
members and activists spread all over the country.
(vii) Parties provide people access to government machinery and welfare schemes
implemented by governments.

Necessity

1. We need political parties because they perform all these functions.

2. The rise of political parties is directly linked to the emergence of representative
democracies.
3. As we have seen, large scale societies need representative democracies.
4. Political parties fulfill these needs that every representative government has.

How many parties should we have?

1. In a democracy, any group of citizens is free to form the political party.

2. In this formal sense, there are a large number of political parties in each country.
3. More than 750 parties are registered with the Election Commission of India.
4. In some countries, only one party is allowed to control and run the government. These are
called one-party system.
5. In class IX, we noted that in China, only the Communist Party is allowed to rule.
6. We cannot consider one party system as a good option because this is not a democratic
option.
7. Any democratic system must allow at least two parties to compete in the election and
provide a fair chance for the competing parties to come to the power.
8. In some countries, power usually changes between two main parties.
9. But only the two main parties have a serious chance of winning the majority of seats to
form the government. Such a party system is called two-party system.
10. If several parties compete for power, and more than two parties have a reasonable
chance of coming to power either on their own strength or in alliance with others, we call it
multi-party system.
11. When several parties in a multi-party system join hands for the purpose of contesting
elections and winning power, it is called an alliance or a front.
12. The multi-party system often appears very messy and leads to political instability.
13. At the same time, this system allows a variety of interests and opinions to enjoy political
representation.

National political parties

1. Democracies that follow a federal system all over the world tend to have two kinds of
political parties: parties that are present in only one of the federal units and parties that are
present in several or all units of Federation.
2. Every party in the country has to register with the Election Commission. While the Election
Commission treats all parties equally it offers some special facilities to large and established
parties.
3. Parties that get this privilege and some other special facilities are ‘recognised’ by the
Election Commission for this purpose. That is why these parties are called, ‘recognised
political parties’.
4. According to this classification, there were six national recognised parties in the country in
2006. These are:
I) Indian National Congress
II) Bharatiya Janta Party
III) Bahujan Samaj Party
IV) Communist Party of Indian-Marxist
V) Communist Party of India
VI) Nationalist Congress Party

State party
1. Other than these six parties, most of the major parties of the country are classified by the
Election Commission as ‘State parties’.
2. Parties like the
I) Samajwadi party,
II) Samata party and Rashtriya Janta Dal have national level political organization with units
in several states.

3. Some of these parties like Biju Janta Dal, Sikkim Democratic Front and Mizo national Front
are conscious about their state identity.
4. Over the last three decades, the number and strength of these parties has expanded.

Challenges to political parties

1. All over the world, people express strong dissatisfaction with the failure of political parties
to perform their functions as well.
2. The first challenge is lack of internal democracy within parties. All over the world there is
a tendency in political parties towards the concentration of power in one or few leaders at
the top.
3. The leaders assume greater power to make decisions in the name of the party.
4. Since one or few leaders exercise paramount power in the party, those who disagree with
the leadership find it difficult to continue in the party.
5. The second challenge of the dynastic succession is related to the first one. Since most
political parties do not practice open and transparent procedures for their functioning, there
are very few ways for an ordinary worker to rise to the top in a party.
6. The third challenge is about the growing role of money and muscle power in parties,
especially during elections.
7. Rich people and companies who give funds to the parties tend to have influence on the
policies and decisions of the parties tend to have influence on the policies and decision of the
party.
8. In some cases, parties support criminals who can win elections.
9. The fourth challenge is that very often parties do not seem to offer a meaningful choice to
the voters.

How can parties be reformed?

1. Let us look at some of the recent efforts and suggestions in our country to reform political
parties and its leaders:
I) The Constitution was amended to prevent elected MLAs and MPs from changing parties.
This was done because many elected representatives were indulging in DEFECTION in order
to become ministers or for cash rewards.
II) The Supreme Court passed an order to reduce the influence of money and criminals.
III) The Election Commission passed an order making it necessary for political parties to hold
their organizational elections and file their income tax returns.

Besides these, many suggestions are often made to reform political parties:
I) A law should be made to regulate the internal affairs of political parties. It should be made
compulsory for political parties to maintain a register of its members.
II) It should be made mandatory for political parties to give a minimum number of tickets,
about one-third, to women candidates.
III) There should be state funding of elections. The government should give parties money to
support their elections expenses.

2. These suggestions have not yet been accepted by political parties.

3. There are two other ways in which political parties can be reformed.
4. One, people can put pressure on political parties. This can be done through petition,
publicity, and agitation.
 Revision Notes
Chapter - 7
Outcomes of Democracy

Overview

1. We begin by thinking about how to access the outcomes of democracy.

2. After some clarity on how to think on this subject, we proceed to look at the expected and
actual outcomes of democracy in various respects.
3. Our final verdict – positive but qualified.

How do we access democracy’s outcomes?

1. Democracy is the better form of government when compared with dictatorship or any
other alternative.
2. We felt that democracy was better because of it:
I) Promotes equally among citizens;
II) Enhances the dignity of the individual;
III) Improves the quality of decision – making;
IV) Provides a method to resolve conflicts; and
V) Allows room to correct mistakes.
3. We face a dilemma: democracy is seen to be good in principle but felt to be not so good in
its practice.
4. This dilemma invites us to think hard about the outcomes of the democracy.
5. Our interest in and fascination for democracy often push us into taking a position that
democracy can address all socio-economic and political problem.
6. The first step towards thinking carefully about the outcomes of democracy is to recognise
that democracy is just a form of government.

Accountable, responsive and legitimate government:

1. The most basic outcome of democracy should be that it produces a government that is
accountable to the citizens, and responsive to the needs and expectations of the citizens.
2. Democracy is based on the idea of deliberation and negotiation.
3. Democracy ensures that decision-making will be based on norms and procedures.
4. The right and the means to examine the process of decision-making known as
transparency.
5. Democratic governments do not have a very good record when it comes to sharing
information with citizens.
6. In substantive terms, it may be reasonable to expect from democracy a government that is
attentive to the needs and demands of the people and is largely free to corruption.
7. The record of democracies is not impressive on these two counts.
8. There is one respect in which democratic government is certainly better than its
alternatives: the democratic government is the legitimate government.
9. People wish to be ruled by representatives elected by them. They also believe that
democracy is suitable for their country.

Economic growth and development:

1. The inability of democracy to achieve higher economic development worries us. But this
alone cannot be the reason to reject democracy.
2. The difference in the rates of economic development between less developed countries
with dictatorships and democracies is negligible.
3. We cannot say that democracy is a guarantee of economic development.
4. But we can expect democracy not to lag behind dictatorships in this respect.

Reduction of inequality and poverty:

1. Perhaps more than development, it is reasonable to expect democracies to reduce

economic disparities.
2. A small number of ultra-rich enjoy a highly disproportionate share of wealth and incomes.
3. Not only that, their share in the total income of the country has been increasing.
4. In actual life, democracies do not appear to be very successful in reducing economic
inequalities.

Accommodation of social diversity:

1. It will be fair expectation that democracy should produce a harmonious social life.
2. Ability to handle social differences, divisions, and conflicts is thus a definite plus point of
democratic regimes.
3. Two conditions in order to achieve the outcome:
I) It is necessary to understand that democracy is not simply rule by majority opinion.
II) It is also necessary that rule by the majority does not become rule by majority community
in terms of religion or race or linguistic groups.

Dignity and freedom of the citizens:

1. Democracy stands much superior to any other form of government in promoting dignity
and freedom of the individual.
2. The passion for respect and freedom are the basis of democracy.
3. This has been achieved in various degrees in various democracies.
4. Most societies across the world were historically male dominated societies.
5. Long struggles by women have created some sensitivity today that respect to and equal
treatment of women are necessary ingredients of a democratic society.
6. Democracy in India has strengthened the claims of the disadvantaged and discriminated
castes for equal status and equal opportunity.
7. Expectations from democracy also function as the criteria for judging and democratic
country.
8. As people get some benefits of democracy, they ask for more and want to make democracy
even better.
9. Most individuals today believe that their vote makes a difference to the way the
government is run and to their own self-interest.
 Revision Notes
Class 10 - Social Science (Geography)
Chapter 1 - Resources and Development

Everything that our environment provides us, that is economically feasible,

culturally acceptable, and technologically accessible are called ‘Resources.’
It forms an interactive relationship between nature, technology, and institutions
which aid the acceleration of economic development.
Human beings are a part of resources as they themselves utilize these resources and
use them. They are a part of human resources.
The resources can be classified on the following basis:
(a) On the basis of origin – biotic and abiotic
(b) On the basis of exhaustibility – renewable and non-renewable
(c) On the basis of ownership – individual, community, national and international
(d) On the basis of the status of development – potential, developed stock and
reserves.

Types of Resources
1. On the basis of origin
I. Biotic
Obtained from the biospheres such as flora, fauna, fisheries etc.

II. Abiotic
Obtained from non-living resources such as rocks and metals.

[Link] the basis of exhaustibility

I. Renewable
● These resources are the ones that can replenish once they are exhausted.
● Example: solar energy, wind energy

II. Non-renewable
● Once exhausted these resources cannot replenish themselves again. If
we consume them completely without planning we can lose them
forever.
● Example: fossil fuels
3. On the basis of ownership
I. Individual
● Owned privately by individuals
● Example: Plantation, pasture lands

II. Community
● All the members of the community can access these resources
● Example: Grazing grounds, burial grounds

III. National
● All the resources belong to the nation and the country has legal
autonomy over them.
● Private property can be acquired by the government for the public good.

IV. International
● The oceanic resources beyond 200 nautical miles of the Exclusive
Economic Zone belong to the open ocean.
● No individual country is allowed to utilize these without prior
permission from international organizations.

4. On the basis of the status of development

I. Potential
● Resources that are found in a region, but have not been utilized to their
full potential are termed as potential resources.
o Example: Rajasthan and Gujarat have enormous potential for the
development of wind and solar energy, but so far these resources
have not been utilized properly.

II. Developed
● Resources whose quality and quantity have been determined for
utilization are termed as developed resources.
● The extent to which these resources are utilized depends on technology
and the level of their feasibility.
III. Stock
● Resources that are available in the nature to be used but human beings
don’t have the right equipment and technology to utilize these
resources.
● Example: Water can be broken down to extract hydrogen and oxygen.
Hydrogen is a great source of energy but we don’t know how to carry
out this process on a large scale.

IV. Reserves
● Human civilization has proper technology to utilize these resources but
a further development of technology is required to exploit these
resources to their fullest potential.
● Example: Hydropower is being generated from water and hence only
put out for limited use.

Development of resources
Human beings have excessively exploited resources which has led to following
problems:
● Depletion of resources for satisfying the greed of a few individuals.
● Accumulation of resources in few hands which has created two class of
people, i.e. haves and have nots or rich and poor.
● Indiscriminate exploitation of resources has led to global ecological
crises such as, global warming, ozone layer depletion, environmental
pollution and land degradation

Sustainable Development
● Development that takes place without over-exploiting the nature is
termed as sustainable development.
● It focuses on the idea that ‘the development in the present should not
compromise with the needs of the future generations.’
● Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit, held in June 1992 was a global submit
where more than 100 heads of states met in Rio de Janeiro in Brazil, for
the first International Earth Summit.
● The Summit was convened for addressing urgent problems of
environmental protection and socioeconomic development at the global
level.
 ● A declaration was signed by the global leaders on Global Climatic
Change and Biological Diversity.
● The Rio Convention endorsed the global Forest Principles and adopted
Agenda 21 for achieving Sustainable Development in the 21st century.
○ It aimed at achieving global sustainable development.
● It is an agenda which aims at combating environmental damage,
poverty, disease through global co-operation on common interests,
mutual needs and shared responsibilities.
● One major objective of the Agenda 21 is that every local government
should draw its own local Agenda 21.

Resource planning in India

● Planning is the widely accepted strategy for judicious use of resources
as there are certain areas that have sufficient resources while others
don't have enough.
● For example, the states of Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh and Madhya
Pradesh are rich in minerals and coal deposits. Arunachal Pradesh has
abundance of water resources but lacks in infrastructural development.
● The state of Rajasthan is very well endowed with solar and wind energy
but lacks in water resources.
● The cold desert of Ladakh is isolated from the rest of the country. It has
extraordinarily rich cultural heritage but it is deficient in water,
infrastructure, and some vital minerals.
Resource planning is a complex process which involves:
(i) Identification and inventory of resources across the regions of the country. This
involves surveying, mapping and qualitative and quantitative estimation and
measurement of the resources.
(ii) Evolving a planning structure endowed with appropriate technology, skill and
institutional set up for implementing resource development plans.
(iii) Matching the resource development plans with overall national development
plans.

Land Resources
They form a major share of resources that mankind has.
Land utilization
Land resources are used for the following purposes:
1. Forests
2. Land not available for cultivation
(a) Barren and waste land
(b) Land put to non-agricultural uses, e.g. buildings, roads, factories, etc.
3. Other uncultivated land (excluding fallow land)
(a) Permanent pastures and grazing land,
(b) Land under miscellaneous tree crops groves (not included in net sown
area),
(c) Culturable waste land (left uncultivated for more than 5 agricultural years).
4. Fallow lands
(a) Current fallow-(left without cultivation for one or less than one agricultural
year),
(b) Other than current fallow-(left uncultivated for the past 1 to 5 agricultural
years).
5. Net sown area: Area sown more than once in an agricultural year plus net sown
area is known as gross cropped area.

Land Use Pattern in India

● The use of land is determined both by physical factors such as
topography, climate, soil types as well as human factors such as
population density, technological capability and culture and traditions
● The land under permanent pasture has also decreased.
● The pattern of net sown area varies greatly from one state to another. It
is over 80 per cent of the total area in Punjab and Haryana and less than
10 per cent in Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Manipur and Andaman
Nicobar Islands.
● Forest area in the country is far lower than the desired 33 per cent of
geographical area, that was stated in the National Forest Policy (1952).
● A part of the land is termed as waste land and land put to other non-
agricultural uses.
● Waste land includes rocky, arid and desert areas and land put to other
non-agricultural uses includes settlements, roads, railways, industry
etc.

Land Degradation and Conservation Patterns

● Human activities like deforestation, over grazing, mining and
 quarrying, excessively for a very long period of time over an area can
lead to land degradation.
● Mining sites are abandoned after excavation work is complete and
leaves deep scars and traces of over-burdening.
● In states like Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh and Odisha
deforestation due to mining have caused severe land degradation.
● In other states like Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and
Maharashtra overgrazing is a major contributor for land degradation.
● In the states of Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh, over irrigation
is responsible for land degradation which occurs due to water logging
leading to increase in salinity and alkalinity in the soil.
● The mineral processing like grinding of limestone for cement industry
and calcite and soapstone for ceramic industry generate huge quantity
of dust in the atmosphere. It retards the process of infiltration of water
into the soil after it settles down on the land.

Conservation
● Afforestation or planting of more trees and proper management of
grazing can help to control land degradation.
● Planting of shelter belts of plants, stabilisation of sand dunes by
growing thorny bushes are some of the methods to check land
degradation in arid areas.
● Proper management of waste lands, control of mining activities, proper
discharge and disposal of industrial effluents and wastes after treatment
can reduce land and water degradation in industrial and suburban areas.

Types of soil
1. Alluvial Soils
● Himalayan river system- the Indus, Brahmaputra and Ganga carry
sediments with them and form the regions of alluvial deposits. The
entire northern plains are made of alluvial soil.
● These soils also extend in Rajasthan and Gujarat through a narrow
corridor.
● Alluvial soil is also found in the eastern coastal plains particularly in
the deltas of the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Kaveri
rivers.
● This type of soil has various proportions of sand, silt and clay.
 ● According to their age alluvial soils can be classified as old alluvial
(Bangar) and new alluvial (Khadar).
● The bangar soil has higher concentration of kanker nodules and has
more fine particles and is more fertile than the bangar.
● Alluvial soil is highly fertile and has adequate proportions of potash,
phosphoric acid and lime which are ideal for the growth of sugarcane,
paddy, wheat and other cereal and pulse crops.

2. Black Soil
● It is black in colour and is also known as regur soil.
● Black soil is ideal for growing cotton and is also known as black cotton
soil and is made up of lava flows.
● This type of soil is found in the Deccan trap (Basalt) region and is
spread over northwest Deccan plateau.
● They cover the plateaus of Maharashtra, Saurashtra, Malwa, Madhya
Pradesh and Chhattisgarh and extend in the south east direction along
the Godavari and the Krishna valleys.
● They are made up of clayey material. They retain moisture and are rich
in soil nutrients, such as calcium carbonate, magnesium, potash and
lime
● They develop deep cracks during hot weather, which promotes aeration
of the soil but do get sticky when wet and difficult to work on.

3. Red and Yellow Soils

● Red soil develops on crystalline igneous rocks in areas of low rainfall
in the eastern and southern parts of the Deccan plateau.
● Yellow and red soils are also found in parts of Odisha, Chhattisgarh,
southern parts of the middle Ganga plain and along the piedmont zone
of the Western Ghats.

4. Laterite Soil
● The laterite soil develops under tropical and subtropical climate with
alternate wet and dry season.
● Lateritic soils are acidic (pH<6.0), and deficient in plant nutrients.
● They occur in southern states, Western Ghats region of Maharashtra,
Odisha, some parts of West Bengal and North-east regions.
 5. Arid Soils
● Arid soils range from red to brown in colour.
● Are sandy in texture and saline in nature.
● The soil lacks humus and moisture.
● The lower horizons of the soil are occupied by Kankar because of the
increasing calcium content downwards and it restricts infiltration.

6. Forest Soils
● The soils texture varies according to the mountain environment where
they are formed.
● They are loamy and silty in valley sides and coarse grained in the upper
slopes.

Soil Erosion and Soil Conservation

● The denudation of the soil cover and subsequent washing down is
described as soil erosion.
● Soil formation and soil erosion go hand in hand but if it goes beyond
control then can lead to disastrous outcomes.
● Activities like deforestation, overgrazing, construction and mining etc.,
and natural forces like wind, glacier and water lead to soil erosion cause
a lot of soil erosion.
● The running water cuts through the clayey soils and makes deep
channels as gullies and makes land unfit for cultivation and is known
as bad land.
● In the Chambal basin such lands are called ravines.
● Sometimes water flows as a sheet over large areas down a slope. In such
cases the top soil is washed away. This is known as sheet erosion.
● Ploughing along the contour lines can decelerate the flow of water
down the slopes. This is called contour ploughing.
● Steps can be cut out on the slopes making terraces. Terrace cultivation
restricts erosion. In this steps are cut down to create terraces which
helps to retain water.
● Large fields can be divided into strips. Strips of grass are left to grow
between the crops. This breaks up the force of the wind. This method
is known as strip cropping.
● Planting lines of trees to create shelter also works in a similar way.
Rows of such trees are called shelter belts. These shelter belts have
 contributed significantly to the stabilisation of sand dunes and in
stabilising the desert in western India.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. Define resources. Give examples of any two renewable resources.

Ans: Everything that our environment provides us, that is economically feasible,
culturally acceptable, and technologically accessible are called ‘Resources.’
It forms an interactive relationship between nature, technology, and institutions
which aid the acceleration of economic development.
Human beings are a part of resources as they themselves as they utilize these
resources and use them. They are a part of human resources.
The resources can be classified on the following basis:
(a) On the basis of origin – biotic and abiotic
(b) On the basis of exhaustibility – renewable and non-renewable
(c) On the basis of ownership – individual, community, national and international
(d) On the basis of the status of development – potential, developed stock and
reserves.
Two examples of renewable resources are solar energy and wind energy.

2. Give classification of resources.

Ans: The resources can be classified as follows:
On the basis of origin
Biotic:Obtained from the biospheres such as flora, fauna, fisheries etc.
Abiotic: Obtained from non-living resources such as rocks and metals.

On the basis of exhaustibility

Renewable :These resources are the ones that can replenish once they are exhausted.
Example: solar energy, wind energy
Non-renewable: Once exhausted these resources cannot replenish themselves
again. If we consume them completely without planning we can lose them forever.
Example: fossil fuels

On the basis of ownership

Individual: Owned privately by individuals
Example: Plantation, pasture lands
Community: All the members of the community can access these resources
 Example: Grazing grounds, burial grounds
National: All the resources belong to the nation and the country has legal autonomy
over them. Private property can be acquired by the government for the public good.

International: The oceanic resources beyond 200 nautical miles of the Exclusive
Economic Zone belong to the open ocean. No individual country is allowed to utilize
these without prior permission from international organizations.

On the basis of the status of development

Potential: Resources that are found in a region, but have not been utilized to their
full potential are termed as potential resources.
Example: Rajasthan and Gujarat have enormous potential for the
development of wind and solar energy, but so far these resources have
not been utilized properly.

Developed: Resources whose quality and quantity have been determined for
utilization are termed as developed resources. The extent to which these resources
are utilized depends on technology and the level of their feasibility.

Stock: Resources that are available in the nature to be used but human beings don’t
have the right equipment and technology to utilize these resources.
Example: Water can be broken down to extract hydrogen and oxygen.
Hydrogen is a great source of energy but we don’t know how to carry out this
process on a large scale.

3. Explain the classification of resources on the basis of ownership with

examples of each.
Ans: On the basis of ownership the resources can be divided into:
Individual: Owned privately by individuals
Example: Plantation, pasture lands
Community: All the members of the community can access these resources
Example: Grazing grounds, burial grounds
National: All the resources belong to the nation and the country has legal autonomy
over them. Private property can be acquired by the government for the public good.

International: The oceanic resources beyond 200 nautical miles of the Exclusive
Economic Zone belong to the open ocean. No individual country is allowed to utilize
these without prior permission from international organizations.

4. What is meant by the term ‘sustainable economic development’?

Ans: Development that takes place without over-exploiting the nature is termed as
sustainable development. It focuses on the idea that ‘the development in the present
should not compromise with the needs of the future generations.’

5. Explain briefly about the ‘Agenda 21’?

Ans: Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit, held in June 1992 was a global submit where
more than 100 heads of states met in Rio de Janeiro in Brazil, for the first
International Earth Summit. The Summit was convened for addressing urgent
problems of environmental protection and socioeconomic development at the global
level. A declaration was signed by the global leaders on Global Climatic Change and
Biological Diversity. The Rio Convention endorsed the global Forest Principles and
adopted Agenda 21 for achieving Sustainable Development in the 21st century. It
aimed at achieving global sustainable development.
It is an agenda which aims at combating environmental damage, poverty, disease
through global co-operation on common interests, mutual needs and shared
responsibilities. One major objective of the Agenda 21 is that every local
government should draw its own local Agenda 21.

6. Write a note on black soil. Give examples of three states that have black soil.
Ans: It is black in colour and is also known as regur soil. Black soil is ideal for
growing cotton and is also known as black cotton soil and is made up of lava flows.
This type of soil is found in the Deccan trap (Basalt) region and is spread over
northwest Deccan plateau. They are made up of clayey material. They retain
moisture and are rich in soil nutrients, such as calcium carbonate, magnesium, potash
and lime. They develop deep cracks during hot weather, which promotes aeration of
the soil but do get sticky when wet and difficult to work on.
They cover the plateaus of Maharashtra, Saurashtra, Malwa, Madhya Pradesh and
Chhattisgarh and extend in the south east direction along the Godavari and the
Krishna valleys.

7. What are the different types of soil erosion?

Ans: The follow are different types of soil erosion:
 1. Gully erosion: The running water cuts through the clayey soils and makes
deep channels as gullies and makes land unfit for cultivation and is known as
bad land.

2. Sheet erosion: Sometimes water flows as a sheet over large areas down a
slope. In such cases the top soil is washed away. This is known as sheet
erosion.

3. Wind erosion: When the top fertile layer of soil gets eroded by wind then it is
called as wind erosion. Planting trees can help to reduce soil erosion by wind.

8. Mention the factors that determine land use in India.

Ans: The use of land is determined both by physical factors such as topography,
climate, soil types as well as human factors such as population density, technological
capability and culture and traditions. The land under permanent pasture has also
decreased.
The pattern of net sown area varies greatly from one state to another. It is over 80
per cent of the total area in Punjab and Haryana and less than 10 per cent in
Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Manipur and Andaman Nicobar Islands.
Forest area in the country is far lower than the desired 33 per cent of geographical
area, that was stated in the National Forest Policy (1952). A part of the land is termed
as waste land and land put to other non-agricultural uses.
Waste land includes rocky, arid and desert areas and land put to other non-
agricultural uses includes settlements, roads, railways, industry etc.

9. “Resource planning is essential for sustainable development.” Elaborate

Ans: Planning is the widely accepted strategy for judicious use of resources as there
are certain areas that have sufficient resources while others don't have enough.
For example, the states of Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh are rich in
minerals and coal deposits. Arunachal Pradesh has abundance of water resources but
lacks in infrastructural development. The state of Rajasthan is very well endowed
with solar and wind energy but lacks in water resources. The cold desert of Ladakh
is isolated from the rest of the country. It has extraordinarily rich cultural heritage
but it is deficient in water, infrastructure, and some vital minerals.
Resource planning is a complex process which involves:
(i) Identification and inventory of resources across the regions of the country. This
involves surveying, mapping and qualitative and quantitative estimation and
measurement of the resources.
(ii) Evolving a planning structure endowed with appropriate technology, skill and
institutional set up for implementing resource development plans.
(iii) Matching the resource development plans with overall national development
plans.

10. What are the different types of soil found in India?

Ans: The different types of soil found in India are:
I. Alluvial soil
II. Laterite soil
III. Red and yellow soil
IV. Arid soil
V. Forest and mountainous soil
VI. Black soil
Characteristics of alluvial soil:
● This type of soil has various proportions of sand, silt and clay.
● According to their age alluvial soils can be classified as old alluvial
(Bangar) and new alluvial (Khadar). The bangar soil has higher
concentration of kanker nodules and has more fine particles and is more
fertile than the bangar.
● Alluvial soil is highly fertile and has adequate proportions of potash,
phosphoric acid and lime which are ideal for the growth of sugarcane,
paddy, wheat and other cereal and pulse crops.
 Revision Notes
Chapter-2
Forest and Wildlife Resources

We humans along with all living organism form a complex web of ecological system in which
we are only a part and very much dependent on this system for our own existence. For
example, the plants, animals and microorganism recreate the quality of the air we breathe.

Flora And Fauna in India:

1. India is one of the world’s richest countries in terms of its vast array of biological diversity
and has nearly 8 per cent of the total number of species in the world.

2. This is possibly twice or twice or thrice the number yet to be discovered.

3. These diverse flora and fauna are so well integrated into our daily life that we take these
for granted.

4. They are under great stress mainly due to insensitivity to our environment.

5. That at least 10 per cent of India’s recorded wild flora and 20 per cent of its mammals are
on the threatened list.

Categorisation of Species

Normal Species: Species whose population levels are considered to be normal for their
survival, such as cattle, Sal, pine, rodents, etc.,

Endangered Species: These are species which are in danger of extinction the survival of
such species is difficult if the negative factor that has led to a decline in their population
continue to operate.

Vulnerable Species: These are species whose population has declined to levels from where
it is likely to move into the endangered category in the near future if the negative factors
continue to operate.
Rare Species: Species with a small population may move into the endangered or vulnerable
category if the negative factors affecting them continue to operate.

Endemic Species: These are species which are only found in some particular areas usually
isolated by natural or geographical barriers.

Extinct Species: These are species which are not found after searches of known or likely
areas where they may occur.

Conservation: Protection of the natural environment to prevent it from further

deterioration.

IUCN: The International Union for Conservation of nature and natural resources is the
worlds oldest and largest global environmental organisation, founded in1948. it is also called
the world conservation union.

What are the negative factors that cause such fearful depletion of the flora and fauna:

1. We have transformed nature into a resource obtaining directly and indirectly from the
forest and wildlife.

2. It is we ourselves who have depleted our forest and wildlife.

3. The major causes of depletion of forest resources between 1951 and 1980 accordingly to
the forest survey of India over 26,[Link]

4. The Large scale development project has also contributed significantly to the loss of forest.

5. 1951, over 5,000 sq km forest was cleared for river valley project.

6. Narmada Sagar project in Madhya Pradesh which would inundate 40,000 hectares of
forest.

7. These protected areas thus mean different things to different people and therein lies the
fertile ground for conflicts.

8. Habitat destruction, hunting, poaching over – exploitation, environmental pollution

poisoning and forest fires are factors.
9. Over population in third world countries is often cited as the cause of environmental
degradation.

10. American consumes 40 times more resources than an average Somalian.

11. The richest five per cent of India society probably cause more ecological damage because
of the amount they consume than the poorest 25 per cent.

12. The biological loss is strongly correlated with the loss of cultural diversity.

13. Women bear the major responsibility for collection of fuel, fodder, water and other basic
subsistence needs.

14. Poverty, in this case, is a direct outcome of environmental destruction.

15. This is imperative to adapt to sound forest and wildlife conservation strategies.

Conservation of Forest and Wildlife in India:

1. Conservation in the background of a rapid decline in wildlife population and forestry has
become essential.

2. In the 1960s and 1070s conservation demanded a national wildlife protection programme.

3. The Indian Wildlife Act was implemented in 1972 with various provision for protecting
habitats.

4. The central government also announced several projects for protecting specific animals
which were gravely threatened, including the tiger.

5. We have been given full or partial legal protection against hunting and trade throughout
India.

Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act:

1. An act for the conservation of biodiversity of India.

2. Passed in 1972.

3. Contains a list of protected species in the country.

4. The ban on hunting was imposed.

5. Legal protection was provided to the habitats of endangered species.

6. Restriction on trade in wildlife.

7. Established national parks and wildlife sanctuaries throughout the country.

8. Projects such as Project Tiger, Project Elephant etc. that were specific to a particular
species were formulated

9. Project Tiger, Initiated in 1973.

10. Tiger population has dwindled to about 1800 from 55000 in the early 20th century.

Project Tiger:

1. It was launched by the government of India in 1973.

2. To save the endangered species of tiger in the country.

3. The major threats to tiger population are poaching for the trade of tiger skins and bones
which are traditionally used in medicines in Asian Countries.

4. Others threats are a) shrinking habitat b) depletion of prey base species and growing
human population.

5. India and Nepal Became the prime targets for poaching and illegal trading because they
provide natural habitat for two-thirds of the surviving tiger populations.

Major tiger reserve of India are:

1. Corbett national park - Uttarakhand

2. Bandhavgarh National Park - Madhya Pradesh

3. Sunderbans National Parks - West Bengal

4. Sariska wildlife sanctuary - Rajasthan

5. Manas tiger reserve - Assam

6. Periyar tiger reserve - Kerala

7. Nagarjuna Sagar Srigailam Andhra Pradesh tiger reserve ( largest in India)

Types and Distribution of Forest and Wildlife Resources:

Even if we want to conserve our vast forest and wildlife resources, it is rather difficult to
manage, control and regulate them.

1. Reserved Forest: More than half of the total forest land has declared reserved forest are
regarded as the most valuable as far as the conservation of forest and wildlife resources are
concerned.

2. Protected forest: Almost one – third of the total forest of the total forest area is protected
forest, as declared by the Forest Department. This land is protected from any further
depletion.

3. Unclassed Forest: These are other forest and waste lands belonging to both government
and private individuals and communities.

Community and Conservation:

1. We often ignore that in India forests are also home to the traditional communities.

2. In some areas of India local communities are struggling to conserve these habitats along
with government officials recognizing that only this will secure their own long – term
livelihood.

3. The Alwar district of Rajasthan has declared 1,200 hectares.

4. The famous Chipko movement in the Himalayas has not only successfully resisted
deforestation in several areas.

5. Farmers and citizen's groups like the Beej Bachao Andolan in Tehri and Navdanya have
shown that adequate levels of diversified crop production without the use of synthetic.

6. The programme has been in formal existence since 1988 when the state of Orissa passed
the first resolution for joint forest management.
Chipko Movement

1. Started in the 1970s in Garhwal in Uttarakhand.

2. Trees were prevented from being cut by forming a human circle around them.

3. It spread across the country.

Beej Bachao Andolan

1. Started in the 1980s in Tehri region of Uttarakhand.

2. Led by the farmer and social activist Vijay Jardhari.

3. Started in 1988 by the Government of India.

4. First launched in Orissa.

5. Involves local communities for conserving wildlife and restoring degraded forests.

Joint Forest Management:

1. It is launched by various states government.

2. In this programme, village communities are entrusted with the protection and
management of the nearby forest.

3. Areas concerned are usually degraded or even deforested areas.

4. The first state to start this programme was Odisha in 1988.

5. The communities are required to organise forest protection committees, development

societies etc.

6. Each body has an executive committee that manages the day to day affairs.
 Revision Notes
Chapter-3
Water Resources

In the first century B.C. Sringaverapura near Allahabad had sophisticated water
harvesting system channeling the flood water of the river Ganga.
During the time of Chandragupta Mauriya, dams lakes and irrigation systems were
extensively built.
Evidences of sophisticated irrigation works have also been found in Kalinga,
Nagarjuna Konda, Bennur, Kohlapur etc.
In 11th century, Bhopal lake, one of the larest artificial lakes of its time was built.
In 14th century, the tank of HauzKhas, Delhi, was constructed by Iltutmish for
supplying water of Siri Fort area.

WATER RESOURCES
1. We already know that three-fourth of the earth’s surface is covered with water, but only a
small proportion of it accounts for fresh water that can be used.
2. This fresh water is mainly obtained from surface run off and ground water that is
continually being renewed and recharged through the hydrological cycle.
3. All water moves within the hydrological cycle ensuring that water is a renewable
resource.

WATER SCARCITY AND THE NEED FOR WATER CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT:

1. The moment we speak of water shortages, we immediately associate it with regions having
low rainfall or those that are drought prone.
2. The availability of water resources varies over space and time, mainly due to the
variations in seasonal and annual precipitation, but water scarcity in most cases is caused by
over – exploitation, excessive use and unequal access to water among different social groups.
3. Water scarcity may be an outcome to large and growing population and consequent
greater demands for water and unequal access to it.
4. A large population means more water not only for domestic use but also to produce more
food.
5. Hence, to facilitate higher food-grain production, water resources are being over-exploited
to expand irrigated areas and dry-season agriculture.
6. Post-independent India witnessed intensive industrialization and urbanization, creating
vast opportunities for us.
7. The ever-increasing number of industries has made matters worse by exerting pressure on
existing freshwater resources.
8. Industries, apart from being heavy users of water, also require power to run them.
9. Today, in India hydroelectric power contributes approximately 22% of the total electricity
produced.

MULTI-PURPOSE RIVER PROJECTS AND INTEGRATED WATER RESOURCES

MANAGEMENT:

1. Archeological and historical records show that from ancient times we have been
constructing sophisticated hydraulic structures like dams built of stone rubble, reservoirs or
lake, embankments and canals for irrigation.
2. Dams were traditionally built to impound rivers and rainwater that could be used later to
irrigate agricultural fields.
3. Today, dams are built not just for irrigation but for electricity generation, water supply for
domestic and industrial uses, flood controls, recreation, inland navigation and fish breeding.
4. Dams are now referred to as the impounded water is integrated with one another.
5. In recent years, multi-purposes projects and large dams have come under great scrutiny
and opposition for a variety of reasons.
6. The reservoirs that are created on the floodplains also submerge the existing vegetation
and soil leading to its decomposition over a period of time.
7. Multi-purpose projects and large dams have also been the cause of many new social
movements.
8. Local people often had to give up their land, livelihood and their meager access and
control over resources for the greater good of the nation.
9. Irrigation has also changed the cropping pattern of many regions with farmers shifting to
water intensive and commercial crops.
10. At the same time, it has transformed the social landscape i.e. increasing the social gap
between the richer landowners and the landless poor.
11. Most of the objections to the projects arose due to their failure to achieve the purposes for
which they were built.
12. Ironically, the dams that were constructed to control floods have triggered floods due to
sedimentation in the reservoir.
13. Moreover, the big dams have mostly been unsuccessful in controlling floods at the time of
excessive rainfall.

RAINWATER HARVESTING:

1. Many though that given the disadvantages and rising resistance against the multi-purpose
projects, water harvesting system was a viable alternative, both socio-economically and
environmentally.
2. People had in-depth knowledge of rainfall regimes and soil types and developed wide
ranging techniques to harvest rainwater, groundwater, river water and flood water in
keeping with the local ecological conditions and their water needs.
3. In hill and mountainous regions, people built diversion channels like the ‘guls’ or ‘kuls’ of
the western Himalayas for agriculture.
4. ‘Rooftop rain water harvesting’ was commonly practiced to store drinking water,
particularly in Rajasthan.
5. In the semi-arid regions of Rajasthan, particularly in Bikaner, Phalodi and Barmer, almost
all the houses traditionally had underground tanks for storing drinking water.
6. They were connected to the sloping roofs of the houses through a pipe.
7. Rain falling on the roof tops would travel down the pipe and was stored in these
underground tanks.
8. The rainwater can be stored in the tanks till the time the next rainfall making it an
extremely reliable source of drinking water when all other sources are dried up, particularly
in the summers.
9. Rainwater, or pular pani, as commonly referred to in these parts, is considered the
purest form of natural water.
 Revision Notes
Chapter-4
Agriculture

Agriculture is a primary activity which produces most of the food that we consume besides
food grain it also produces raw material for various industries.

Some agriculture product like tea, coffee, spice, etc...

Types of farming:

Cultivation method has changed significantly depending upon the characteristics of physical
environmental, technological know – how and socio – culture practices. Farming various
from subsistence to commercial type. At present in different parts of India.

Primitive Subsistence Farming:

This type of farming is still practiced in few pockets of India

1. The help of primitive tools like hoe dao and digging sticks, and family /community labour.

2. This type of farming depends upon monsoon, natural fertility of the soil and suitability of
other environmental conditions to the crops grown.

3. It is ‘salsh and burn’ agriculture.

4. The soil fertility decreases.

5. The farmers shift and clear a fresh patch of land for cultivation.

Intensive Subsistence Farming:

1. This type of farming is practiced is areas of high population pressure on land .

2. It is labour intensive farming.

3. The biological inputs and irrigation are used for obtaining higher production.
4. There is enormous pressure on agriculture land.

Commercial Farming:

1. This type of farming is the use of higher doses of modern inputs.

2. The degree of commercialization of agriculture various from one region to another.

3. A single crop s grown on a large area.

4. The help of migrant labourers.

5. The produces is used as raw material in respective industries.

Cropping Pattern:

1. These are also reflected in agricultural practices and cropping pattern in the country.

2. India has three cropping seasons – rabi, kharif and zaid.

3. Rajasthan has also been an important factor in the growth of the above-mentioned rabi
crops.

4. The crops produced during ‘zaid’ are watermelon, muskmelon, cucumber, vegetables and
fodder crops.

Major crops:

Major crops grown in India are rice, wheat, millets, pulses, tea, coffee, sugarcane, oil seeds.
Cotton and jute, etc.,

Non – Food Crops:

Rubber:

1. It is an equatorial crop, but under special conditions.

2. It requires moist nd humid climate with rainfall of more than 200cm. and temperature
above 25℃

Fibre Crops:
1. Cotton, jute, hemp and natural silk are the four major fibre crops grown in India.

2. Rearing of silkworms for the production of silk fibre is known as sericulture.

Cotton:

1. India is belived to be the original home of the cotton plant.

2. In 2008 India wass second largest producer of cotton after china.

Jute:

1. It is known as the golden fibre.

2. It is losing market to synthetic fibres and packing materials, particularly the nylon.

Technological and Institutional Reforms:

1. The pace of agricultural development.

2. Agriculture which provides a livelihood for more than 60 per cent.

3. The government of India embarked upon introducing agricultural in the 1960s and 1970s

4. The government also announces minimum support prices remunerative and procurement
prices for important crops.

5. Consolidation of holdings, cooperation and abolition of zamindari, etc. were given priority
to bring about institutional reforms in the country after independence.

6. The green revolution based on the use of package technology and the white revolution
(operation flood) were some of the strategies initiated to improve a lot of Indian agriculture.

7. Land reform was the main focus of our first five-year plan.

8. Development in few selected areas. In the 1980s and 1990s, a comprehensive land
development programme was initiated, which includes both institutional and technological
reforms.

9. Provision for crop insurance against drought, flood, cyclone, fire and disease.
10. Establishment of Grameen Banks, cooperative societies and banks for providing loan
facilities to the farmers at lower rates of interest.

11. Kissan credit cards and personal accident insurance schemes introduced.

12. Special weather bulletins and agricultural programmes for farmers were introduced on
radio and T.V.

13. The government also announces minimum support price.

14. Remunerative and procurement prices for important crops to check the exploitation of
farmers by speculators and middleman.

Contribution of agriculture to the national economy, employment and output:

1. Gross Domestic Product has registered a declining trend from 1951 onwards.

2. The population continues to be as high as 63 per cent in 2001.

3. The government of India made concerted efforts to modernize agriculture in India.

4. India made concerted efforts to modernize agriculture Establishment of Indian Council of

Agriculture.

5. The growth rate in agriculture is decelerating which is an alarming situation.

6. Agriculture backbone of Indian Economy.

7. Share in the gross domestic product.

8. Providing employment.

9. Livelihood to the population.

10. The government of India made concerted efforts to modernize agriculture.

11. Establishment of Indian Council of Agricultural Research, agricultural universities.

12. Veterinary services and animal breeding centers.

13. Horticulture development.

14. Research and development in the field of meteorology and weather forecast.

Food Security:

1. The number of people who do not have food security is disproportionately large in some
region of our country particularly in economically less developed states with the higher
incidence of poverty.

2. The focus of the policy is on fixing the support price for procurement of wheat and rice to
maintain their stocks. Food Corporation of India.

3. The FCI procures food grains from the farmers at the government announced minimum
support price.

4. The competition for land between non – agriculture uses such as housing etc.,

5. The farmers are badly affected by the uncertainties of production and market.

6. The higher the supply the lower is the demand.

Impact of Globalisation on Agriculture:

1. Globalisation is not a new [Link] was there at the time of colonisation.

2. Till today it is one of the important items of export from India.

3. Cotton textile industry in Manchester and Liverpool flourished due to the availability of
good quality cotton from India.

4. The Champaran movement which started in 1917 in Bihar.

5. Under globalisation, particularly after 1990, the farmer in India have been exposed to new
challenges.
 Revision Notes
Chapter-5
Minerals Energy Resources

1. Various metals are extracted from these minerals after proper refinement.
2. Minerals are an indispensable part of our lives.
3. The railway lines and the tarmac(paving) from building or a big ship all are tarmacs of
the roads.
4. Even the food that we eat contains minerals.
5. Minerals are found in varied forms in nature ranging from the hardest diamond to the
softest talc.
6. Rock are combinations of homogeneous substances called minerals.
7. Over 2000 minerals have been identified only a few are abundantly found in most of the
rocks.
8. Geologists use these properties to classify the minerals.

Mode of Occurrence Of Minerals:

Minerals are usually found in “ores”. The term ore is used to describe an accumulation of
any minerals mixed with other elements.
This also determines the cost of understanding the main types of formations in which the
main types of formations in which occur.

i. In igneous and metamorphic rocks minerals may occur in the cracks crevices faults or
join the smaller occurrences are called Veins and the larger are called Lodes.
ii. In sedimentary rocks a number of minerals occur in beds or layers They have been
formed as a result of deposition accumulation and concentration in horizontal strata.
iii. Another mode of formation involves the decomposition of surface rocks and the removal
of soluble constituents leaving a residual mass of weathered material containing ores.
iv. Certain minerals may occur as alluvial deposits in sands of valley floors and the base of
hills.
v. The ocean waters contain vast quantities of minerals to be of economic signification
Common salt, Magnesium and water. The ocean beds, too are rich manganese nodules.
Ferrous Minerals:
Ferrous minerals account for about three-fourths of the total value of the production of
metallic minerals.

Iron Ore:

1. Iron ore is the basic minerals and the backbone of industrial development
2. The finest iron ore with a very high content of iron up to 70 percent.
3. In the adjoining Singbhum districts of Jharkhand, haematite iron ore is mined in GUA
and Noamundi.
4. Durg – Bastar – Chandrapur belt lies in Chhattisgarh and Maharashtra. Very high-grade
hematites are found in the Bastar district of Chattisgarh.
5. The Kudermukh mines located on the western ghats of Karnataka deposits are known to
be one of the largest in the world
6. Maharashtra – Goa belt includes the state of gos and Ratnagri istrict of Maharshtra.
7. Iron ore is exported through Marmago port.

Manganese:
Manganese is mainly used in the manufacturing of steel and ferro – manganese alloy. Nearly
10 kg of manganese is required to manufacture bleaching powder and paint.

Non – Ferrous Minerals:

India’s reserves and production of non – ferrous minerals is not very satisfactory.

Copper:
India is critically deficient in the reserve and production of copper. Being malleable, ductile
and a good conducter, copper is mainly used in electrical cables, electrons and chemical
industries.

Bauxite:

1. Several ores contain aluminum it is formed bauxite a clay – like substance that alumina
and later aluminum is obtained.
2. Bauxite deposits are formed by the decomposition of a wide variety of rocks rich in
aluminum silicates.
3. India’s bauxite deposit is mainly found in the Amarkanatk plateau.
4. Orissa is the largest bauxite producing state in India with 34.97 per cent of the country’s
total production in 2000 – 01.

Non – Metalic Minerals:

1. Mica is a mineral made up of a series of plates or leaves. It splits easily into thin sheets.
2. Mica can be clear, black, green, red yellow or brown.
3. Mica is one of the most indispensable minerals used in electric and electrons industries.
4. Mica deposits are found in the northern edge of the Chota Nagpur Plateau, Koderma Gaya
– Hazaribagh belt of Jharkhand is the leading producer.
5. In Rajasthan, the major mica producing area is around Ajmer.

Rock Minerals:
Limestone is found in association with composed of calcium carbonates or calcium and
magnesium carbonates.

Conservation Of Minerals:

1. The strong dependence of industry and agriculture upon mineral deposits and the
substances manufactured from them.
2. The total volume of workable mineral deposits is an insignificant fraction.
3. The rates of replenishment are infinitely small in comparison.
4. A concerted effort to be made in order to use mineral resources in a planned and
sustainable manner.

Energy Resources:

1. Energy is required for all activities, It is needed to cook to provide light and heat to
propel.
2. Energy can be generated from fuel minerals like coal, petroleum from fuel mineral like
coal, petroleum, natural gas, uranium and from electricity.
3. It consumes most valuable manure which could be used in agriculture.

Conservation Sources Of Energy:

Coal:

1. The most abundantly available fossil fuel. It provides a substantial part of the nation’s
 energy needs.
2. Lignite is a low-grade brown coal which is soft with high moisture content.
3. Anthracite is the highest quality hard coal.
4. A little over 200 million years in age and in tertiary deposits which are only about 55
million years old.

Petroleum:

1. Petroleum or mineral oil is the next major energy source in India after coal.
2. Petroleum refineries act as a “nodal industry” for synthetic textile, fertile and numerous
chemical industries.
3. The oil is prevented from rising or sinking by intervening non – porous layer.
4. About 63 per cent of India’s petroleum production is from Mumbai High, 18 per cent from
the map locates the 3 major off shore field of western India.

Natural Gas:

1. Natural gas is an important clean energy resource found in association with or without
petroleum.
2. It is used as a source of energy as well as an industrial raw material in the petrochemical
industry.
3. The fuel for the present century.
4. Andaman and Nicobar are land are also important areas having large reserves of natural
gas.
5. The 1700 km long Hazira – Vijaipur Jagdishpur cross country gas pipeline links Mumbai
High and Bassien with the fertilizer power and industrial complexes in western and
northern India.
6. The power and fertilizer industries are the key users of natural gas.

Electricity:

1. Electricity has such a wide range of application in today’s world that its per capita
consumption is considered as an index of development.
2. Electricity is generated mainly in two ways by running water.
3. Burning of fuels such a coal petroleum gas to drive turbines to produce thermal power.
4. Hydro electricity is generated by fast flowing water.
5. Thermal electricity is generated by using coal, petroleum and natural gas
6. There are over 310 thermal power plants in India.

Non – Conventional Sources of Energy:

1. The growing consumption of energy has resulted in the country becoming increasingly
dependent on fossil fuel such as coal oil and gas.
2. There is a pressing need to use renewable energy sources like solar energy, wind, tide,
biomass and energy from waste material.
3. These are called non – conventional energy sources.
4. These are called non – conventional energy sources.

Nuclear or Atomic Energy:

1. It is obtained by altering the structure of atoms.

2. The form of heat and this is used to generated electric power.
3. The Aravalli ranges of Rajasthan are used for generating atomic or nuclear power.
4. The Monazite sands of Kerala is also rich in Thorium.

Solar Energy:

1. India is a tropical country. It has enormous possibilities of tapping energy.

2. Photovoltaic technology converts sunlight directly into electricity.
3. In turn will contribute to environmental conservation and adequate supply of manure in
agriculture

Wind Power:

1. India now ranks as a “wind super power” the world.

2. The largest wind farm cluster is located in Tamil Nadu from Nagercoil to Madurai.
3. Nagercoil and Jaisalmer are well known for the effective use of wind energy in the
country.

Biogas:

1. Shrubs, farm waste, animal and human waste are used to produce biogas for domestic
consumption I rural areas.
2. The plant using cattle dung are know a ‘Gobar gas plant’ in rural India.
3. It improves the loss of trees and manure due to the burning of fuel wood and cow dung
cakes.

Tidal Energy:

1. Oceanic tides can be used to generate electricity. Floodgate dams are built across
intellect.
2. The sea via a pipe that carries it through a power generating turbine.
3. A 900 MW tidal energy power plant is setup here by the National Hydropower
Corporation.

Geo Thermal Energy:

1. Geothermal energy refers to the heat and electricity produced by heat from the interior
of the earth.
2. It is so hot that when it rises to the earth’s surface it turns into steam.
3. This stem is used to drive turbines and generate electricity.

Conservation of Energy Resources:

1. Energy is a basic requirement for economic development.

2. The economic development plans implemented since Independence necessarily required
increasing amounts of energy to remain operational.
3. Promotion of energy conservation and increased use of renewable energy sources are the
twin planks of sustainable energy.
4. India is presently one of the least energy efficient countries I the world
5. Energy saved is energy produced.
 Revision Notes
Chapter-6
Manufacturing Industries

I. Importance of Manufacturing :

A. Manufacturing sector is considered the backbone of development in general and

economic development because-

Manufacturing industries help in modernizing agriculture.

They reduce the heavy dependence of people on agricultural income by providing
them jobs in secondary and tertiary sectors.
Helps in eradication of unemployment and poverty.
Helps in bringing down regional disparities by establishing industries in tribal and
backward areas.
Exports of manufactured goods expand trade and commerce and bring much-needed
foreign exchange.
India should convert its raw materials into a wide variety of furnished goods in order
to prosper.

B. Agriculture and Industry go hand-in-hand. For example, in agro-industries, agriculture

helps industries by providing raw materials and industries provide products such as
irrigation pumps, fertilizers, pesticides, etc.

C. We can compete with international markets, if our manufactured products are at par in
quality with international products.

II. Contribution of Industry to National Economy:

The desired growth rate for industry is 12 percent in the coming decade. The National
Manufacturing Competitiveness Council (NMCC) has been set up with this objective.
Government Policy interventions and renewed efforts by the industry for productivity will
help manufacturing achieve its desired growth rate.
III. Industrial Location:

Industries are not found everywhere. They are located at certain places only where they get
favourable conditions to thrive. Industrial Location is governed mainly by the following
factors:

Raw Materials
Source of Energy
Source of Water
Availability of Capital and Finance
Demand in Market
Skilled Labourers and Workers
Banking and Insurance
Transport and Communication

Many industries come together at urban centres to make use of the advantages. These are
known as "agglomeration economies".

IV. Types or Classification of Manufacturing Industries:

A] On the basis of Raw Materials:

1. Agro Based: Those industries where raw materials come from agriculture, e.g. Cotton,
Woolen, Jute, Silk Textiles, Sugar, Tea, Edible Oil

2. Mineral Based: Those industries where minerals are used as raw materials, e.g. Iron &
Steel, Cement, Aluminum, Machine Tools etc.

B] On the basis of their Main Role:

1. Basic Industries: Those industries which provide raw material to other industries are
called basic industries. These industries help the development of other industries, e.g. Iron
and Steel, Copper and Aluminum Smelting

2. Consumer Industries: Those industries which produce goods for consumers are called
consumer industries. Finished goods of these industries are directly sold in the market for
consumers, e.g. Sugar, Toothpaste, Soap, Bread, Paper etc.
C] On the basis of Capital Investment:

1. Small Scale Industries: Those industries where investment of capital is less than Rupees
one crore are called as small scale industries, e.g. Mat, Furniture, Toys, Bread, Tools etc.

2. Large Scale Industries: Those industries where investment of capital is more than Rupees
one crore are called as large scale industries, e.g. Iron & Steel, Petrochemicals, Cotton
Textiles etc.

D] On the basis of Ownership:

1. Public Sector: These industries are owned, operated and maintained by Govt. e.g. BHEL,
SAIL, IISCO

2. Private Sector: These industries are owned, operated and maintained by individual or
group of individuals, e.g. TISCO, Bajaj Auto Ltd., etc.

3. Joint Sector: These industries are jointly run by Govt. and group of individuals. It is
mixture of public and private sector, e.g. Oil India Ltd. [OIL].

4. Cooperative Sector: These industries are owned, operated and maintained by supplier of
raw materials and workers of the industries, e.g. Sugar industries in Maharashtra, Coir
industries in Kerala.

E] On the basis of Finished Goods [Output]:

1. Heavy Industries: Those industries which use heavy and bulky raw materials and produce
heavy goods in large quantity are called heavy industries, e.g. Iron and Steel, Copper
Smelting.

2. Light Industries: Those industries which use light and small raw materials and produce
light goods are called light industries, e.g. Electrical, Toys, Tools, Utensils etc.

V. Agro-Based Industries:

Cotton Textile Industry:

It is an agro-based and the oldest industry in India.

First cotton mill was established in 1854 in Mumbai.
 At present, it the largest industry in our country. There are about 1600 cotton textile
mills in our country. Cotton textile mills are mainly concentrated in Maharashtra and
Gujarat due to favourable conditions. Important centres are Mumbai, Pune,
Ahmedabad, Surat, Rajkot etc. Other centres are Agra, Kanpur, Hugli, Chennai,
Madurai etc.
Cotton textile is produced by three methods in India: a) Handloom, b) Power-looms
and c) Mills
Cotton textile industry involves ginning, spinning, weaving, dyeing, designing,
tailoring and packaging to produce readymade garments.
India exports yarn and readymade garments to USA, Japan, UK, France, Nepal, Sri
Lanka etc.
Cotton textile industries are facing many problems such as: a) scarcity of good quality
cotton, b) main cotton growing area went to Pakistan, c) old machinery, d) erratic
power supply, e) low productivity of labour, f) tough competition from synthetic
fibers.

Jute Textiles and its problems:

India is the largest producer of raw jute and jute goods. There are about 70 jute mills
in our country.
First jute mill was setup in Rishra [Kolkata] in 1859.
Most of the jute mills are located along Hugli River in West Bengal due to favourable
conditions. Jute is used in making rope, bags, carpets etc. Bihar, UP, Assam and
Tripura also have jute mills.
Jute industries are facing problems like: a) main jute producing area went to
Bangladesh, b) high production cost, c) declining demand of jute in international
market, d) tough competition from synthetic fiber industry.

Jute industries are located mainly along Hooghly River because:

There are 69 jute mills located in a 2 km broad belt along Hooghly River.

This area provides many favourable conditions required for this industry.

a) Raw jute is available for West Bengal. West Bengal is the largest producer of jute.
b) Coal for energy is brought from nearby Raniganj Coalfields.
c) Hooghly River provides water for washing and cleaning jute.
d) Warm and humid climate is very favourable for cultivation of jute.
e) Kolkata is a metro city which provides capital and market.
f) Hooghly River also provides cheap water transport.

Sugar industry:

Earlier UP and Bihar were the main producers of sugarcane. Therefore, most of the sugar
mills were located in these two states only. But now, sugar mills are shifting towards
Maharashtra and Karnataka because:

a) Per hectare production of sugarcane is higher in southern India. Black soil is quite suitable
for cultivation of sugarcane.

b) Sucrose content in the sugarcane is higher in Maharashtra and Karnataka. It means more
sugar can be produced for less sugarcane.

c) Mills and machines are new in southern states. New and modern machines increase the
productivity.

d) Crushing season for sugarcane is longer in southern states.

e) Cooperative sugar mills are running successfully in southern states.

VI Mineral Based Industries:

Iron & Steel Industry and its problems:

This industry is called as basic industry because it provides raw material to many
other industries such as machine tools, transport equipment, construction material
etc.
It is also called as heavy industry because raw materials [iron ore, coal, limestone] are
bulky in nature.
Iron ore mixed with limestone is smelted in the blast furnace using coking coal to
produce pig iron. The ratio of iron ore, limestone and coking coal used in 4:2:1. Pig
iron is mixed with manganese, chromium and nickel which make it more stronger
steel.
Most of the steel plants are located in Chotanagpur region due to its favourable
 conditions.
Important integrated steel plants are Jamshedpur, Durgapur, Bokaro, Bhilai, Burnpur
etc.
India produces about 33 million tons of steel every year even though per capita
consumption of steel is very low i.e. 32 kg. It is low because India has low economic
and industrial development.
Today steel industries in India are facing many problems: a) High cost of production,
b) Limited availability of coking coal, c) Low productivity of labour, d) Irregular
supply of energy, e) Raw materials are found in a certain pockets of India only, f) Poor
infrastructure like transport and communication etc.

Aluminum Smelting:

It is the second most popular metallurgical industry in India

The raw material used is a bulky dark reddish rock known as bauxite.
It is light, corrosion resistant and a good conductor of heat and is malleable.
It becomes stronger when mixed with other metals.
It is used to manufacture aircraft, utensils and wires.
Major sources are located in Orissa, West Bengal, Kerala, UP, Chattisgarh,
Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu.

Chemical Industry:

Contributes approximately 3 percent of annual GDP.

In terms of size, it is the third largest industry in Asia and the twelfth largest in the
world.
Organic and inorganic sectors of the industry are rapidly growing. Organic chemicals
include petrochemicals. Inorganic chemicals include sulphuric acid, nitric acid,
alkalis, soda ash, caustic soda, etc.

Fertiliser Industry:

India is the third largest producer of nitrogenous fertilizers.

Fertiliser industry is centred around the production of nitrogenous fertilisers,
phosphatic fertilisers and ammonium phosphate and complex fertilisers. Complex
fertilisers have a combination of nitrogen (N), phosphate (P) and potash (K). Potash is
 entirely imported because India does not have any reserves of commercially viable
potash or potassium compounds.

[Link] Industry:

Cement industry requires bulky raw materials like limestone, silica, alumina and
gypsum.
There are many cement plants in Gujarat because of proximity to ports.
There are 128 large and 323 mini cement plants in India.
Improvement in quality has found the Indian cement a readily available market in
East Asia, Middle East, Africa and South Asia. This industry is doing well in terms of
production as well as export.

VIII Automobile Industry:

After liberalisation, many automobile manufacturers set their base in India.

At present, there are 15 manufacturers of cars and multi-utility vehicles, 9 of
commercial vehicles, 14 of two and three-wheelers.
Delhi, Gurgaon, Mumbai, Pune, Chennai, Kolkata, Lucknow, Indore, Hyderabad,
Jamshedpur, Bangalore, Sanand, Pantnagar, etc. are the major centres of automobile
industry. IX Information Technology and Electronics Industry:
Bangalore is often termed as the electronic capital of India. Mumbai, Pune, Delhi,
Hyderabad, Chennai, Kolkata, Lucknow and Coimbatore are the other important
centres. There are 18 software technology parks in the country and they provide
single window service and high data communication to software experts.
This industry had generated a large number of employment. Upto 31 March 2005,
over one million persons were employed in the IT industry. Because of fast growth of
BPO (Business Process Outsourcing); this sector has been a major earner of foreign
exchange.

X Industrial Pollution and Environmental Degradation:

a) Air pollution is caused by the emission of CO2, Carbon Monoxide, Sulphur Dioxide etc.
Chimneys of the industries produce heat leading to Global Warming and Green House Effect.
The use of CFC in various industrial products depletes ozone layer which filters ultraviolet
rays of the sun.
b) Dumping of organic and inorganic industrial waste into water bodies pollutes the water.
Industries which produce paper, pulp, chemical, leather, acids, dyes, fertilizers etc generate
lots of toxic waste which kills the aquatic life.

c) High intensity sound generated by running machines, sirens, drilling, fans etc leads to
noise pollution. It causes irritation, hearing impairment, heart attack etc. among the nearby
residents.

d) Mining activity to get raw material for industries also degrades the environment. Land
degradation, deforestation, soil erosion, water logging etc. are the results of mining activities.

XI Measurement [Methods] for Controlling Environmental Pollution and Degradation:

a) Industries should be located with careful planning and better design.

b) Quantity of smoke can be reduced by using oil instead of coal.

c) Non-conventional sources of energy should be used instead of fossil fuels.

d) Modern equipment should be used which controls, filters and separates harmful materials
from the waste.

e) Waste water should be properly treated before discharging into rivers.

f) Land filling method should be adopted for dumping of waste.

g) Polluting industries should be located away from towns and cities.