c h a p t e r 10

T h e S ta n d a r d
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 Introduction
In the previous chapter we described the discovery of several new particles. We also looked
at the evidence that indicates that familiar particles such as protons and neutrons are not
elementary. This evidence includes the magnetic moment of uncharged particles such as
neutrons and some other baryons.
The large number of new particles, more than 300, also suggested to physicists that not all
of them could be elementary particles. This was partly because many of the particles seemed to
come in ‘families’ or groups that had similar characteristics. For example, we have already seen
that the proton and neutron have similar masses and the same spin. The group of three particles
known as pions have almost identical masses and the same spin, but have different electric
charges (21e, 0 and 11e). As more and more particles were discovered, more patterns such as
these began to emerge.
Other puzzles in particle physics included the nature of the field particles – photons, W and
Z bosons, pions and the proposed gravitons. All but the last of these particles have now been
detected. Photons are massless, but W and Z bosons and pions are not. What is the reason for
the different masses of the field particles?
Physicists believed that there must be an underlying structure giving rise to the patterns
observed in the properties and behaviour of all these particles. Just as the theory of evolution
gave an underlying structure to the relationships between species, and the early theories of atoms
gave an explanation for the organisation of the elements in the periodic table, physicists were
searching for the underlying pattern to explain the ‘particle zoo’. They wanted to know which of
these particles were really elementary, and what the others were made of.
The answers to some of these questions came with the development of the Standard Model
of particle physics. The first major development leading to the Standard Model was the quark
theory.
At the same time that particle physicists were searching for the underlying structure of
particles, astronomers and cosmologists were trying to understand how the large-scale structure
Q ua r ks of the universe came about. Astronomical evidence such as the red shift in the spectra of stars
Read about how led to the development of the Big Bang theory – the theory that the universe began as a point-
the quark got its like singularity with enormous energy density. It may seem that the structure of the universe
name. and the structure of a subatomic particle may not be closely related. However, according
to the Big Bang theory, the universe began with the creation of elementary particles that
condensed into the many particles we know of today, then into atoms, molecules and, finally,
into the planets, stars and galaxies that give the universe its large-scale structure. Astronomical
observations can only give us limited information about the history of the universe. To model
what happened in the first stages of the evolution of the universe we need to use high-energy
particle physics experiments.
Hence, an understanding of the underlying structure of the many particles in the particle
zoo will also tell us about how the universe formed and then evolved to its current state. Once
we understand the past evolution of our universe, we may be able to predict its future evolution.

The Standard Model of particle physics explains the underlying structure of

particles and the forces via which they interact. It also describes the early stages of
the evolution of the universe when particles first formed.
The evolution of the universe from a point-like singularity with enormous energy
to the configuration of galaxies we know today is described by the Big Bang
theory. The Big Bang theory relies on the Standard Model to describe and explain
the first stages of the formation of the universe.

284 n e l s o n p h y s i c s u n i ts 3 & 4 f o r th e a u st r a l i a n c u r r i c u l u m 9 7 8 0 1 7 0 2 4 2 11 0
Matter and the Gell-Mann invented
the term ‘quark’ for

Standard Model these elementary

particles. The spelling
was borrowed from
As we have seen, in the 1950s there were a huge number of particles known. Broadly, these a rhyme in James
could be classified as particles with mass – leptons and hadrons – and those without mass, which Joyce’s Finnegans
include exchange particles such as photons. Wake: ‘Three quarks
The hadrons did not appear to be fundamental particles. So the question was, what were for Muster Mark’.
they made from? Quark is also a type
of cottage cheese.

Quarks Mesons Baryons

In 1963, Murray Gell-Mann and George Zweig independently proposed a model for the p1 p
substructure of hadrons. According to their model, all hadrons are composed of two or three
elementary constituents called quarks. – u u
This early quark model had three types of quarks, designated by the symbols u, d and s, u d
which are given the arbitrary names up, down and strange. The various types of quarks are d
called flavours. Figure 10.1 is a pictorial representation of the quark compositions of several
hadrons. K2 n

u d
The compositions of all hadrons known when Gell-Mann and Zweig presented their u– s
model can be completely specified by three simple rules: d

A meson consists of one quark and one antiquark.

Figure 10.1 p
A baryon consists of three quarks.
The quark composition
An antibaryon consists of three antiquarks. of two mesons and two
baryons

W o r k e d e x a m p l e 10 .1

Which of these quark combinations is not a possible particle? (4 marks)

−
a dd b dd
− − − −d
−
c udd d ud
Answers Logic
a Possible A meson consists of a quark–antiquark pair. A baryon consists of 1 mark
b Not possible three quarks, and antibaryon of three antiquarks. 1 mark
c Not possible Hence, a is a meson, b is impossible, c is impossible and d is an 1 mark
antibaryon.
d Possible 1 mark

Try this yourself

Which of these quark combinations is not a possible particle? (4 marks)
a uuu
b uu
−
c uu
−u
d uu −

9 7 8 0 1 7 0 2 4 2 11 0 U n i t 4 c h a p t e r 10 : T h e S ta n da r d M o d e l 285
 Table 10.1 gives the properties of the quarks. The charmed c, top t, and bottom b quarks are
described below.

Table 10.1 Properties of quarks

Name Symbol Spin Charge Baryon Strangeness Charm Bottomness Topness

number

1 2 1
Up u 1 e 0 0 0 0
2 3 3

1 1 1
Down d 2 e 0 0 0 0
2 3 3

1 1 1
Strange s 2 e 21 0 0 0
2 3 3

1 2 1
Charmed c 1 e 0 11 0 0
2 3 3

1 1 1
Bottom b e 0 0 11 0
2 3 3

1 2 1
Top t 1 e 0 0 0 11
2 3 3

Each quark has an associated antiquark of opposite charge, baryon number, strangeness,
charm, topness and bottomness.
Unlike any particles we have seen before, quarks carry a fractional electric charge. The u, d
2e e e
and s quarks have charges of , 2 and 2 respectively, where e is the electron charge
3 3 1 3
(e 5 1.60 3 10219 C). Quarks have spin , which means that they are classified as fermions (see
2
Chapter 9), and have their own intrinsic magnetic moment and, hence, magnetic field. When
quarks combine to form a particle, the charge of the particle is the arithmetic sum of the charges
of its quarks. The spin of the particle is the sum of the spins of its quarks. However, spin is a
vector, so we need to be more careful in how we add the spins. Both the magnitude and the
direction of spin are quantised.
1
In Table 10.1 you can see that quarks have baryon number . Antiquarks have baryon
1 3
number 2 . Hence, a meson composed of one quark and one antiquark has baryon number
3
1  1 1 1 1
B 5 1  2  5 0. A baryon, which is composed of three quarks, has B 5 1 1 5 1,
3  3  3 3 3
Recall from Chapter 4
that magnetic  1  1  1
and an antibaryon composed of three antiquarks has B 5  2  1  2  1  2  5 21.
moment is a vector. It  3  3  3
points in the direction The law of conservation of baryon number, which we used in Chapter 9, is based on
of the north pole of experimental observation. It is consistent with the model of quarks as elementary particles and
an equivalent current this assignment of baryon numbers to quarks. Hence, the quark theory is able to explain the
loop. The magnitude experimental observation of baryon number conservation.
of the magnetic Although no isolated quark has ever been experimentally observed, the quark model
moment of a particle
does describe the properties of mesons and baryons. Table 10.2 shows how mesons can be
depends on the spin.
constructed from combinations of a quark and an antiquark.

286 n e l s o n p h y s i c s u n i ts 3 & 4 f o r th e a u st r a l i a n c u r r i c u l u m 9 7 8 0 1 7 0 2 4 2 11 0
Table 10.2 Quark composition of some mesons

Antiquarks
− − − − −
b c s d u
− −b) − − −
b Y (b b) B c2 (c Bs (−
s b) B d0 ( db) B2 −b)
(u
− −c) −
c B c1 (b c) J/C (c Ds1 (−
s c) D1 ( dc) D0 −c)
(u
− −s) − −
Quarks s B s0 (b s) Ds2 (c f (−
s s) K0 ( ds) K2 −s)
(u
− −d) −
d Bd0 (b d) D2 (c K0 (−
s d) p0 ( dd) p2 −d)
(u
− − −u) −
u B1 (b u) D0 (c K1 (−
s u) p1 ( du) p0 −u)
(u

Consider the p2 meson as an example. We see in Table 10.2 that this meson has the quark
1 1
composition ud. The u quark has baryon number 2 and the d quark has baryon number ,
3 3
e
giving a total of B 5 0. The u quark has charge 2 2e and the d quark has charge 2 . This gives
3 3
1
the π meson a total charge of 21e. Both the u and the d quarks have spin . Spins are a little
2
2
more complicated to add up because they represent magnetic moments, which are vectors. The
magnetic moments can only line up in two ways: parallel or antiparallel (see Figure 10.2). When
1 1
magnetic moments are parallel the total spin is 1 5 1; when they are antiparallel the total
1 1 2 2
spin is 2 5 0. Looking back at Table 9.1 on page 264, we can see that a π– meson has the
2 2
properties B 5 0, charge 5 21e and spin 5 0. This is exactly what we expect from the combination
of an anti-up quark and a down quark with their spins antiparallel. The alternative spin arrangement
with spin 5 1 corresponds to an excited (higher energy) state of the π2 meson.

a t Figure 10.2
1 11 51 a) Parallel spins
1 5 2 2 add to give spin 5 1.
b) Antiparallel spins add
to give spin 5 0.

b
121 50
1 5 2 2

Baryons are composed of three Table 10.3 Quark composition of several baryons
Recall from Chapter 9
quarks, and antibaryons of three Particle Quark composition that particles with
antiquarks. Table 10.3 gives the quark integer spin are
p uud
composition of some baryons. bosons and particles
n udd with half-integer spin
Note: Some baryons have the same uds are fermions. The
⋀ o
quark composition, such as the p and two types of particles
∆1 and the n and ∆0 baryons. In these ∑ 1
uus behave differently
cases, the ∆ particles are considered ∑o uds when they interact
to be excited states of the proton ∑2 dds and bind together.
and neutron. Fermions obey the
D 11
uuu exclusion principle;
D1 uud bosons do not.
Do udd
D 2
ddd
Jo uss
J2 dss
V 2
sss

9 7 8 0 1 7 0 2 4 2 11 0 U n i t 4 c h a p t e r 10 : T h e S ta n da r d M o d e l 287
 W o r k e d e x a m p l e 10 . 2

Consider a baryon with quark composition uud. Show that it has the properties of a proton. (5 marks)

Answer Logic Marks

The uud combination has total charge 2
An up quark has charge and a down 2 marks
2 2 1 3
e 1 e 2 e 5 1e. 1.
3 3 3 quark has charge 2
3

1 1 1 1
Its baryon number is B 5 1 1 51 Each quark has B 5 . 1 mark
3 3 3 3

Spin 5 3 or 1 The possible spin states are

3
(all 2 marks
2 2 2
1
parallel) and (one antiparallel, two
2
parallel), as shown in Figure 10.3.

1 1 5 1111153
2 2 2 2

1 1 5 1112151
2 2 2 2
p Figure 10.3 Possible spin arrangements for three quarks

Looking back at Table 9.1 in Chapter 9, we can see that

1
the proton has B 5 1, charge 5 11e and spin 5 , in
2
agreement with this quark composition with the lower
energy arrangement of spins.

Try this yourself

Repeat the example above for a neutron with quark composition udd. (5 marks)

3
In the example above, the spin arrangement corresponds to a D1 particle. As with the
2
mesons, the parallel spin states are considered to be excited particle states. Hence, the D1
particle is considered to be an excited state of the proton.
Although the original quark model was highly successful in classifying particles into
families, some discrepancies occurred between its predictions and certain experimental decay
rates. Consequently, several physicists proposed a fourth quark flavour in 1967. They argued that
if four types of leptons existed (as was thought at the time), there should also be four flavours
of quarks because of an underlying symmetry in nature. The fourth quark, designated c, was
2e
assigned a property called charm. A charmed quark has charge 1 , just as the up quark does,
3
At the time of the but its charm distinguishes it from the other three quarks. This introduces a new quantum
development of the number C, representing charm. The new quark has charm C 5 11, its antiquark has charm of
quark theory only four C 5 –1; all other quarks have C 5 0.
types of lepton were Evidence that the charmed quark exists began to accumulate in the 1970s, when a series of
known. We now know heavy mesons with long lifetimes were discovered. The existence of these new mesons provided
that there are six firm evidence for the fourth quark flavour.
types, as described
Then in 1975, a fifth type of lepton, called the tau (t) lepton, was discovered. This led
in Chapter 9.
physicists to propose that more flavours of quarks might exist, on the basis of symmetry

288 n e l s o n p h y s i c s u n i ts 3 & 4 f o r th e a u st r a l i a n c u r r i c u l u m 9 7 8 0 1 7 0 2 4 2 11 0
arguments similar to those leading to the proposal of the charmed quark. These proposals led to
more elaborate quark models and the prediction of two new quarks, top (t) and bottom (b). To
distinguish these quarks from the others, quantum numbers called topness and bottomness (with
allowed values 11, 0, 21) were assigned to all quarks and antiquarks (see Table 10.1).

A c t i v i t y 10 .1
M a k i n g b a r yo n s
Aim
Your aim is to use ‘quarks’ to make some ‘baryons’ and identify their properties.
You will need
At least four beads or tokens in each of six different colours. Each different colour represents a different
type of quark. You will also need a bag to hold the quarks, coloured pencils and paper.
What to do
1 Make a table listing the types of quarks and their properties, including charge, spin, strangeness,
charm, topness and bottomness. Use Table 10.1 as a guide and add a column listing the colour you
are using to represent each quark.
2 Place all the beads or tokens in the bag and randomly take 3 quarks from the bag.
3 These three quarks make up your new baryon. Using the table you have already drawn, work out the
properties of your new baryon. List charge, spin, strangeness, charm, topness and bottomness.
Note that spins can be in the same direction or opposite direction. Hence, there is not a single unique
value for the spin of your new baryon.
4 Use your coloured pencils to record your new baryon and write down its properties.
5 Now see whether you can identify it in a list of known baryons, such as those given in Table 10.3 and
Table 9.1 (page 264).
6 Put the quarks back in their bag and repeat the process.

What did you discover?

1 How many different baryons do you think you can make?
2 Did you make the same baryon more than once? Do you think all quarks are as common in nature as
they are in your bag? Why or why not?

Matter particles in the

Standard Model
The Standard Model of particle physics says that all matter is made up of two types of
elementary particle. These are quarks and leptons.
As we saw in Chapter 9, there are six types of leptons, each with its own antiparticle.
These are the electron, muon, tau, electron neutrino, muon neutrino and tau neutrino, and
the antiparticle of each. Leptons do not combine to form other particles.
There are also six types or flavours of quarks, as we have just seen: up, down, top, bottom,
strange and charmed. Each type of quark also has an antiquark. Quarks bind together to form other
particles. They bind in groups of three to form baryons and in quark–antiquark pairs to form mesons.
1
All quarks and leptons have spin of , and have an intrinsic magnetic moment. They are all
2
fermions. This means that when they bind together into other particles, including baryons or
large composite particles such as atoms, they obey the exclusion principle.

9 7 8 0 1 7 0 2 4 2 11 0 U n i t 4 c h a p t e r 10 : T h e S ta n da r d M o d e l 289
 The second part of the Standard Model that we shall explore is the interaction of these particles.
What force binds quarks together to form baryons and mesons? How is this force related to the force
that holds nucleons together in the nucleus? We shall answer these questions in the next section.

Figure 10.4 u
The elementary matter Quarks Leptons
particles described in
the Standard Model
u –
u e2 e1

– ne –
d ne
d

s s– m2 m1

–
c –
c nm nm

t – t2 t1
t

– nt –
b nt
b

q u e s t i o n s e t 10 .1
Remembering
1 Name the three types of elementary particles.
2 a How many quarks do mesons consist of?
b How many quarks do baryons consist of?

Understanding
3 Explain why particle physics experiments are important in the development of cosmological theories
such as the Big Bang theory.
4 Which of these quark combinations is a possible particle? Explain your answers.
a ud
b udd
−
c udd
− −d
d ud
−
−
e ud

Applying
5 For each of these quark combinations, give the resulting particle’s charge, strangeness and baryon
number and all possible spins.
−−
a d d− s
b bbt
c uus
−u
d u −−
s
6 Show that the properties of the quark combination −
su are consistent with the K1 meson.
7 Show that the properties of the quark combination uds are consistent with the Λ0. What other baryon
could be composed of these quarks? Explain your answer.

290 n e l s o n p h y s i c s u n i ts 3 & 4 f o r th e a u st r a l i a n c u r r i c u l u m 9 7 8 0 1 7 0 2 4 2 11 0
 Analysing
8 A proton (uud) and an antiproton ( u − − ) collide and a u and a u
−ud − annihilate to create a total of eight
− − − − 2
quarks: (u u d d d d s s ). A S , a Λ and what other particle are formed?
0 0

9 Analyse each of the following reactions in terms of constituent quarks and show that each type of quark
is conserved.
a p1 1 p → K1 1 S1
b K2 1 p → K1 1 Ko 1 V2
10 Compare and contrast the aims of particle physics and cosmology. How has your understanding of the
interaction between theories and researchers in different areas of physics changed?

Forces and the

Standard Model
So far we have looked at four forces: the electromagnetic, gravitational, strong nuclear and
weak nuclear forces. We said in the previous chapter that three of these, the electromagnetic,
gravitational and weak nuclear, are fundamental forces. The fourth, the strong nuclear force, is
not a fundamental force. Instead it is a consequence of another force, the strong force, which we
shall introduce in this section.
The quark theory, combined with a theory called gauge theory, allows us to understand
why the strong nuclear force is not a fundamental force. Rather, it arises from the interactions
of quarks, as the nucleons (protons and neutrons) are composed of quarks. Gauge theory is
highly mathematical and well beyond the scope of this course, so we shall look at some of the
predictions of the theory only.

Gauge theory predicts the existence of particles called gauge bosons, which are
massless particles via which massive particles interact.

We have already met one of these gauge bosons several times before: the photon.

The fundamental forces and

field particles
In the Standard Model, particle interactions are described in terms of field particles or exchange
particles. The emission of a field particle by one particle and its absorption by another particle
manifests as a force between the two interacting particles.

Physicists now believe there are four fundamental forces which explain all
interactions between particles.

In order of decreasing strength, they are the strong force, the electromagnetic
force, the weak force and the gravitational force.

Do not confuse the

The strong force is responsible for the attractive force between nucleons. It has a very short strong force with the
range and is negligible for separation distances between nucleons greater than approximately strong nuclear force.
10 –15 m (about the size of the nucleus). It acts between quarks, and the exchange or field particle They are different
is called the gluon. The name ‘gluon’ comes from the way that gluons ‘glue’ the nucleus together. forces, acting
The electromagnetic force, which binds atoms and molecules together to form ordinary between different
matter, has a strength of approximately 10 –2 times that of the strong force. As we have seen, particles and
mediated by different
this long-range force decreases in magnitude as the inverse square of the separation between
exchange particles.
interacting particles. The field particles for the electromagnetic force are photons.

9 7 8 0 1 7 0 2 4 2 11 0 U n i t 4 c h a p t e r 10 : T h e S ta n da r d M o d e l 291
 The weak force is a short-range force that is responsible for beta decay and other decay
processes. Its strength is only about 10 –5 times that of the strong force. The weak force is
mediated by field particles called W and Z bosons.
Finally, the gravitational force is a long-range force that has a strength of only about 10 –39 times
that of the strong force. Although this is the force that holds the planets, stars and galaxies
together, its effect on elementary particles is negligible. The gravitational force is thought to be
mediated by field particles called gravitons. The gravitational force is not part of the Standard
Model, and the graviton has not yet been detected.
These interactions, their ranges, and their relative strengths are summarised in Table 10.4.
You can see that these forces differ in several respects, including their relative strength and
the types of particle they act on.

Table 10.4 The fundamental forces and their exchange or field particles

Interactions Relative Range of force Mediating Mass of field

strength field particle particle (GeV c22)
Strong 1 Short ( 1 fm) Gluon 0
Electromagnetic 10 22
∞ Photon 0
Weak 10 25
Short ( 10 fm) 23 0
W , Z bosons
6 80.4, 80.4, 91.2
239
Gravitational 10 ∞ Graviton 0

Relative strengths of forces

The relative strength of a force is a way of describing how strong the interaction is that it causes
between particles. As an illustration, let’s consider the forces between two electrons. We already
know from Chapter 3 that electrons interact via the electromagnetic force. The electromagnetic
force exerted by one electron on another is described by Coulomb’s law:

ke q e2 2.307 3 10228
Fee, EM 5 5 N m22
r 2
r2

But electrons have mass, and so as well as exerting an electrostatic force, they will also exert
a gravitational force on each other:
Gme2
5.535 3 10271
Fee, G 5 5 N m22
r 2
r2
So we don’t worry about the gravitational force between two electrons because the
electromagnetic force is much stronger than the gravitational force.
As we can see from the equations, the exact magnitude of the forces depends on the
properties of the particles that are interacting (charge for electromagnetism and mass for
gravity), the separation between them, and factors relating to the force itself. These factors
are represented by the constants ke and G in the equations above. To compare the strengths
of the fundamental forces alone, independently of properties such as mass and charge,
The strong force acts physicists have introduced dimensionless quantities called coupling constants or relative
between quarks strengths, given in Table 10.4. The exact definition of these constants depend on some quite
and is mediated by complex theory.
gluons. The strong
nuclear force acts
between nucleons The strong force and the strong
and is mediated by
pions. Other sources
nuclear force
may refer to the The nuclear force was historically called the strong nuclear force. Once the quark theory was
strong nuclear force established, however, the phrase ‘strong force’ was reserved for the force between quarks. We
as the strong force.
shall follow this convention: the strong force is between quarks or particles built from quarks,
Make sure you know
and the nuclear force is between nucleons in a nucleus. The nuclear force is a result of the strong
which is meant.
force. Other books and resources may refer to the nuclear force as the strong force.

292 n e l s o n p h y s i c s u n i ts 3 & 4 f o r th e a u st r a l i a n c u r r i c u l u m 9 7 8 0 1 7 0 2 4 2 11 0
 The Standard Model, in which quarks interact via gluons, gives us a different way of looking
at nuclear interactions. The proton–neutron interaction was described in Chapter 9 as being the
result of an exchange of a pion between the two particles (see Figure 9.8, page 268).
Let’s look at the same interaction from the viewpoint of the quark model, shown in Figure 10.5.
Figure 10.5(a) shows the same process as Figure 9.8, although we now represent the process in
three steps. First, the emission of a p– particle by the neutron. The emission of a p– changes the
neutron to a proton. The absorption of the p– by the proton results in it being converted into a
neutron. The net effect is a force acting between the two nucleons. In Figure 10.5(b), the proton
and neutron are represented by their quark constituents. Each quark in the neutron and proton
is continuously emitting and absorbing gluons. The energy of a gluon can result in the creation
of quark–antiquark pairs. This process is similar to the creation of electron–positron pairs in
pair production. When the neutron and proton approach to within 1 fm of each other, these
gluons and quarks can be exchanged between the two nucleons, and such exchanges produce
the nuclear force.
Figure 10.5(b) shows one possibility for the process shown in Figure 10.5(a). A down quark
in the neutron on the right emits a gluon. The energy of the gluon creates a uu pair. The u
quark stays within the neutron (which has now changed to a proton), and the recoiling d quark
and the u antiquark are transmitted to the proton. Here the u annihilates a u quark within the
proton and the d is captured. The net effect is to change a u quark to a d quark, and the proton
on the left has changed to a neutron. The pion was
As the d quark and u antiquark in Figure 10.5(b) transfer between the nucleons, the d and u introduced in
exchange gluons with each other and hence are bound to each other by means of the strong force. Chapter 9 as the
Looking back at Table 10.2, we see that this combination is a p–, or Yukawa’s field particle, field particle that
as described in Chapter 9. Therefore, the quark model of interactions between nucleons is mediates the strong
nuclear force.
consistent with the pion-exchange model.

a t Figure 10.5
The strong nuclear
F F force mediated by
p2 a) pion exchange and
p n p p n p b) gluons and quarks.
The two processes are
equivalent.

b – g F F
u
u d u – g u d u
u u
d u d u d u d d u d u d u

p n p p n p

The electroweak force

In 1979 Sheldon Glashow, Abdus Salam and Steven Weinberg won the Nobel Prize in
Physics for developing a theory that unifies the electromagnetic and weak interactions. This The electroweak
theory is an example
electroweak theory postulates that the weak and electromagnetic interactions have the same
of a unifying theory.
strength when the particles involved have very high energies. Because of the mass difference Maxwell’s theory of
between photons and the W and Z bosons, the electromagnetic and weak forces are quite electromagnetism
distinct at low energies, but become similar at very high energies, when the rest energy is is another example
negligible relative to the total energy. This behaviour, as one goes from high to low energies, is of a unifying theory.
called symmetry breaking because the forces are similar, or symmetric, at high energies but are Unifying or unified
very different at low energies. theories are those
The two interactions are viewed as different manifestations of a single unifying electroweak that explain more
interaction. The theory makes many concrete predictions, but perhaps the most spectacular than one force within
a single theoretical
is the prediction of the masses of the W and Z particles at approximately 82 GeV c22 and
framework.
93 GeV c22, respectively. These predictions are close to the masses in Table 10.4 determined by
experiment.

9 7 8 0 1 7 0 2 4 2 11 0 U n i t 4 c h a p t e r 10 : T h e S ta n da r d M o d e l 293
 We shall see that this separation of the electromagnetic and weak forces was an important
step in the evolution of the universe. The electroweak theory was important in the development
of the Big Bang theory.

Mass and the Higgs boson

One of the questions raised by the Standard Model is why all the field particles except the
W and Z bosons are massless. Or, put another way, why do the W and Z bosons have mass, and
in fact what is the origin of the mass of all the other massive elementary particles?
To resolve this problem, a hypothetical particle called the Higgs boson, which provides a
mechanism for breaking the electroweak symmetry, has been proposed. When particles interact
via the Higg’s field, they gain mass from this interaction. The field particle is the Higgs boson.
The Standard Model modified to include the Higgs boson provides a logically consistent
explanation of the massive nature of the W and Z bosons.
The Higgs boson was named for Peter Higgs, one of a group of physicists who proposed its
existence in 1964. The existence of the Higgs boson was confirmed in March 2013 by CERN
(the European Organization for Nuclear Research) after a particle with properties corresponding
to those predicted for the Higgs boson was observed in July 2012, as described in the Scientific
literacy box on the next page.

The Standard Model: a summary

Particle physicists now believe that all matter is made up of two types of elementary particles:
quarks and leptons. There appears to be a symmetry between the quarks and leptons, in that
there are six types of each, along with their antiparticles.
Matter is made up
of the elementary
Quarks combine to form mesons and hadrons. Mesons are made up of two quarks, as shown
particles, quarks in Table 10.2. Baryons are made up of three quarks each (see Table 10.3).
and leptons. In addition to these particles, there are also the exchange particles associated with the four
Interactions between fundamental forces, as shown in Table 10.4.
these particles are Although the details of the Standard Model are complex, its essential ingredients are
mediated by the third summarised in Figure 10.6. This diagram shows that quarks participate in all the fundamental
type of elementary forces and that leptons participate in all except the strong force.
particle, gauge Note that the Standard Model does not include the gravitational force at present. However,
bosons or field
we include gravity in Figure 10.6 because physicists hope to eventually incorporate this force
particles.
into a unified theory.

Figure 10.6 u
The Standard Model of Matter and energy
particle physics
Forces Gauge bosons Fundamental particles

Strong Gluon Quarks Charge

u c t 12e
3
Electromagnetic Photon d s b 21e
3
Weak W and Z bosons Leptons
e m t 2e
Gravity Graviton ne nm nt 0
Mass

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 Scientific literacy: Discovery of the Higgs boson
As we have seen above, the mass of the Z and W bosons that mediate the electroweak force is
something of a mystery in the Standard Model. Related to this, is the question as to how particle masses
arise and what determines the mass of a given particle.
The theories behind this are extremely complicated mathematically and
well beyond the scope of this text. They deal with fundamental symmetries in
nature, and are referred to as gauge theories. They are based on quantum field
J u ly 2 012 theories, in which exchange particles are the mechanism by which particles
press interact and reactions occur.
In 1964, British physicist Peter Higgs
r e l e as e
proposed the existence of a field,
Read the now called the Higgs field, with which
announcement of particles with mass interact. It is this
the discovery of a field that gives them the property
particle with the of mass. The field is composed of
properties of the particles, now called Higgs bosons.

Alamy/James Davies
Higgs boson. In the same year, and published
in the same journal (Physical Review
Letters), were two other papers that
also described a mechanism by
which particles acquired mass via
I n t e rv i e w interactions with a field. The first paper p Figure 10.7 Peter Higgs
wi t h P e t e r was by Francois Englert and Robert
Higg s Brout, who were working in Brussels, and the other was by Gerald Guralnik,
You can read Carl Hagen and Tom Kibble, a collaboration of British (Kibble) and American
about Peter (Guralnik and Hagen) physicists working in London.
Higgs’ reaction to Although the popular literature generally only mentions Higgs, all three
the news of the papers are considered of equal importance in the development of the
discovery in this relevant theory by particle physicists. Many physicists, including Higgs himself,
interview. have argued that the name ‘Higgs boson’ is inappropriate because it does
not acknowledge the contribution made by the others. However, given the
widespread and long-term use of the name, it is unlikely to change now.
Remember that for a model to be considered a good one, it must explain
existing phenomena and produce testable predictions. The model developed
March by Englert, Brout, Higgs, Guralnik, Hagen and Kibble explained why the weak
2 013 p r e s s force has a short range, while the electromagnetic force has an infinite range.
r e l e as e It also explained why particles have mass. The model predicted the existence
of a gauge boson – the Higgs boson – as well as its approximate mass. The
This is the official detection of this particle is an important test of the theory.
confirmation that However, detecting a Higgs boson is not a simple task. It requires massive
the particle is the energies of colliding particles to produce a reaction in which isolated Higgs
Higgs boson. bosons can be detected. It also requires massive computing power to analyse
the data generated in such collision events. The Large Hadron Collider (LHC)
was constructed, among other purposes, to search for the Higgs boson.
In July 2012, almost 50 years after its prediction, the detection of a particle
with the properties and approximate mass of the Higgs boson was announced
L at e s t o n by physicists at CERN. It is interesting to note that the announcement did
t h e Higg s not claim that the particle found was the Higgs boson. Such a finding is of
boson from enormous importance in confirming the Standard Model and in understanding
CERN the nature of matter, forces and energy – the basic concepts in physics. This
Catch up on the explains why researchers were hesitant to make such a significant claim without
latest news on the further careful analysis and measurement. Nonetheless, the announcement
Higgs boson here. caused enormous excitement.
Eight months later, in March 2013, a press release from CERN stated that ‘the
measured interactions of the new particle with other particles strongly indicates
that it is a Higgs boson’. The same press release (see weblink) quotes a spokesperson for one of the
experiment teams as saying: ‘The preliminary results with the full 2012 data set are magnificent and to
me it is clear that we are dealing with a Higgs boson though we still have a long way to go to know what
kind of Higgs boson it is.’

9 7 8 0 1 7 0 2 4 2 11 0 U n i t 4 c h a p t e r 10 : T h e S ta n da r d M o d e l 295
 In 2013 the Nobel Prize for physics was awarded to Peter Higgs and
Francois Englert (Robert Brout died in May, 2011, and the Nobel Prize is
2 013 N o b e l not awarded posthumously). The citation by the Nobel society states that
Prize for the award was given ‘for the theoretical discovery of a mechanism that
P h ys i c s contributes to our understanding of the origin of mass of subatomic particles,
and which recently was confirmed through the discovery of the predicted
Read more about
fundamental particle, by the ATLAS and CMS experiments at CERN’s Large
the 2013 Nobel
Hadron Collider’.
Prize for physics at
Although many physicists believe that Guralnik, Hagen and Kibble should
this weblink.
also be recognised, the Nobel Prize is awarded to a maximum of three people.

Questions
1 Why is the detection of the Higgs boson of such importance to the Standard Model?
2 The Higgs boson detected has a mass between 125 GeV c22 and 126 GeV c22. What is this in kilograms?
Give your answer in the form (2 6 2) 3 102_ kg.
3 Why could the Higgs boson not be detected with earlier particle physics experiments?
4 The Higgs boson was called ‘the God particle’ by Leon Lederman. Do some web searches and find
out why. Comment on Higgs’s response that it was embarrassing and ‘the kind of misuse ... which I
think might offend some people’. Why do you think he said this?

Limitations of the Standard Model

The Standard Model has helped us make sense of the huge number of particles. It has provided a
sort of ‘periodic table’ to help us understand particle properties as arising from their underlying
quark composition.
The Standard Model has also been very successful in explaining the origin and nature of
three of the four fundamental forces – the strong, weak and electromagnetic. However, the
Standard Model does not include the gravitational force.
The inclusion of the Higgs boson in the Standard Model gives a mechanism by which
particles have mass. Particles acquire mass because of interactions with Higgs bosons. As we
have seen, mass is the property that causes the gravitational field and hence the gravitational
force. However, the Standard Model does not explain how the gravitational force is mediated.
Many physicists believe that the gravitational field is mediated by massless exchange particles
called gravitons. This is consistent with the way other fields are mediated by exchange particles
(see Table 10.4), but the Standard Model does not include the graviton; therefore, the Standard
Model is incomplete.
Gravity is the force that is most significant in the large-scale structure and evolution
of the universe. Theories such as the Big Bang theory, discussed in the next section, base
their predictions and explanations of cosmological phenomena largely on our current
understanding of gravity. For example, the predicted existence of dark energy and dark
matter is based on observed gravitational effects. The development of a more fundamental
explanation for the gravitational field, or a grand unified theory (GUT) that explains
all four forces, is therefore of great importance not only to particle physicists but also to
cosmologists.
The structure and rate of expansion of the universe can be explained by the presence of
dark matter and dark energy, as described in the next section. Dark matter neither radiates
nor reflects energy – hence it is dark. Its presence is inferred from gravitational effects.
Cosmologists believe that dark matter and dark energy consist of subatomic particles of a type
Standard as yet undiscovered. The Standard Model does not predict such a particle – there is a mismatch
Model and between current theories in cosmology and the Standard Model of particle physics.
neutrino mass Finally, the Standard Model in its current form has been found to be consistent with
experimental results over the last 50 to 60 years, with one exception. The Standard Model
Find out more predicts that the neutrino should be massless.
about the mass of
In 1998, at the Super-Kamiokande neutrino detector in Japan, it was discovered that
neutrinos.
neutrinos can change from one type to another. This implies that they have mass.

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 Astronomical observations including ‘galactic lensing’ imply a neutrino mass of about 0.2 eV c22
to 1.5 eV c22. The masses of the various types of neutrinos are not yet known, other than that they are
very, very small. However, there is general agreement that neutrinos are not massless. Various theories
have been put forward modifying the Standard Model to allow for non-zero neutrino masses.

The standard model is considered incomplete because it:

does not explain gravity, and
predicts that neutrinos are massless.
WOW

The Super-Kamiokande
The Kamioka Neutrino Observatory is located 1 km under Mount Kamioka in Japan.
The Super-Kamiokande detector consists of a huge steel cylinder, 41 m tall and 39 m in
diameter that contains 50 000 tonnes of highly purified water.
When neutrinos from sources such as the Sun or supernovae enter the water, they can
interact with electrons or nuclei in the water molecules. These interactions produce particles
that travel faster than the speed of light in water. (Note that this is much slower than the
speed of light in vacuum.) This produces shock waves in the water, which are seen as
Cherenkov radiation – a blue-green glow in a cone shape. This cone of light shows up as
a ring, incident on detectors on the cylinder structure. The information from the detectors is
analysed to determine the type of particle that interacted with the water. One of the reactions
observed at the Kamioka observatory is n 1 ne → p 1 e, as described in the previous chapter.
The facility is located deep underground to shield the detector from more strongly
interacting particles, allowing neutrinos, which interact only very weakly with matter, to be
detected.

Kamioka Observatory, ICRR (Institute for Cosmic Ray

Research), The University of Tokyo

p Figure 10.8 The Super-Kamiokande neutrino detector

q u e s t i o n s e t 10 . 2
Remembering
1 Which forces are included in the Standard Model, and which are not?
2 Who won the Nobel Prize for physics in 2013, and for what?

Understanding
3 Why is the strong nuclear force not considered to be a fundamental force?
4 Describe two limitations of the Standard Model.

9 7 8 0 1 7 0 2 4 2 11 0 U n i t 4 c h a p t e r 10 : T h e S ta n da r d M o d e l 297
 Applying
5 Calculate the gravitational and electrostatic forces between two neutrons 1 fm (1 3 10215 m) apart.
6 Calculate the gravitational and electrostatic forces acting between two protons 1 fm apart. What is the
minimum force provided by the strong nuclear force between the protons?

Analysing
7 What is a field particle? Briefly describe how the existence of field particles explains ‘action-at-a-distance’. What
other models have we previously used to explain ‘action-at-a-distance’? Explain how these models differ.

Reflecting
8 If you were in charge of the Nobel committee for physics, to whom would you have awarded a Nobel
Prize for the prediction of the Higgs boson? Justify your answer.
9 Why do you think a unified theory that incorporates all four forces is important to both particle physicists
and cosmologists? How has your understanding of the way in which different areas of physics interact
changed? Draw a concept map to illustrate your understanding.

The Standard Model

and cosmology
As you have seen, the Standard Model of particle physics deals with elementary particles, which
are the smallest building blocks of matter. In contrast, cosmology deals with the large-scale
structure of the universe, such as galaxies and nebulae. So it is not immediately obvious how the
two are connected.
To understand the current structure of the universe, and predict its future, we need to
understand the evolution of the universe. The currently accepted theory of how the universe
began, the Big Bang theory, states that the universe began as an infinitesimally small and dense
singularity about 14 billion years ago. This singularity exploded, forming all the elementary
particles described by the Standard Model of particle physics. The interaction of these particles,
which led to the formation of other particles – atoms, molecules, and eventually stars and
galaxies – is governed by the fundamental forces.
Hence, to understand the evolution of the universe, we need to start with particle physics.
But to understand where the particles came from in the first place, we need to use cosmology:
the two are intimately connected.
The Big Bang theory is an expansion theory of the universe. It says that the universe was once
much smaller and has been expanding since some time in the past. There are other expansion theories
in cosmology, as well as steady state theories (which say that the universe is not expanding) and even
oscillatory theories which say that the universe is oscillating in size and happens to be expanding at the
moment. However, the Big Bang theory is currently the most widely accepted cosmological theory.
There are two main experimental observations that support the Big Bang theory. The first
is the redshift of light from distant galaxies, described in the next section. If we assume that
this means that galaxies are moving away from us and extrapolate backwards in time, then
the universe must once have been much smaller. The second important piece of evidence is the
existence of the cosmic microwave background radiation, which is discussed later.
In addition to the redshift and cosmic microwave background radiation, the different
characteristic spectra of distant stars and the structure of distant galaxies compared to close
ones implies that the universe is changing with time, and hence is not in a steady state. This
argument is based on the idea that looking at distant galaxies is equivalent to looking backwards
in time. This is because light takes a finite time to travel a given distance. If a star is 1000 light-
years away, then the light from that star we observe today left the star 1000 years ago and what
we are actually observing is what that star looked like 1000 years ago.

The expanding universe

In 1912 Vesto Melvin Slipher reported that most galaxies are receding from Earth at speeds
of up to several million kilometres per hour. Slipher used Doppler shifts in spectral lines to
measure the velocities of various galaxies.

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 Recall from Chapter 8 that at this time spectra had already been used to identify specific
atomic species. Slipher observed spectra from distant galaxies that had the same line spacings as
known species, but with the frequency of each line shifted by a fixed amount.
When the source of a wave is moving, the frequency of the wave detected by an observer
is shifted. A higher frequency is detected if the source of the wave is travelling towards the
observer. A lower frequency is detected if the source is travelling away from the detector. You
The Doppler shift for
may have noticed this effect when an ambulance or police car goes past you with its siren on. sound is described in
Initially, as the vehicle approaches, you hear a higher frequency. As the vehicle passes you, the Nelson Physics Units 1
frequency drops and you hear a lower frequency as it moves away. & 2 for the Australian
The spectral lines from distant galaxies that Slipher observed were consistently shifted to lower Curriculum Chapter
frequencies. The shift varied for different galaxies, but in each case the shift was towards a lower 10. Recall that when
frequency (or longer wavelength). This is called a redshift, because red is at the lower frequency end a sound source is
of the spectrum. From these shifts Slipher deduced that the galaxies were moving away from us. moving away from
When light of wavelength lemitted is emitted from a source moving at velocity v away from an you, you hear a
lower frequency.
observer, the wavelength observed is given by:
v
11
lobserved 5 lemitted c
v
12
c
The shift in wavelength is therefore:
 v 
 11 c 
Dl 5 lobserved 2 lemitted 5 lemitted  1
v 2  You have met the
 12  ratio b in Chapter 6
 c 
v when you studied
11 relativity.
The factor c is also sometimes written as:
v
12
c
v
11 11b v
c 5 where b 5
v 12b c
12
c

W o r k e d e x a m p l e 10 . 3
Calculate the observed wavelength of the hydrogen spectral line that has wavelength 434 nm, from a galaxy
receding from us at 0.25c. Is this light still in the visible region of the spectrum? (4 marks)

Answer Logic

v Relate the observed wavelength to the 1 mark

11 c emitted wavelength.
lobserved 5 lemitted
v
12
c

11 0.25
c
c
lobserved 5 434 nm Substitute wavelength and speed in units of c. 1 mark
.25c
12 0 c

1.25
lobserved 5 434 nm 5 560 nm Calculate the final value. 1 mark
0.75
The observed wavelength is in the yellow- 1 mark
orange region of the spectrum.

Try this yourself

If this same spectral line was observed with a wavelength of 650 nm, what speed would the (5 marks)
source galaxy need to have?

9 7 8 0 1 7 0 2 4 2 11 0 U n i t 4 c h a p t e r 10 : T h e S ta n da r d M o d e l 299
 Subsequent observations by other astronomers consistently showed that the spectra of stars
in all observed galaxies were redshifted. It appeared that everything was moving away from us!

The atomic spectra of light from distant galaxies is redshifted such that each
spectral line has a longer wavelength than the same line for that atomic species on
Earth. This redshift is a result of the Doppler shift in the frequency of the light due
to the source of the light moving away from us. This observation implies that distant
galaxies are moving away from us.

Not only did observation show that all galaxies are moving away from us, it also seems that
the more distant the galaxy, the greater the redshift. This implies that the further away a galaxy
Hubble’s law is is, the faster it is moving.
empirical. It is a In the late 1920s, Edwin P. Hubble put forward the theory that the entire universe is
mathematical
expanding. Observations showed that the speeds at which galaxies are receding from Earth increase
description of
experimental in direct proportion to their distance from us.
observations. It is
not based on any This is described mathematically by Hubble’s law:
underlying theory.
NASA’s current best v 5 HR
estimate of Hubble’s
constant has an where v is the speed of recession, R is the distance from us and H, is the Hubble constant,
uncertainty of 3%. H≈ 22 3 1023 m s –1 ly–1. (1 ly 5 1 light-year 5 9.5 3 1015 m)

This is possible if the entire universe is expanding, with all points getting further away from
each other. So the universe must have started out much smaller.
The current theory in cosmology, the Big Bang theory, says that it started with an explosion
of all matter from a single point, a singularity.

The Big Bang theory and the

evolution of the universe
According to the Big Bang theory, the universe erupted from an infinitely dense singularity
Recall that in the about 14 billion years ago.
Standard Model of
For the first few moments after the Big Bang the universe was at such extremely high energy
particle physics the
electromagnetic
(temperature) that all matter was contained in a quark–gluon plasma.
and weak forces It is thought that in these first moments all four fundamental forces were unified; the strong,
are unified into the electroweak and gravitational forces were joined to form a single force.
electroweak force at The evolution of the four fundamental forces from the Big Bang to the present is shown in
high energies. Figure 10.9.
Then, about 10 –35 s after the Big Bang, when the temperature had dropped to about 1029 K,
symmetry breaking occurred for gravity. This symmetry breaking meant that the properties of
the gravitational force became distinct from those of the other forces. At this time the strong
and electroweak forces remained unified.
It was a period when particle energies were so great that very massive particles as well as
quarks, leptons and their antiparticles existed. For some reason not yet understood, far more
matter than antimatter particles formed. The amount of matter far exceeds the amount of
anti-matter in our universe to this day. This is not explained by the Standard Model of particle
physics, or by the Big Bang theory.
Then the universe rapidly expanded and cooled, and the strong and electroweak forces
became distinct.
The universe continued to cool and, at approximately 10 –10 s after the Big Bang, the
electroweak force split into the weak force and the electromagnetic force.
After a few minutes, protons and neutrons condensed out of the plasma. For half an hour, the
universe underwent thermonuclear detonation, exploding as a hydrogen bomb and producing most
of the helium nuclei that now exist. The universe continued to expand, and its temperature dropped.
Until about 700 000 years after the Big Bang, the universe was dominated by radiation.
High-energy radiation prevented matter from forming neutral hydrogen atoms because

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Gravitational force The universe The strong and The weak and The expansion t Figure 10.9
splits off from the expands electroweak electromagnetic appears to The Big Bang and
Present
the evolution of the
strong and electro- rapidly. forces split. forces split. accelerate. day fundamental forces
weak forces.

Gravitation
Strong
Weak

Electromagnetic

10240 10230 10220 10210 100 1010 1020 Time (s)

1032 1028 1025 1016 1010 103 3 Temperature (K)

The Big Bang The universe Protons and Nuclei can Atoms can form.
occurs. All consists of neutrons can form. The universe becomes
forces are quarks and form. transparent to photons.
unified. leptons.

collisions would instantly ionise any atoms formed. Photons were continuously scattered from Astronomers like to
the vast numbers of free electrons, resulting in a universe that was opaque to radiation. say that they are
This is an important point in the history of the universe. Astronomers claim that when you looking backwards
look through a telescope into space, you are looking into the past. This is because light takes in time when they
a finite time to travel through space. Hence, the further away you look into space, the further look at light from a
back in time you are seeing because the light has taken a long time to reach you. distant star, because
But no matter how far away you look with a telescope, you cannot see further back than the the light has travelled
time when the universe was 700 000 years old. This is because the universe was opaque to light many years to get to
them.
before then, so no light can reach us from that time.

Astronomical observations cannot give us information about the universe when

it was less than 700 000 years old. We rely on particle physics to tell us about the
state of the universe before this time.

The 700 000-year-old universe had expanded and cooled to approximately 3000 K and protons The universe became
could now bind to electrons to form neutral hydrogen atoms. As we know from Chapter 8, transparent to
atoms have quantised energy levels. Now that atoms existed as the main state of matter, far photons when atoms
more wavelengths of radiation were not absorbed by atoms than were absorbed, and the universe formed, because the
suddenly became transparent to photons. quantised energy
Radiation no longer dominated the universe, and clumps of neutral matter steadily grew: levels of atoms mean
first atoms, then molecules, gas clouds, stars and finally galaxies. they can absorb
The universe has continued to expand and cool since the Big Bang. only fixed, discrete
frequencies. See
One prediction of the Big Bang theory is that residual radiation from the Big Bang should
Chapter 8 for more
currently be observable. This was predicted in 1948 by Ralph Alpher and Robert Herman, details of atomic
although their work was largely ignored at the time. spectra.
This radiation comes from the time when the universe was at a temperature of about 3000 K
and photons were first able to pass through the matter in the universe. We would expect a

9 7 8 0 1 7 0 2 4 2 11 0 U n i t 4 c h a p t e r 10 : T h e S ta n da r d M o d e l 301
 radiation spectrum from the early universe to look like that of a 3000 K black
body curve.
The universe has since expanded and cooled and the predicted radiation spectrum now
corresponds to a 3 K black body curve. This background radiation should have a peak intensity
at a wavelength of a few millimetres, which is in the microwave region of the spectrum. Hence
this residual radiation is known as ‘cosmic microwave background radiation’.
Cosmic microwave background radiation was first observed in 1965 by Arno Penzias and
Robert Wilson. The measurement of the radiation was important in establishing the Big Bang
theory as the accepted theory in cosmology.
WOW
3K Cosmic microwave background radiation,
not pigeons
In 1965, Arno A. Penzias
and Robert W. Wilson of Bell
Laboratories were testing a

Science Photo Library/Emilio Segre Visual Archives/

sensitive microwave receiver for
satellite communications. A faint
background hiss was interfering
with their experiments. They
noticed that the hiss was the

American Institute of Physics

same regardless of the direction
they pointed the antenna. They
cooled the microwave detector
and went outside to chase a
flock of pigeons out of the horn-
shaped antenna, but the signal
remained.
In a casual conversation p Figure 10.10 Wilson and Penzias with the
with colleagues they realised antenna first (accidentally) used to detect
that what they had taken to be cosmic background microwave radiation
interference caused by pigeons
was actually the residual radiation from the Big Bang.
Subsequent measurements confirmed that the radiation they measured corresponded to
that of a back body at 2.7 K. They were awarded the Nobel Prize for their discovery in 1978.

Dark matter, dark energy and the

future of the universe
The Big Bang theory gives us a model for the beginning of the universe. But what will happen
to the universe in the future? Will it continue to expand and cool forever, or will it at some time
begin to contract again? What happens will depend on the amount of mass in the universe, and
on the rate at which the universe is expanding.
In any gas, such If there is enough mass, then eventually the gravitational force will cause the expansion to
as a star, there are slow down and stop, and then reverse it. Gravity will pull all the galaxies, stars and planets back
two competing together into a ‘big crunch’. If there is not enough mass, or if the rate of expansion is too great,
effects. Gravity tries
then the universe will continue to expand and cool forever.
to pull the particles
together, while
In 1998 observations of the apparent brightness and the redshift of supernovae were
pressure due to used to measure their distance and speed of recession from the Earth. These observations led
thermal energy acts astronomers to the conclusion that the expansion rate is increasing.
to push the particles To explain this acceleration, physicists proposed the existence of dark energy, which is
apart. Hence, the energy possessed by the vacuum of space. The theory is that in the early universe, gravity
hotter the gas, the dominated over the dark energy. As the universe expanded and the gravitational force between
more it expands. galaxies became smaller because of the great distances between them, the dark energy became
The denser the gas, comparatively more important. The dark energy results in an effective repulsive force that causes
the more gravity
the expansion rate to increase. This is a similar mechanism to that which causes hot gases to
compresses it.
expand.

302 n e l s o n p h y s i c s u n i ts 3 & 4 f o r th e a u st r a l i a n c u r r i c u l u m 9 7 8 0 1 7 0 2 4 2 11 0
 t Figure 10.11
The Anglo-Australian
Telescope at the Siding
Spring Observatory, NSW

AAP/David Malin
Other observations carried out between 2006 and 2011 at the Anglo-Australian Telescope at
the Siding Spring Observatory have provided strong evidence that the expansion rate is indeed
increasing. The new results imply that dark energy is likely to account for about 72% of the
energy in the universe!
The dark energy may be acting to increase the rate of expansion of the universe. If the
balance between dark energy and gravity favours dark energy, then the universe will continue
to expand forever. Based on the observable mass of the universe, dark energy should win out.
However, based on observable gravitational effects, there appears to more than just visible matter
in the universe.
‘Dark matter’ was first postulated by Jan Oort in 1932. Recall from your study of gravity
and orbital motion (Chapter 2) that the orbital velocity of a planet depends on the mass of
the star about which it orbits. Similarly, the orbital velocity of stars about the galactic centre
depends on the mass in the galaxy. Oort observed that the measured velocity of stars in the
Milky Way did not correspond to that predicted by the observable mass in the Milky Way. The
observable mass is that calculated from the objects that we can see – mainly stars.
Observations by other astronomers also provided evidence that the total mass in galaxies,
including our own, is far greater than that due to visible matter. The ‘missing matter’ needed to
explain these observations was given the name ‘dark matter’ because we cannot see it.
Cosmologists now believe that most of the matter in the universe is this mysterious dark
matter. If there is enough dark matter then gravity will eventually win over dark energy. If this
happens the universe will contract and end in a big crunch.
The nature of both dark energy and dark matter remains a mystery that many physicists
hope to solve.

Limitations of the Big Bang theory

The Big Bang theory is the model of the evolution of the universe that is most widely accepted
by cosmologists today. However, as with all the models and theories we have examined so far, it
has limitations.
One of the predictions based on the combination of particle theory and the Big Bang theory
is the creation of magnetic monopoles (isolated magnets with only one magnetic pole). However,
no magnetic monopoles have ever been observed.

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 Case study
Professor Elisabetta Barberio
Elisabetta Barberio is a Professor in the School of Physics at the
University of Melbourne. She is considered the world expert in
measurements of b-quark (bottom quark) properties. She has
contributed to two major experiments that confirmed key pieces of

Courtesy University of Melbourne/

Standard Model theory, which led to two Nobel Prizes in 1999 and
2008.

Casamento Photography
Professor Barberio is a chief investigator at the ARC Centre of
Excellence for Particle Physics at the Terascale (CoEPP) where
she leads a team of experimental particle-physics researchers.
CoEPP is a Centre of Excellence funded by the Australian
Government through the Australian Research Council. CoEPP
provides the necessary funding so that Professor Barberio and her
colleagues can go to work at amazing places like CERN (European p Figure 10.12
Organization for Particle Physics) in Switzerland. She and her team Professor Elisabetta Barberio
work on the ATLAS experiment at CERN.
Professor Barberio became a physicist because she has always
been very curious about the world around us, and trying to understand natural phenomena. She chose
physics because she wanted the opportunity to contribute to our understanding of the universe. Physics
tries to address fundamental questions, and often can give an answer. Perhaps
not the final answer, but a step forwards. She enjoys physics because physicists
need to be inventive, to have ideas and to have creativity.
Professor Barberio studied physics as an undergraduate at the University
19 9 9 N o b e l of Bologna in Italy. She then went on to a Masters degree and a PhD in
Prize in Germany.
p h ys i c s Since then she has led many international research teams in Europe and
This Nobel Prize Japan. She and her teams have played a crucial role in data analysis for the
was awarded OPAL experiment at the Large Electron Positron Collider. The OPAL detector
for elucidating made measurements of W and Z bosons. Recall that these are the exchange
the electroweak particles for the electroweak force. Precision measurements made with the
interactions. OPAL experiment have confirmed the theory describing fundamental particle
behaviour (the Standard Model) to an extraordinary degree.
Professor Barberio’s research continues to look at some of the fundamental
questions in science. Her current group had an important role in the discovery
of the Higgs boson at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) (see 'Scientific literacy:
Discovery of the Higgs boson' on page 295). The group works on the ATLAS
2008 Nobel
experiment at the LHC and are foundation members of the experiment.
Prize in The CoEPP was also a major sponsor and organiser of ICHEP2012, the
p h ys i c s international physics conference at which CERN announced its Higgs boson
This Nobel Prize discovery via two-way webcast with Melbourne.
was awarded for The acronym ATLAS stands for A Toroidal Large hadron collider ApparatuS.
the discovery of ATLAS is 46 metres long, 25 metres high, 25 metres wide and weighs 7000 tonnes.
the origin of a It has six different detecting subsystems and a huge magnet system that bends
broken symmetry. the paths of charged particles. It is housed at CERN and its goal is to explore the
fundamental nature of matter and the basic forces that shape our universe.
ATLAS is one of the largest collaborative efforts ever attempted in the physical
sciences. There are 3000 physicists participating from more than 150 universities
and laboratories in 38 countries. CoEPP experimentalists take turns in going to
CERN and working on the detector.
ATLAS As we have seen, the Standard Model of Particle Physics describes our
current understanding of matter and forces. The fundamental matter and force
ATLAS investigates particles form a ‘periodic table’ of the building blocks of the universe. These
a wide range of observed patterns or symmetries have been key to the Standard Model and
physics. Read many of its predictions. However, the symmetries are not perfect. Some particles,
more about ATLAS such as the photon, are massless, while others, such as the electron, are
here. massive. Particle masses vary over many orders of magnitude.

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 A key goal of the CoEPP is to look at the origin of mass, and the symmetry breaking that generates the
variety of masses of the elementary particles. The simplest of these, the Higgs mechanism, demands the
existence of the now famous Higgs boson.
Through their involvement in the giant ATLAS experiment at the LHC, Professor Barberio’s team
participated in the discovery of the Higgs boson. This involved both gathering the data from ATLAS and
interpreting that information in light of our current theories.
In parallel with the Standard Model, a ‘standard model’ of cosmology has emerged, leading to the
astounding conclusion that only 4% to 5% of the universe is made of the ‘normal’ matter so well described
by the Standard Model. Approximately 23% of the universe is made of ‘dark matter’, which interacts
via gravity, but otherwise remains unknown to us. Even stranger is the remaining 72% that results in the
accelerating expansion of the universe – dark energy.
The current Standard Model does not include dark matter or dark energy. However, a feature of some
extensions to the Standard Model is the prediction of dark matter particles that would be discoverable
at the LHC. Professor Barberio’s research program aims to draw together the Standard Model and
cosmology, leading to a genuine understanding of the nature of dark matter. They are hoping to be able
to detect the presence of these theorised dark matter particles in experiments using the LHC at CERN.
Professor Barberio summarises the main questions at the frontiers of particle physics:
What is dark matter and dark energy?
How do quarks bind to form protons, neutrons, pions and other hadrons?
How do neutrinos gain mass and why are those masses so small?
Why is the universe filled with matter but essentially no antimatter?
Professor Barberio and her team, along with the many theoretical and experimental physicists with
whom they collaborate, hope to answer some of these questions.

Getty Images/MAXIMILIEN CERN/SPL

p Figure 10.13 The ATLAS detector at CERN

Questions
1 Why did Professor Barberio choose to study physics?
2 What fraction of the matter in the universe is estimated to be ‘dark matter’?
3 Use the tables earlier in this chapter to answer these questions.
a What are the properties (charge, spin, mass) of the b quark?
b Name one meson and one baryon that contain a b quark.
4 Why was the discovery of the Higgs boson so important to particle physics?
5 Follow the weblink to the 1999 or 2008 Nobel Prize in Physics page. Prepare a five-minute talk or a poster
on one of these discoveries for which the Prize was awarded.

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 A second problem is known as the ‘flatness problem’. This is based on the idea that gravity
curves space–time, an idea that comes from the general theory of relativity. It seems that the
universe is very ‘flat’, which is a very unlikely outcome if it started as a singularity and evolved in
the way described by the Big Bang theory.
The theory is also limited in what it explains. It does not, for example, explain how stars
and galaxies form. In fact, it makes an assumption that matter is uniformly distributed through
the universe on all scales – this is known as the cosmological principle. This assumption is
actually at odds with the existence of galaxies, and even with the formation of atoms. In fact,
matter appears to be ‘clumped’ at all scales rather than uniformly distributed.
The cosmic microwave background radiation is also not uniform, as predicted by the
Big Bang theory, but varies slightly depending on the direction in which you look – another
observation that cannot be explained by the Big Bang theory.

Particle physics and the Big Bang theory

Astronomical observations will continue to provide evidence to help cosmologists refine their
theories. However, if the Big Bang theory is correct, then no matter how big the telescopes we
build, we will not see further back in time than when atoms formed. Astronomical observations
cannot give us information about the very hot, early stages of the universe or the singularity
from which the universe started.
For this information we need to turn to particle physics and the accelerators and colliders
that can create conditions similar to those of the early universe. Recall that at very high energies
the four fundamental forces are believed to be unified into a single force. Theories that attempt
to explain what this force was, and how it split into the four forces we know today are called
grand unified theories. These theories can only be tested in experiments at enormously high
energies – the sort of energies only available in massive particle accelerators. The Big Bang
Astronomical theory relies on the existence of grand unified theories to explain the first stages in the evolution
observations are of the universe from a tiny, enormously hot singularity.
limited in what they It is also only in high-energy particle physics experiments that we can hope to actually make
can tell us about particles of dark matter and measure their properties. This is one of the future goals of particle
the early universe. physicists at CERN and other facilities.
Information about Hence, the Big Bang theory will eventually be tested in experiments at particle accelerators
the early universe will like the LHC at CERN.
need to come from These experiments will not only help us build better models of the beginning of our
high-energy particle
universe, but they may also tell us what the ultimate fate of our universe will be – whether it
physics experiments.
continues to expand forever or contracts to end in a ‘big crunch’.

Q u e s t i o n s e t 10 . 3
Remembering
1 Why is dark matter called dark matter?
2 What is the evidence for the existence of dark energy?
3 What causes the redshift in observed spectra?

Understanding
4 Explain how the observation of spectra allows us to determine the speed of a star.
5 Why is the point at which the universe became transparent to photons significant?

Applying
6 Use Hubble’s law to estimate the speed of recession of the nearest star to us, Alpha Centauri, 4.4 light-
years away.
7 The redshift of light from distant galaxies implies that some of them are moving at a significant fraction of
the speed of light. If a distant galaxy is found to be moving at 0.45c, how far away from us is it according
to Hubble’s law?

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 8 Use the information on black body radiation in Chapter 7 to find the peak wavelength radiated by:
a a black body at 3000 K (the universe at 700 000 years after the Big Bang).
b a black body at 3 K (the universe today).

Analysing
9 The hydrogen emission spectrum has a series of visible lines called the Balmer series, as described in
Chapter 8. This series corresponds to transitions to the n 5 2 energy level. For a distant galaxy, the line
corresponding to the n 5 4 to n 5 2 transition is observed at a wavelength of 700 nm.
a Find the wavelength of the line corresponding to the n 5 4 to n 5 2 transition on Earth.
b Find the speed at which this galaxy is receding from us.
c Find the distance of this star from us.

Reflecting
10 Draw a concept map to illustrate your understanding of the Big Bang theory. Include the evidence for the
theory, as well the limitations of the theory, on your diagram. Include the things that the theory predicts
and explains. Add links showing how it draws on ideas from other areas of physics.

Chapter summary
●●
The Standard Model of particle physics is the currently accepted model that describes the elementary
particles of which matter is made and explains the forces via which they interact.
●●
The Big Bang theory is currently the most widely accepted cosmological model for the evolution of the
universe, beginning with a singularity around 14 billion years ago. It relies on particle physics to explain the
evolution of matter and forces from this initial singularity.
●●
More than 300 distinct types of particles have been observed. These can be classified as leptons and
hadrons. Hadrons can be further classified as mesons and baryons.
●●
The Standard Model says that all hadrons are composed of elementary particles called quarks.
●●
Quarks come in six ‘flavours’: up, down, top, bottom, charmed and strange. For each quark type there is an
antiquark.
●●
Mesons are composed of one quark and one antiquark.
●●
Baryons are composed of three quarks. Their corresponding antiparticles are composed of the
corresponding three antiquarks.
●●
Interactions between particles occur via the exchange of field particles. According to the Standard Model
of particle physics, these field particles are photons for the electromagnetic force, W and Z bosons for the
weak force and gluons for the strong force.
●●
The four fundamental forces are the strong force (not the same as the strong nuclear force), the weak force,
the electromagnetic force and the gravitational force.
●●
The strong nuclear force, which is mediated by pions, is a result of the strong force interaction between
quarks, which is mediated by gluons.
●●
The Standard Model does not currently include gravitation, although some theories predict the existence of
the graviton as the exchange particle for the gravitational force, and the existence of gravitational waves
(analogous to photons and electromagnetic waves).
●●
In the Standard Model, particles acquire mass via interactions with the Higgs field. The mediating particle is
the Higgs boson.
●●
The Higgs boson was first observed at CERN in July 2012.
●●
The Standard Model has limitations. It does not include a theory for gravity, and it predicts that neutrinos
should be massless. Experimentally, neutrinos have been found to have very small but non-zero mass.

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●●
The Big Bang theory explains the universe as having originated from the explosion of a singularity containing
all the energy and matter of the universe.
●●
Astronomical evidence such as the redshift points to the expansion of the universe, which is compatible with
the Big Bang theory.
●●
Hubble’s law is an empirically derived relationship between the distance to any given star and its rate of
recession from us.
●●
In the first stages of the formation of the universe, the four forces were unified as a single force. Symmetry
breaking as the universe cooled resulted in the separation of the forces.
●●
Particles formed in the first second after the Big Bang.
●●
To understand the earliest stages of the universe and its current structure and composition we need to use
particle physics as well as cosmology.

Chapter glossary
Big Bang theory the theory that the universe began grand unified theory (GUT) a theory that unites
with a massive explosion of matter from a single point all four fundamental forces in a single model and
cosmic microwave background radiation the explains the symmetry-breaking mechanism that
observed radiation coming from all points in space caused them to separate into the four distinct forces
corresponding to radiation from a black body at 3 K; we know of. There is as yet no widely accepted GUT
it is believed to come from an earlier, much hotter quark type of elementary particle (along with
stage of the universe’s evolution leptons and gauge bosons). Quarks come in six
cosmological principle the assumption that matter flavours and are fermions
is uniformly distributed throughout the universe on all redshift the observed shift to longer wavelength of
scales; it is one of the assumptions underlying the Big spectral lines in distant stars
Bang theory singularity a point in space and time at which the
dark energy energy that is predicted from the density of matter/energy is infinite and the volume is
increasing rate of expansion of the universe, but infinitesimally small
which is not identifiable as any currently known Standard Model the current most widely accepted
energy form model of particle physics that uses quarks and
dark matter matter that is postulated to explain leptons to explain the nature of matter and
gravitational effects but which is not observable by exchange particles to explain the origins of three
the emission or reflection of light of the four fundamental forces: strong force, weak
electroweak theory theory combining force and electromagnetic force; does not include a
electromagnetic and weak interactions theory for gravity
flavours (quarks) the six classifications of quark unified theory any theory that demonstrates how
types: up, down, strange, charm, top and bottom fundamental forces can be united, and explains
the mechanism by which they become distinct, for
gauge bosons the field or exchange particles
example the electroweak theory
predicted by gauge theory

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Chapter review questions
Remembering
1 Name the three types of elementary particle.
2 Which forces are included in the Standard Model? Which particles interact via each of these forces?
3 Which force is mediated by the W and Z bosons? How are these exchange particles different from those
that mediate the other fundamental forces?

Understanding
4 Why do physicists believe that protons and neutrons are not elementary particles? Describe the evidence
that suggests this.
5 Why are we not able to ‘see’ further back than when the universe was approximately 700 000 years old?
6 The emission spectrum of a hydrogen lamp is observed to have a line with a wavelength of 486 nm. This line
corresponds to a transition from the n 5 4 state to the n 5 2 state. Would you expect the line corresponding
to this transition in hydrogen from a distant star to have the same wavelength, a longer wavelength or a
shorter wavelength? Explain your answer.
7 Why is the Super-Kamiokande detector located so far underground?
8 The strong force and the strong nuclear force are often confused. Make a table comparing the two.
Include columns headed ‘acts on’, ‘exchange particle’ and ‘range’.
9 Why does charge always add arithmetically, but spin can add in two different ways?
10 The redshift is evidence that distant stars are receding from us. How would the wavelength shift be different
if instead those stars were moving towards us?

Applying
11 Which of these quark combinations is a possible particle? For those that are possible, identify the particle.
a cd
b uud
c uss
d cc
12 For each of these quark combinations, give the resulting particle’s charge, strangeness and baryon
numbers and all possible spins.
a dss
b bbb
c uuu
d uus
13 What is the quark composition of a D – meson? Show that this composition gives the characteristics of a
D – particle.
14 Show that the characteristics of a D11 are consistent with its quark composition, as given in Table 10.3.
15 What is the largest possible charge of a baryon? Give an example of a combination of quarks that gives
this charge.
1
16 A physicist claims to have detected a meson with a charge of . Why is this impossible in the Standard
Model? 3
17 A distant star is moving away from us at 0.15c.
a How far away is this star?
b What is the observed wavelength of the 656 nm red line in the Balmer series for this star?

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Analysing
18 Consider the b– emission process in which the following reaction occurs: n → p 1 e – 1 v e
a What is the quark composition of each particle before and after the reaction?
b Is quark flavour conserved in this reaction?
19 It has been observed at the Super Kamiokande observatory that neutrinos can change from one type to
another. What does this imply about conservation of lepton number, L?
20 The NGC157 galaxy is 70 Mly away. Calculate the wavelength of the longest and shortest wavelength lines
in the Balmer series for light coming from NGC157. Which of the lines are in the visible region?
21 A distant star is observed to have a hydrogen spectral line that is shifted from 103 nm to 201 nm. How far
away is this star?

Reflecting
22 Reflect on the interaction between particle physics and cosmology. Compare and contrast the
contributions each has made to our understanding of the universe.
23 Draw a concept map summarising your understanding of the Standard Model. Compare your diagram
with that of another student, and add anything that you have missed. Do this at least three times, or until
you are no longer adding new things.
24 How has your understanding of the way models and theories are developed and used in physics changed
from your studies of the topics in Unit 4? Write a short summary describing your understanding of how
models and theories develop and change. Describe the development of two models or theories as
examples to illustrate your summary.

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