EXPERT SERIES

The “Power Alley,”

a.k.a., Troubling Interactions Of Subwoofers
Sponsored by
THE “POWER ALLEY,” A.K.A., TROUBLING
INTERACTIONS OF SUBWOOFERS
Opposing subs can create regions where LF energy is too hot.
Here’s the explanation and some solutions. By Joe Brusi

Subwoofer cancellation is not an unusual occurrence, particularly for open-

air applications. Performance is not good in some audience areas. Sometimes
a specific model of sub gets the blame. The underlying problem is that of the
interaction between subwoofer stacks located on each side of the stage.
So let’s shed some light on this problem and remove part of that “veil of
mystery” that surrounds it, due mostly to the lack of published material.

What’s Going On?

Whenever we have loudspeakers located on both sides of a stage, there’s always
interference between them, assuming, that is, that they carry the same signal.
As seen in Figure 1, when the distance to both sides is the same, sound
from both sides arrives at the same time. As we are closer to one side and

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farther from the other, sound from one of the sides arrives before the
other. This time arrival difference produces comb filtering effects.
When two signals, one of which is delayed in time with respect to
the other, are added, we get the well-known comb filter effect. This
is due to destructive interference. Figure 2 shows the resulting fre-
quency response of summing two signals with a time difference of 7
milliseconds, which is equivalent to 2.5 meters (8 feet). The spacing
between the troughs (“combs”) increases as frequency goes down.
Absolute cancellation occurs at frequencies where the time arrival
difference results in 180 degrees of phase difference between the two
signals, so these frequencies get wiped out. As any frequency response
anomaly, the audibility of comb filtering is a function of the width of
the troughs. These are wider for the lowest frequencies, which makes
comb filtering more audible for those frequencies.
Comb filtering cannot be corrected by using equalization, since there
is absolute cancellation at the bottom of the troughs. Only if one of
the two signals is greater in level than the other will the effect be
diminished and the combs reduced in depth. Figure 1: When the distance to
both sides is the same, sound from
The Problem both arrives at the same time.
If the time arrival difference were constant, we would simply compensate
by delaying one side and go home happy. However, each listening position
(except the center line) gets sound arriving from each side with a different
delay between them, which means that delaying one subwoofer stack would
just shift the sweet spot elsewhere.
Also, the combs are in different frequencies at different positions, which
means that the frequency response is widely different through out the audi-
ence area. The problem is not as bad with mid and high frequencies. First,

Figure 2: Frequency
response of two signals
spaced 7 milliseconds in
time.

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because the troughs are narrower, and hence less audible,
and second, because the zones created are smaller. With
bass frequencies, one can literally walk the different cancel-
lation areas, whereas the high frequency zones may be so
small that the left and right ears do not share zones, so that
the effects of cancellation are not as destructive.
Also, sources are more directive as frequency goes up. This
means that when the audience is closer to one of the sides,
they tend to be to some extent inside the main coverage
beam of one side of the system and outside of the other, so
comb filtering effects are reduced.
But with subwoofers, the situation is a nightmare. Combs
are wide and very audible. Kick drum just seems to disappear
in some places. And, since the wavelengths involved are so
large (e.g., ~5 meters or 16 feet at 70 Hz), zones are enormous.
Because subwoofers are omnidirectional below, say, 150
Hz, the whole audience area is within coverage of both sides
of subwoofers. All types of subwoofers suffer from interference effects no Figure 3: Single subwoofer side,
matter what the type (direct radiating, folded horn, etc.) or brand. 100 Hz.
The result is the “power alley,” which describes the fact that
only a narrow center line of a left and right subwoofer configu-
ration gets interference-free bass.

Modeling (Getting The Finger...)

Let’s use electro-acoustic modeling to reveal the phenom-
enon. The following predicted coverage maps are very close
to what happens in real life in open-air applications. Closed
spaces add a reverberant field that tends to smooth out cov-
erage out, along with room modes, which create additional
zones of their own.
We’ve placed 3-high x 2-wide stacks of double 18-inch subs on
both sides of an 8-meter (27 feet) wide stage. An audience area of
60 meters (200 feet) wide and 52 meters (175 feet) long is used.
The first coverage map (Figure 3) corresponds to 100 Hz.
We have switched on just one side of subwoofers just to
see what happen when all our bass emanates from a single
stack. Sound pressure level expands smoothly in a way that
is close to the distance-squared law. So far so good. Figure 4: Left and right subs,
But problems knock on our door when both sides are on (Figure 4). Also at 100 Hz.

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100 Hz, we can now see some kind of alien hand with five
fingers. These are maximum pressure lobes, where the
phase difference between the left and the right sides is
small. The areas between the lobes represent cancellation.
Level readings show levels down 20 dB from the lobes.
That means 100 Hz pretty much walks out on us.
O.K., so at least some folks are enjoying good bass,
right? Wrong. Areas where the 100 Hz are in phase will
have other frequencies out of phase, so there aren’t any
“good” areas (except for the center line). Naturally, some
frequencies are more important than others when dealing with bass gui- Figure 5: Left and right subs at 4
tar or bass drum, so our problems will be more evident in some areas than meters (13 feet) off-center.
others.
Figure 5 shows what is taking place in the location seen on Figure 4, which
is 4 meters (13 feet) off to the side. On the top part we see that the closest
group of subwoofers arrives about 2.5 milliseconds (ms) before the other. On
the bottom part, we see the resulting frequency response, where the first
trough occurs at about 100 Hz.
The following illustrations (Figures 6-8) show modeling for 80, 63 and
50 Hz, respectively. Note how the number and location of the lobes varies
with frequency.

Figure 6: Left and right subs, 80 Hz. Figure 7: Left and right subs, 63 Hz. Figure 8: Left and right subs, 50 Hz.

So, Where Is That Alley?

For each frequency, we have a map with fingers. If we sum several fre-
quencies and plot them on a single map, the alley emerges, since it rep-
resents the only locations where bass sums coherently at all frequencies.
The width of the alley depends on the spacing of the subwoofers – as the
two sides of subwoofers increase in spacing between each other, the alley
will narrow.

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 Figure 9 shows the alley for two single subwoofer boxes
spaced 14 meters (47 feet). It’s not as obvious graphi-
cally as it is audibly, but it can still be distinguished as an
approximately 4 meter (13 feet) band with more intense
color.

Conclusion
The only real way to avoid the power alley is to place all
subwoofers in a single location. With smaller scale applica-
tions, placing all the subwoofers in the center is normally
not a possibility, but larger shows may benefit from flying
subwoofers in the center.
It’s important, however, to understand what is happen- Figure 9: Powerhouse alley with
ing, so as not to blame the loudspeakers. And being aware of the zones that two subs spaced at 14 meters (47
get created before making mixing decisions. feet) apart.
For instance, if the front of house console is located in the center, we could
chose a mix that’s somewhat bass-heavy when listened to along the cen-
ter line. Meanwhile, off to the sides, destructive interference will kick in and
establish some frequency balance between the low frequencies and the rest
of the system.

JOSÉ (JOE) BRUSI is an independent electroacoustical consultant

([Link]). And thanks to Joan La Roda for the field phase
measurements of the alternate face-to-face subwoofer configuration.

About Fulcrum Acoustic:

Founded in 2008, Fulcrum Acoustic is a professional loudspeaker manufacturer
known for its unique approach to loudspeaker design. Employing the research of
company co-founder David Gunness, Fulcrum Acoustic combines proprietary
coaxial design and Temporal Equalization™ processing power to create the most
powerful and versatile line of loudspeakers available.
[Link]

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 EXPERT SERIES

Everything You Wanted To

Know About Subwoofers
Sponsored by
CHAPTER 1: IT’S ALL ABOUT THE BASS Table of Contents
2 CHAPTER 1: It’s all about
The evolution, facts, and theories about subwoofers and the low the bass
end of the frequency spectrum. By Andy Coules
7 CHAPTER 2: Moving Air

Over the last few years I’ve been fortunate enough to use some of the best
sound systems currently available from many of the leading manufacturers,
and one of the things that struck me is how far we’ve come in terms of deliv-
ering the bottom end of the mix.
Subwoofer technology and placement techniques have developed to the
point where we have a lot more control over how this important band of fre-
quencies is deployed. So I thought it would be good to take a look at how we
got to this point and explore how we can deliver a better bottom end.
When talking about bass frequencies we’re typically referring to those
below about 250 Hz, but I want to focus on the lowest of the low; in other
words, sub bass – frequencies typically between 20 and 100 Hz. The nature
of the way in which we hear means we don’t perceive all frequencies equally

2 ProSoundWeb: Expert Series: Everything You Wanted To Know About Subwoofers [Link]
(this also changes with volume). But generally speaking, humans are much
less sensitive to frequencies below 100 Hz, which is why this region requires
special attention.
Looking at standard PA loudspeakers or a pair of studio monitors, most of
them extend down to a reasonable frequency for reference purposes, but
both will always benefit from the addition of subwoofers to enhance the bot-
tom end. Amplifiers designed to power subs tend to be more powerful than
those used for mid-range or high frequencies, and the loudspeakers them- Edgar Villchur, developer of the
selves are always larger (usually 15 or 18 inches in diameter) than their higher- first acoustic suspension woofer,
frequency counterparts. in the lab circa 1965.
A common misconception is that large loudspeakers are needed to produce
low-frequency sounds, but reality says otherwise — a simple proof of this is
ear buds and headphones. The issue here is the medium through which the
sound travels. Air is a relatively inefficient conductor of vibrations, and bass
vibrations are relatively slow, so much more power is required to produce
bass frequencies that are perceived to be the same level as the corresponding
higher frequencies. For instance, if we all lived underwater, a relatively low-
powered 2-inch woofer would be quite capable of producing pleasing levels
down to about 20 Hz.

EARLY RUMBLES
The first acoustic suspension woofer was invented by Edgar Villchur in 1954: the
AR1 debuted at the New York Audio Fair and quickly went into production for
his newly founded company, Acoustic Research. The design utilized the elastic
cushion of air within a sealed enclosure to ensure a linear restoring force for the
woofer’s diaphragm, thus producing louder and cleaner bass frequencies.
Loudspeakers capable of producing frequencies below 100 Hz with ade-
quate volume and minimal distortion become more common in the 1960s and
70s but weren’t commonly applied in the way that they are now (i.e., at con-
certs, in recording studios and for home hi-fi). The main use was in cinema to
enhance the movie-going experience.
One such approach was called Sensurround, a process developed by Cer-
win-Vega in conjunction with Universal Studios that used multiple subs pow-
ered by racks of 500-watt amplifiers triggered via control tones printed on
the audio track of the film to produce energy between 17 and 120 Hz.
The most famous application of Sensurround was to add “realism” to the
1974 film Earthquake. The low-frequency entertainment method was cred-
ited with making the film a box office success and generated a lot of public-
ity for subwoofers. (And the film won an Academy Award in the Best Sound
category.)

3 ProSoundWeb: Expert Series: Everything You Wanted To Know About Subwoofers [Link]
 One of the main reasons subs weren’t commonly used in the home was due
to the limitations of the primary playback medium of that time (vinyl records). Diagram of the Sensurround
Loud and deep bass was difficult because it affected the stylus’s ability to pseudorandom generator circuit
track the groove; even a moderate amount of bass (by modern standards) to create low-frequency rumble.
would cause the needle to oscillate excessively until it jumped out of the
groove. Truly accurate and deep bass wasn’t really possible until the compact
cassette tape became a common medium, followed by the compact disc (CD).

MEETING EXPECTATIONS
In the early days of concert sound, there wasn’t really an overriding need for
a full and deep bottom end. To illustrate, let’s take a look at the two instru-
ments most commonly found in the subs in traditional guitar-based rock
music: kick drum and bass guitar.
If you stand next to an unamplified drum kit while it’s being played, you
might notice that the kick drum isn’t actually that bass heavy. It moves a
certain amount of air, and has the most bass of all the drums in the kit, but
it doesn’t have that sound that “hits you in chest” like it does when stand-
ing in front of the PA at a gig. That sound is actually an artificial construction
whereby the drum is close-miked with microphones that are tuned to bring
out the bass frequencies — often in a disproportionate way.
The standard electric bass guitar has four strings that are tuned an octave
down from the bottom four strings of the guitar. These oscillate at about

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41, 55, 73 and 98 Hz, with the specific sound produced depending largely on
the bass amp. (Very few bass amps are able to generate 41 Hz; in fact, most
struggle to go below 80 Hz with sufficient level.) Again we use techniques
such as direct injection (DI) or close miking the bass amp cabinet to help bring
out those lower frequencies.
The point I’m making is that routinely, we artificially enhance the bottom
end of key instruments to create the sound we’ve come to desire and expect.
This sound is the product of an evolutionary process pushed forward by a
combination of production techniques, advances in amplifier and loudspeaker
technology, and the expectations of the musicians and their audiences.
But why do we prefer a full and deep bass sound in our music? According to
recent research by Laurel Trainor at the McMaster Institute for Music and The
Mind in Ontario, Canada, our ears are much better at discerning subtle timing
differences in low frequencies than high frequencies. The study suggests that A Diatone loudspeaker from
this effect arises within the physiological mechanism of the ear and not in the Mitsubishi; the first ones were
perceptual center of the brain. This tells us that we rely much more on the built in the spring of 1945 for the
low-frequency content of music to help us lock into the rhythm, and further, Japanese radio station NH
it shows how important it is for live sound engineers to get the bottom end
right, particularly for dance music.
There’s one more important factor that contributes to our enjoyment of low
frequencies: they’re felt as much as heard. The sheer amount of air movement
at low frequencies resonates in our chests and adds a visceral element to our
enjoyment of the sound. Much like that early Sensurround system, it helps
put us “in” the sound and adds to our enjoyment of the music.

VARIOUS APPROACHES
So how do we get the best out of modern sub bass systems? The first thing to
consider is that more is not necessarily better — just because we now have
prodigious power at our fingertips does not mean that we need to wield all
of it. There’s a fine line between levels that induce stomach jiggling excite-
ment and those that induce nausea. Bass coverage is rarely completely even
throughout a venue, so it’s always a good idea to be familiar with the region
where it’s at it’s maximum and then to set levels accordingly, also keeping in
mind that the levels at front of house don’t always represent the whole.
One of the biggest causes of messy, muddy mixes is bass energy getting into
the subs that shouldn’t be there. This can be avoided in a number of ways. First Iconic Electro-Voice MTL-4 subs
and foremost is microphone choice and positioning — putting the right mic in (each with four 18-inch woofers),
the right position is the best way to ensure getting just the desired sound from a staple of the touring circuit in
the source. Also be aware of how directional mics exhibit the proximity effect; the early to mid- 1990s, flying
knowing when to exploit this and when to obviate it can help a lot in delivering with their mid/high companions.

5 ProSoundWeb: Expert Series: Everything You Wanted To Know About Subwoofers [Link]
a crisp and clean bottom end from multiple miked sources.
I’m also a big fan of the artful use of high-pass filtering, which serves two
very important purposes. It can help reduce the amount of low-frequency
leakage, which is inevitable when multiple mics are in close proximity to each
other, and it can also help reduce frequency masking, which always occurs in a
downwards direction, frequency-wise (i.e., guitars are more likely to mask the
bass than the other way round). And if that doesn’t help reduce the amount of
unwanted bass in the subs, then the aux fed sub method provides further con-
trol to ensure only the desired signals are present in the subs.
Sometimes, particularly in small venues, the issue is not too much bass but rather A 75 Hz high-pass filter from an
not enough of it. This is where a little knowledge of psychoacoustics can help. input channel of a Mackie 1402
There’s an interesting phenomenon called the Missing Fundamental where we hear mixer as measured in transfer
the overtones of a sound but not the fundamental frequency (usually because the function mode on Rational Acous-
sound system doesn’t go that low). Under the right conditions, our brains process tics Smaart software. The filter
the information present in the overtones and fill the gap left by the fundamental has a slope of 18 dB per octave.
frequency so that we actually perceive it even though it’s not present.
I’ve often exploited this principle when the PA has a less-than-stellar bottom
end. The key is not just to boost the upper reaches of the bass sound but also to
reduce the low frequency content, which has the added bonus of stopping the
PA from wasting energy trying to produce frequencies it can’t.
Hopefully this discussion provides some new insight into a familiar but some-
times overlooked band of frequencies. After all, if you’re planning to build a
sturdy mix, it always helps to start with a solid foundation.

ANDY COULES ([Link] is a sound engineer and audio educator

who has toured the world with a diverse array of acts in a wide range of genres.

6 ProSoundWeb: Expert Series: Everything You Wanted To Know About Subwoofers [Link]
CHAPTER 2: MOVING AIR
Inside subwooder designs and configuration in the quest to
deliver LF energy with maximum impact and control.
By Craig Leerman

Today’s music and special effects (like explosions in motion picture

soundtracks) include a lot of low-frequency content. While larger full-range
loudspeakers may have a wide frequency range, it takes subwoofers to really
reproduce low end with impact, especially for bass-heavy music like elec-
tronic dance (EDM) and reggae.
Deployment of main loudspeakers is usually a relatively straightforward
matter, but locating and configuring subs presents numerous options and can
be a bit of a challenge. Let’s start with the basics.
Subwoofers are specialized cabinets that reproduce the extreme low end
of the frequency range. Studio and home theater models may operate in
the range of 20 to 250 Hz, while subs for sound reinforcement usually oper-
ate around 30 to 120 Hz, with 80 to 100 Hz being common crossover points.
They can be passive, fed by external amplifiers and processors, or active, with
onboard amplification and processing.
Smaller systems may send the subs the same main output feed as the full-
range mains, while larger setups might receive content only from the instru-
ments with LF content like kick drum, bass guitar or even a bass vocalist,
usually sent via an aux send on the console. This can help clean up “muddy”
sounding low end because it eliminates the open microphones on stage send-
ing signals to the subs that can be out of phase with each other.
There are several different types of subs, with each design being a trade-off
between bandwidth, efficiency, portability and cost. Designs can utilize single
or multiple transducers, almost always cone drivers arranged in a variety of
configurations, including:
Sealed/Acoustic Suspension. The driver(s) are mounted in a sealed cabinet.
While the transient response of this design is good, it’s less power efficient
compared to vented enclosures and can be lacking when reproducing very low
frequencies, especially at high volume levels. One notable exception is a spe-
cific design that utilizes a proprietary electronic processing control system for
solid reproduction at extreme low frequencies (under 20 Hz).
Bass-Reflex/Ported/Vented. The most common type in live audio, a bass-
reflex design has the driver(s) mounted into a box chamber that also houses one
or more vent opening(s). The vent (a.k.a., port) is of a specific size and length to
allow sound emanating from the rear of the driver to exit the enclosure, with

7 ProSoundWeb: Expert Series: Everything You Wanted To Know About Subwoofers [Link]
the driver(s) and porting combining to provide a specific response character-
istic. The advantages of bass-reflex over a sealed design are many, including
extended LF response, increased power handling and increased output.
However, these advantages come at the cost of larger enclosure size and
weight and slower transient response, along with the possibility of need-
ing additional high-pass filtering slightly below the sub’s tuning frequency to
avoid over-excursion of the driver(s), which can cause damage at high levels.
Bandpass. This approach places one or more driver(s) in a tuned chamber
that can be sealed or vented, with the front of the driver(s) playing into a sec-
ond tuned vented chamber before exiting the box. By passing sound through
tuned ports, the design limits the bandwidth that the system can reproduce,
resulting in increased output within a specific frequency range, along with a
reduction of upper harmonics. The downside is that placing a second tuned
chamber in front of the driver results in a larger enclosure. Schematics of the LAB Sub, a
Horn Loaded. As the name implies, the driver(s) are located in a sealed (or horn-loaded design developed
sometimes vented) chamber whose output is channeled out via a horn. Horns can by the PSW Live Audio Board
increase the output of the driver(s) and also can improve directionality, depending community.
on the length and mouth area of the horn (the part that meets the outside air).
Because low frequencies require a large horn, designers typically bend, fold or
curve the horn in the enclosure, resulting in a more manageable sized cabinet.
While horn-loaded designs offer an increase in gain over a bass-reflex design,
they sometimes don’t reproduce the lowest frequencies very well because a
substantially sized horn is required to handle those long wavelengths. However,
they can be stacked in groups for additional LF extension. The large size and
weight of these enclosures usually limit their use to larger events.
Tapped Horn. A driver is placed in the mouth of a horn, with one side firing
into the horn and the other side firing into the mouth of the horn. This mount-
ing location reduces the amount of driver excursion required in comparison to
a driver located in a sealed chamber at the back of a horn, with the result being
lower distortion and greater output.
Cardioid. This approach delivers more output from the front of the box and
less from the rear. It’s usually accomplished by adding drivers to the rear of an
enclosure and changing their phase relationship and/or their output arrival time A variety of cardioid configurations.
in relation to the front drivers, helping cancel out the sound waves to the rear.
Cardioid designs focus LF energy on the audience while reducing unwanted
reflections and noise on stage. These benefits come at the cost of larger and
heavier subs, and additional amplification and processing are also required if
they’re passive cabinets. However, the results can be very good, particular in
problematic acoustical environments.
Hybrid. These utilize a combination of approaches inside a single enclosure.

8 ProSoundWeb: Expert Series: Everything You Wanted To Know About Subwoofers [Link]
For example, one configuration has two drivers sharing a common vented
chamber. One driver’s frontal radiation is direct, while the second driver is
set at 90 degrees and radiates into a second vented chamber. Another take
is a cardioid passive dual-transducer configuration with an 18-inch driver in a
bass-reflex configuration and a 15-inch driver feeding a folded horn.

THE NATURE OF WAVES

Before we look at various ways to deploy subwoofers, we need to spend a
little time on sound waves. Sound is a pressure wave through a medium like
air or water.
At sea level in dry air at 75 degrees (Fahrenheit), the speed of sound is
approximately 775 miles per hour (1136.6 feet per second). Humans can hear
these vibrations if they’re in the frequency range of our hearing, usually
considered between 20 Hz to 20 kHz. The wavelengths (one cycle of a tone A common end-fire configuration.
or pitch) for bass frequencies are longer than higher pitched frequencies.
Because subwoofers operate in a general frequency range of 30 to 110 Hz, it
means we’re dealing with wavelengths of about 10 feet to about 35 feet long.
Long wavelengths aren’t usually affected by slender items in their path, like
a support column in a building, unlike smaller high-frequency wavelengths
that can be redirected and reflected off even small obstructions.
Anything within one-quarter (1/4) of the wavelength in distance can affect
the output, including floors and walls (a.k.a., boundaries), as well as additional
subs stacked next to each other. Most subs radiate energy in an omnidirec-
tional pattern, as shown in Figure 1.
If we suspend a sub above the ground, its output emanates in all direc-
tions, and if it’s more than 8.75 feet away from any surface (a one-quarter
wavelength of 30 Hz or 35 feet), it does not get any gain in output from a
boundary. Place the sub on the floor (called half-space loading) and there’s an
additional (theoretical) 3 dB of output because the energy that would have
traveled down is now reflected up from the floor.
Placing it on the floor next to a wall (quarter-space loading) adds 6 dB more
output, and moving it to a corner (eighth-space loading) adds 9 dB. (While
this looks great on paper, in the real world the numbers won’t be that high Figure 1
because of interference from the boundary and the acoustic space.)
Now, place the sub one-quarter wavelength from a rigid wall, and its output
will bounce off the wall and return to the sub, making it about one-half wave-
length, with the phase about 180 degrees from the original signal. This results
in destructive cancellation. Depending on distance from a boundary and the
pitch of the signal, frequency response is affected.
A common phenomenon is a bass “power alley” where LF output is strong

9 ProSoundWeb: Expert Series: Everything You Wanted To Know About Subwoofers [Link]
between left and right stacks because the output from each sub combines
to add power. However, as you move off center, phase and time delay issues
cause cancellations. This effect is most pronounced outdoors where walls and
ceilings are not adding reflections and destructive cancellations.

INTERESTING ARRANGEMENTS
Let’s move on to a variety of ways to deploy subs. Prediction software can
be very helpful in this regard, allowing us to model various configurations as
well as see the impact of things such as signal delay and high-and low-pass
filtering. The plots we’re presenting here were done with the Subwoofer Array
Designer Calculator ([Link]) by the software designer him-
self, Merlijn van Veen. (Thanks Merlijn!) Figure 2
Single. Placed in a convenient spot, output will only be affected by the
room and not other subs. A corner location can be better as it affords a boost
in output. A downside is lack of pattern control, with the possibility of too
much LF energy on stage and/or in other areas.
Multiples. This will “move more air” than a single sub, but stacking or lining
up the enclosures will effect the pattern because the group produces longer
than a one-quarter wavelength, which in turn will narrow the coverage pat-
tern. Placing them near a wall or corner will additionally alter the pattern.
Left/Right (Ground). In Figure 2 we see the result of an L/R placement at
40 Hz. The power alley is clearly in evidence, and also note that on each side
of the power alley, there are power valleys or null zones where destructive
interference has reduced the output level.
Compare this to Figure 3, which shows the same configuration at 80 Hz.
Note the destructive interference has resulting in multiple null zones in the
output.
Left/Right (Flown). Particularly popular at larger events, subs can fly above
a loudspeaker array, as a part of a horizontal array, next to an array, and
behind an array. The behind configuration minimizes the overall width of the
loudspeaker hangs and doesn’t intrude on audience sightlines. Flown subs can
be configured in directional arrays as well as be joined by additional subs on
the ground.
Vertical Array. Subs stacked vertically (usually flown beside or behind an Figure 3
array) will develop some vertical pattern control, with the length of the array
determining how much. Longer = greater control.
Center (Ground & Flown). A center location with one or more subs can be
ideal for providing a smoother coverage pattern over an L/R placement, but this
method may result in putting too much bass back onto the stage unless cardi-
oid cabinets or configurations are implemented. Center flown subwoofer arrays

10 ProSoundWeb: Expert Series: Everything You Wanted To Know About Subwoofers [Link]
are popular for installs, especially in theaters, but not so much for live events.
Horizontal. This arrangement places loudspeakers next to each other (or
with small intervals between boxes) in a row, usually across the front of the
stage. The effect of using a large line of cabinets will narrow the horizontal pat-
tern, but unless the array is made up of cardioid cabinets, the stage will still be
awash in low frequencies.
Curving the array instead of placing the cabinets in a straight array can offer
more constant directivity. Figure 4 shows a horizontal array at 40 Hz, while Fig-
ure 5 shows the same configuration using cardioid cabinets.
Distributed/Delay. Uses multiple subs in various locations (such as hidden
beneath a runway stage along its length), and may employ time delay to achieve Figure 4
a coherent arrival time at various audience locations. This approach is popular
for corporate-type events where a large stack or wall of subs is not desired for
aesthetic reasons, while a number of subs spaced apart down the walls, flown,
or hidden under a stage is better received by event planners. Distributed-type
systems can also be found installed in venues where a single subwoofer place-
ment would not cover the intended audience area.

MAKING IT DIRECTIONAL
As previously noted, a primary goal is keeping excessive LF energy out of areas
where we don’t wish it to be. With select placement/arrangement of subs and
the application of processing such as signal delay, various radiation patterns can
be attained. Some of the more popular directional array techniques include:
Delay Shaded Array. This reduces the output of the boxes at or near the
ends of an array (like a horizontal array), with the intent to make the coverage Figure 5
pattern more regular and less frequency dependent.
Cardioid Array. Two popular cardioid approaches are stacking and side by side.
Stacking places the boxes on top of each other, with one cabinet (usually the middle
cabinet in a stack of three) reversed to point to the rear. Side by side places the
boxes next to each other and reverses one (again normally the middle one of three).
Further pattern control can be attained by applying delay, either by delay-
ing the output of the front-facing cabinets to arrive at the same time as the
output of the rear-facing cabinet, or by delaying the rear-facing cabinet to
the output of the front-facing cabinets while also reversing the polarity of
the rear-facing cabinet so that it’s signal is 180 degrees out of phase with the
front-facing cabinets.
End Fire Array. Multiple cabinets are aligned in a row, arranged one in front
of the other with all pointing forward. All cabinets are delayed in relation to
the rear-most cabinet. This approach makes it possible to project powerful, Figure 6
directional bass over long distances. Figure 6 shows how an end fire array

11 ProSoundWeb: Expert Series: Everything You Wanted To Know About Subwoofers [Link]
provides very good pattern control at 80 Hz.
Obviously, there’s a lot to discuss when it comes to subwoofers, and what
I’ve presented here is intended as a primer, really just scratching the surface.
I recommend further research to enhance your understanding — for example,
ProSoundWeb offers dozens of articles on subwoofers and related topics,
while the LAB Subwoofer Forum on PSW is an excellent resource for both
information and getting questions answered.
It’s well worth your time, as delivering LF energy with maximum impact
and control is one of the defining factors of a successful sound reinforcement
experience.

Live Sound International senior contributing editor CRAIG LEERMAN has

worked in professional audio for more than 35 years and is the owner of Tech
Works, a production company based in Las Vegas.

About Fulcrum Acoustic:

Founded in 2008, Fulcrum Acoustic is a professional loudspeaker manufacturer
known for its unique approach to loudspeaker design. Employing the research of
company co-founder David Gunness, Fulcrum Acoustic combines proprietary
coaxial design and Temporal Equalization™ processing power to create the most
powerful and versatile line of loudspeakers available.
[Link]

12 ProSoundWeb: Expert Series: Everything You Wanted To Know About Subwoofers [Link]
 EXPERT SERIES

The Best Place To Put

Subwoofers Is… ?
Sponsored by
THE BEST PLACE TO PUT SUBWOOFERS IS… ?
The most common answer is to put them on the floor.
But is it always true? By Jerrold Stevens

“Subwoofers should be located on the floor if at all possible.” This is one of

those classic bits of audio “conventional wisdom.” I hear it from system opera-
tors on nearly every project. But is it true?
If we look at the physics of sound, we learn that, as with most things in the
world of audio, “it depends.” So let’s start by discussing why the floor might
indeed be a good place to put subwoofers.
Placing any loudspeaker against a large plane (relative to wavelength) pro-
duces a half-space loading condition, meaning that all the energy radiating
spherically (equal energy in all directions) from the loudspeaker is now being
radiated into a hemisphere, or half the area. This results in a 6 dB increase in
energy radiating into the hemisphere, the same increase that happens by dou-
bling the number of subwoofers.
If the subs also happen to be very close to a vertical surface, say, a tall

2 ProSoundWeb: Expert Series: The Best Place To Put Subwoofers Is… ? [Link]
stage face, another quarter space loading is the result, producing as much
as another 3 dB (assuming the stage face is a solid surface); in other words,
again, another “doubling” of the number of subs.
For example, four subwoofers on the floor and close to a vertical surface
could provide the equivalent output of as many as 16 subwoofers. This cer-
tainly seems to support the argument for putting them on the floor (and near
a vertical surface), but what other issues need to be considered?
How about the Inverse Square Law? You know, the one that says for every
doubling or halving of distance from the source, there is a 6 dB change in level
(outdoors)?
At some live shows, listeners might be as little as 10 feet away from subs
on the floor, while the farthest listeners might be 200 feet away. Let’s say
your mix position is 100 feet from the subs. If the subs are hitting 100 dB SPL
at the mix position, then the front row is getting about 120 dB while the last
row is getting about 94 dB. That’s a 26 dB change in level from the front row
to the last! Of course, the difference wouldn’t be this great indoors, but it will
still be uncomfortable for the first few rows of listeners.
Now let’s consider crossover points. With the subs on the floor, we have two
sources (the mains and subs), reproducing the same content, that are separated
by quite a large distance. Let’s say the mains are flying at about 25 feet
above the subs. What’s going on around the crossover point?
The first task is synchronizing the arrival of the subwoofer sound
with the mid-high sound. For the front row, the subs need to be
delayed about 13 milliseconds (ms) to be in sync with the output of the
mains. Yet at the mix position 100 feet away, so the physical offset is
only about 3 feet (or 2.7 ms), and the back row offset is only 1.5 feet (or
1.3 ms). So who gets the good sound?
This physical offset affects system alignment resulting in anomalies in
frequency response around the crossover point as well. Any loudspeaker
array in which there are two or more spaced sources reproducing the
same sound produces a dip in the polar response in one or more direc-
tions, based upon the frequency and the physical spacing of the sources.
That’s a mouthful, so here’s the bottom line: The listeners at each of
our positions will get different frequency response in the form of dips
around the crossover point. Figure 1
Let’s do a little modeling the see what happens. Figure 1 is a vertical polar
graph of a mid-high loudspeaker flying at 25 feet high and a subwoofer on
the floor around the 80 to 125 Hz range around the 100 Hz crossover point. I
don’t think anyone wants this kind of polar performance! And what does this

3 ProSoundWeb: Expert Series: The Best Place To Put Subwoofers Is… ? [Link]
Figure 2 Figure 3

mean to the listener?

Let’s look at the frequency response at each of our listener positions. In Fig-
ure 2, the low- and high-pass filters are displayed along with the frequency
response at 10 feet (green trace), 100 feet (blue trace), and 200 feet (pink
trace), from 20 to 1000 Hz.
The first thing we notice is the difference in levels between each of our lis-
tener positions.
Second is the difference in level between our mid-highs and our subs at the
10-foot listener position (green trace). (Remember why?) The third thing to
notice is the frequency response anomalies around the crossover point of 100
Hz and how it differs at each listener position. This is a result of the mis-align-
ment of the subs and the mid-highs.
The greater the mis-alignment, the greater the dips in response. So can we
fix it with delay? Let’s see.
If we add 13 ms of delay to the subwoofers (Figure 3),
then the response through crossover smooths out at the
10-foot listener position. But notice that response at 100
feet and 200 feet got worse!
O.K., let’s assume adjustments to this based upon what
the sound person is hearing at the mix position (100 feet
away). Figure 4 shows the result of that alignment.
Nice! That blue trace is exactly what we’re looking for
through crossover, but now look at the front row response.
The point is that it’s not possible to fix fix physical offset
anomalies for all listeners in the audience area. The system
can be optimized to sound great in one relatively narrow
band of seating across the room, but the majority of the Figure 4

4 ProSoundWeb: Expert Series: The Best Place To Put Subwoofers Is… ? [Link]
Figure 5 Figure 6

Figure 7 Figure 8

audience will get something between the pink and green traces.
Now let’s try flying the subs with the main loudspeakers. We’ll mount them
at the same 25 feet elevation and about 4 feet behind the mains. Figure 5
shows us our polar response before performing alignment…
...while Figure 6 shows the resulting frequency response at our three lis-
tener positions.
This already looks better. The vertical polars do not have the big nulls that
happened with the subs on the floor, and the frequency response in the three
listener positions is more similar.
Now let’s add some delay to the mains to align arrival times. Figure 7 and
Figure 8 show a vast improvement in vertical polar performance.
An improvement is seen as well in balance between the subs and, mains at
the 10-foot listener position, and very smooth frequency response through
the crossover at the 100 feet and 200 feet positions. Maybe it would be bet-
ter to fly those subs?

5 ProSoundWeb: Expert Series: The Best Place To Put Subwoofers Is… ? [Link]
Figure 9 Figure 10

On a side note, should the subs be split left and right? This can create a “power
alley” as shown in Figure 9. As you can see, the horizontal polar response has
nulls all across the room in different locations at different frequencies.
Maybe the better solution is to fly them in a vertical stack in the middle. In
Figure 10, the subs are stacked vertically, producing far more smooth hori-
zontal coverage.
So, back to the original question: Is the floor the best place to put subwoof-
ers? When ground stacking the entire system, sure! It keeps the physical off-
set to a minimum, and while there is still the inverse square law problem, at
least it will be a consistent problem across the whole frequency range.
But if flying the mains, then it makes a lot of sense to fly the subwoofers as
well. It might require more subs, but the latest crop of very high output and/
or highly efficient subwoofers on the market lessens this need. I would also
suggest deploying some sort of low-frequency directional array to keep the
low-frequency energy going to the audience, not the ceiling.
But that’s a topic for another day…

JERROLD STEVENS has more than 35 years of experience in the audio industry.
He currently serves as an audio, AV, acoustics and systems project design consul-
tant with Marsh PMK International in Texas.

About Fulcrum Acoustic:

Founded in 2008, Fulcrum Acoustic is a professional loudspeaker manufacturer
known for its unique approach to loudspeaker design. Employing the research of
company co-founder David Gunness, Fulcrum Acoustic combines proprietary
coaxial design and Temporal Equalization™ processing power to create the most
powerful and versatile line of loudspeakers available.
[Link]

6 ProSoundWeb: Expert Series: The Best Place To Put Subwoofers Is… ? [Link]