Di-27/5/13 $0LUTION

Dfination Asolution is a hom oqenow minture oF two on more

Substances wher(e composition can be varied with cet tain lim
’ Depnding upon the tota! componnts present in the sol ution , it is oF
3types- i) Binany solution(2 omponents)
i)Tunany soluion ( 3 components)
i) Quatunang sotution (4 componets)
’ Solutt T is a substancethat dissolves in a solvent
4 Solvent-t is a substance, in whichb dissociation takes place
Ypes of solution
Dyending åon the physic al statt oF the solute and the solvent the
solutio nis classified into folowing q ty pes
Solvent Solute Fnample
(1) G
Gas G1as miture Of qases, aurt
Liquid watut vapout in air (mist loy fog )
Solid sublimation of a solid in to qas, dut
parctic les in air:
(1) Liquid Gas C0, qas dissolved in air (sofH drink)
Liquid Miatwe oF miscible tiquid (al cohol in
water , milk)
Solid Salt in watu , suqar in watur

(3)Solid Gas Ad sorptio0 of qase oveSt metal

Liquid MCRCus in coppt qey substante
Solid

Saturated 5olution
The solution tn whicb no mone qu antity of solte con dissolve at rom
tempercature is called saturattd solution.
Unsatunattd Soluction
Tht solution in which more quantity of solute can be dissolved ot that
4empUatune is call td nsaturtat ed solution
Suput satuattd solution
A Supetsaturated solution is a solution wiih more dissolved solute than
he solvent wouwd normally dissolve în îts curent conditiona
Contentration oF 6lutions
toncentrothion of son. is also known a sttength of sölution , is deined
05 the amount of solid prSnt in a given am ount of solvent or solution
It is of variows ty pe
i) MOlaruty iv) Mole fraction
i) Molality ) PPM (Partts pet mìlion)
ii) Norgnality vi) Prcentage solution
i) Molaruty (M)
The no of molu of solute present pr volume of solution o litu is
calltd molarity
MI noof moles of solute )1:ho
ngz n00F moles of solute
vol:.of solution (in litre)ti n 2 noOF molea ofsolvent
x lU00 WB X 1000 Wi given mals
vol- oF sol(in m) me molt mar s
vol of so1 (mt) n 2 no oF mole
WB X000 Wgiven weight of sokte
mXvol- of so1 (mt) Mz molg mais of solute
WA9iven wightof sqlut
MAz Mol at maAS of solven
’ It dy tnds upon temper aturte
Molarity in a dilutt so lution ( dilution )
MiV2 M,V
Molaruty of a miatue
MiV|t MV t M33t- MVN MEV
) MiVt MV 2 ME (Vt V2)
M2 MiVt MVz
 A by maus
M
molart mass de density in @/ml
of solue

’ nit' mol -!

) Molality (m)
T+ is defind as noof moles of solute pusent PUt g of ef the solvent.
m no of moles of solute
maus of solvent (in kq) } mass of solvent( kg) mg X mass OFsolvnt ing
doent dipend on the temeaturte.
’ nit mol kg
Relation btn Mol arits &Molality r u a
d density in 9/ml
M M= molaruty
mg
molality
molecul arr mass of solute
) Nomaity (N)
’ No oF qrtam quivalent OF solute present per lite OF solution.
N2 no- of gram, eqçvalent of solteno· of q: eq oF solutt X 1D00
[Link] solution in Litre. vol of so| inmHe
no of q- eq of solud e given mass oF solute
Rquivalent weigh of solutt
eqova<ent wightatomic mass eq- MasS of: atomic mass
of solute
IH.: atom) valency solite(molecule) n- factot

given w: of solutt WB Xloo0

2
e9 wt of solute
vol: of son in titru vo oF so in m!
WB XI000
Egx vol· of sol" in ml

’ Nonmality in a dilute sol (dilution)

NV NV2
NOMalits of a mitue
NVt NgV, t..+Nnn NEVF
forr numuca
d: density in 9lm
2 by mass
EB
E equivalert mcUS of solute
 Rlation bet" Norcmalits & Mol arity
WBI
Ep X Vol- of sol| in Litre mB
h- fartor Vol· of so1 in litne
W X n-facto nBX n- factor
mX vol· of so1 in itre vol· of so| in titre
MXn-factor

iv) Mole Fraction (X)

14 is de Fin tc as the ratio of [Link] moles, oF on compon tothe sot
total n0 OF mols preSent in solution :
componjents,'A haring mol 'N and Nthn mole fraction
of.
A N2
N,+N,
Nt
’ It has no unit
’ IH dont depend upon tmpéature . t D H223i yy o !' h
v) fastts Per Million PPM)
His definid as thé pants óf a compon ent present. p minion. parts
(10) of the solution
PRM-3 no of pats of the compon ent. X
total no-of parcts bf the compont
în the Soln

vi) Prcentaqe of solutions

1+ is of4 typS
a) 7. by maus (oT) mass to mass le
11 is defin td as the mas of the solde in 9rtam present in 1009 oF Son
mas'of colute in 9
imass oPsor" in'
) bs volum e (ory volume to volume :. ( )
Vol ume of, solute; in ml PreSent in 100m of soli i
volume Ý. VoF of! solute i m
Vol of so| in ml
(c)mass lo volume . (orn ) ()
in grram .present n 100 m of so1n,
14 is defined y masS of solute
7. mass bu vol z mass oF solte in qran x100
vol in solh in ml
d) volume tomas . ort (Y)
Soj)
volume of solude in ml present in lÛ09
1. volume by mass - vol· of Solte in mlx 100
mass oF so1" in qram

Dt 1-06-23' $OLU BILITY

mainun amount of r
PSolubility of a substante .is. deined as the. at a
dissoved in a specified amount of solvent
be dissolved
Solute hat can be
specified tenpuature -( oom temp):.
’ It depen ds up on natue of solute and solvent cs well as, on fmp.
and preSSe
Effect of Temp: &Prusure On Solubility y i}t
Effect of Tempernatue !
If hat oF tht so1P is neqative i.e: heat is. evolv ed , the solubil ity
decreases with in ease
crease in tenp
Temp (t), solubility (4)
AH -Ve

’Eg- Na,so4 Ca(cHycoo): t: dissolve in' watu with-evolutio nof

heat of the so1
’ JF heat of the sol" is positive ort hect is absorcbed in sol, thn
the sotubility increase with in ctease in temp ertatue
AH tve, tump- (t), solubility (t)
Salt tike KNOg, KCt, NH cl te are sol uble în aterr and
heat of the soln is positive
EFfect of Press e
’ T the solute is solid ort liquid, preSe. has, no efect on solubilty
’Bt if the solte is qas, then prusure, et affect Hhe solubility
HENRy's AW (3 mork)
Huny's law qivo a quartitdtivt relation betn b peusue and
solubi lity of a ga in a solvent (gas-liqud so
system).
 t const tem the solubility of a ga in
’ According to this law prtoportionaJ to the partiok
i5 vapo we phase in a liquid is dirctly
Prusne of [Link]
P Partial prresute of ga
Mathematically. P XX X mole: Fracti on
) P= KH X KH: ery con St
) value dyends upon nature
partial pnUSurte oF the qas in vapo urt phas e, (P) is proporctinal
bto [Link] Eraction of the qas (x) in the sol" at a given +en
.P
Ky* clope.
-/tarctial
Prt
ucure)
x (mole Fraction)
’ Different gases have diff erent KH at the sam emp.
+ KHis a function of the nature of the gas t a given
incrLaaing value oF KH
presswe
Jow UCI the. solubi lity [Link] in he liquid i
value of KH incneses with. increase the tnp i thuefortt solubilty
of. gasee increanes with deuease in tempDu to this néaso
cold watén ts mor sustain able for aquatic life than thu wan
Application Of HenNy's laun
9 Carbonated btvercages - EfFct of preSSe on solubility ofqas
is ustd in pnoducing catbonated beveag ike soF drÉnks
(2) Deep Sea diving Dep sea divens stubstitute Heliun for:nitnogu
in the çr ,that they breath betause'Héliun hag a much. lowet.
$olubility tha Ditrogennis 1
) High altitude sickness ! At high altitude,. parctial prrssue of
oygen is low. There Forte , concen tration of disselved onygen in blod
andtissue of he People is also,Iowie
At low concentratien ofonyge in blood people su fFet from
ano ia i-e: suffUr inn w
Wcakn. and inabilits to think properly
Limitation 0F Henry's Law
i) The tem. .is not too, (oWi i :)? 11
ii) The pressune is not to0 hìqh.
") The qas doenot chemicaly combin e wth the solvent
 SOLTD S0LUTTON
’ 8otid solLctions ane homcgenows minturte of two or morte solid
componets Eq:- gold is uaed for jewel eny , it is miaed with a 'smal
amount. of -silve
’ H is of 2 typ-i) Substitution solid solution
i) Intustitia! solid solution
() Substitution Solid Solution
’Solid tlrmerts which dJte quitt sini lan, in atomiç size tan hutually substit
one another in erystal lattice
EqSilver and topper Foum a solicd soluticn ous silverr atom A tan
coppen atoms in the cnysta of coppT
coppest and sinilady toppot aon
can neplace silven atoms in the ystal of silver

W) IntNstitia 5olid Solution.

’ In 4his typ of the slid solution, Smaller atom ate
the voids, oF. the solid having biqge aton): acconmidatto in
Eg' Stel and tat ircon ant solid solution in. wbich cart bon aoma
ocC Upy interstitia site:

VAPOUR PRESSURE OF LIQUID: SOLØT1ON

Vapoust prOSUIe c¡n be. defìned as preSS USLE "Forumed by the vapoun
'of liquid overt the surface. 0F the liqici
’ This pressure is Forcmed in a hercmo dunamic equi librium statt in a
close contain er at a certtain temp.
Factofo affecting he vapo PAGSUe of tiquid soluticn -
) Surface Areai- The surface ea of the solid on
liquid in eoriact
with- the qas has no efFect on the vopou' prreasue
) TntumolecularT Forceu Vapout prOSut is invusty paopordioral
to întu molecla forces of attraction
t) Temperatu Vapourr preSULE is dircthy proportional to emp..
becawe as the temp oF, the liqud in reaseU the
kineic tnergy aosociated with the liquid ialso incrases and due to
incose kinetic nUCgy scaping tenduny of molecule increaseS
and vapour pheaswe is also incteasS
(iv).Concentrati on of solt'The presence oF solute in the liquid will
derrease the vapourt preUSWe and this Fal invapou preUsUNe al so
yaris wi-th the Concentraton' of solte (non- volatil)
Conch oF solute in so d Lv.P

RAOVLT'S LAW (For Volatil eLiquid Sol)

’ It stotes that Fort a solution oF volatile liqúd the. paatial
ef cach com pontntt is directy proportiana to its mole Fraction :
of COm POnentgåB

IF'P' is the total vapour prUSure, the aconding to Dalton'» law

Ps PA t PB Pa XAt PaXB P P PB v.p. of punt
pure conpounds
A & Biuti

Ps P'a(-XB) t.a
PA-PAXB t PB XB
Ps P'A-XB (PA-'B)

PaXA t PB PBAAhgr t )oud) R313(

IF YA and YB arte the mole Frraction ofi eopeuAes componi ents Aand B
in vapoU phae thenPA YA Ps
P'B Ya Ps

Raoult's Law Fort v-p-m OF Solid- Liquid Sojnrt

’ In a binary sol with non volatile so| ute , onls solyt [Link]
pesnt in the vapour phase and coptri butt the vapou phay:
’ IF PA is the ý.p- of solvent, XA be te it's moleFraction and Palk
its Vp. in the purte state,
Accorcing to Raoults law, PA XA
PA P XA
h yenpeal tpeseotation of P and mole fraction of he solvent

K0 X=] (Pure)
(mole fraction)
1

DEAL S0LVTTON
H solh i5 Called an ideal so,jF it obeus Raout's law ovu a wide
Tange of partial' prtssüne ata secific témpènatue.
ideal solution Follows the given conditions

Ah minati 30
AV mìature
" FLample,- )minturt of n-henane and n- heptane
1) Ethan ol e + methanol
3) benzenet toluene (al-iiht
4) benzene t ccl4
s) bomoethane +chloroethónt
) chloobenzen+ bromobenzene
) bromo ethane + Iodothane
ai-:4X17

/ePa-X81

mole fracton X20,

NONTDE AL SOLUTI ON
[Link] which docs not obey Raoults law is called on- ideal so1
Fot non - idèa! toltion,
Pst P'XB
Ps* Pat PB AVmigf0
It is of atyp- 1) D9siive deviation
#) neqive deviation
 æPositivt deviation from Raoult 's law !
’ In a non-ldeal 5olution with, positive ceviation ,the partial presSute
of each com ponnt. 1s qreatr than v:P
According to Raou's laWi
law,
pa >P'aXA
Pe P'XB AH mia) 0
V

Erq:-) Acctont +, EhanoI

ö) Acetont cs
Amole Fractin Az0 ) watrt methano1i
X¡? 1 iv)' watrt'ethano
v) Toluenet cly
vi) Ethano) + henne
vi) Acetone't-bNzNe .
W) Negative deviation Fro Raout's law 102Th a i
’ In a non-ide sokition with' nigative deviation, the poucti al prNSUE
Of each com ponnt is les5 than the vapour pressue.

Pa< P'aX¡
PB< Pe XB

AH miture
mole
Kg0 rraction Xg*1iANmiotirre <0
ipit tample- ) Aceto ne t aniline
i) Acetone t chloftofor
ii) metthanol + Actic acid
iv) water t nitçC acìd
v) chloroForum + diethyl etheih
vi) phenol t aniline
vil ) wat efe t acetone
 HZEOT IROPES (or) AEOT ROPICMTXTURE
7 Many non- ideal binary' solution at defioite com positihon behav ike.
Pure liquids Because their vapouto have s ame composition OF
componuts OF sol,5uch sol ae caled azeotnop es
’ IH is oF 2 types ) pìnm boiling qzeotrope
i) mane boiliñg azeotnopes
) Minimum boiling qzeotrop
These are formed by those liquid pais, which show a positive
deviation From icdeal behayi out
Such azeotropu have bailing
boiling point,
point, lowt
lower than eitherc' OF Componut;
.E9- i) H,0 +GHs0M
ii) CHCt; t CgH5oH.
i) Manimum boiling azeotropy
ae Forumed bå: those liqid pais, which show a neqative
devtation From ideal bebavìout
Such azeotropes have boiling, poiots highe th) eithex oF the compohem
Eg- i) H0 + HCL
i) H,0t HNO3
i) Hz0-t HClo4

COLLIG ATIVE PROPRTIES

’ The propties oF solutions
Soluio ng which dpend only on the nunbert oF solut
Particle and îruespective of theirt nature ,rrlative to the total
hun ben oF particle and preGent in the solution, brte aled colliq
PRopUies ative
’ There ane 4impontant coli attve
propscti,es,
i) Relative loweing of vapourt pressuLe (RLVP)
) Elevation in
betlinoe
point
ii) DepnLSslon in Freezing point
iv) 0smosis and osmofic PreSsurt e
) Relatìve Loweing OF Vapourt Pnessure :
’ When anon-volatile solute is added to a solvent,ts
ecomes lbw i-e: v-P of soln is always leS5 than vapourt pres
of solvent at same temperature vCLpout peSSue
Let us consid e, vP. of Pute solverst
PA
v P of ef soluthon = Ps
v:P oF solvet Pa
Since, solute is non-volatile, &0 theiVP: of solution wìll be only
due to the solvent
AcCoTtding to Raoults law
|Ps z Pa [Link] X.A, mo le Fraction
of SolVent
Xp z mole fraction
oF solute
(consider binary sol" i_ taken)
P PAPoXB
) P-PA -PXB
) PA-P 2 X B
P'a
AP-P'-Ps Lowening of vapour paasute
P- Ps
7 Rclative lowering oFhe [Link]
Rlative lowarinq of the v-¢ is equal to mgle Enaction, of solute
lo) PA Ps NA n0. 0F moles oF solvent

PA A
PA-Ps -1
PA- Ps

) Ps

Forr vy dilute soluton

PA-Ps
PA

) Pa-Ps n8
PA PA
 Detrmination of molart mass of solute
P'a-P WB 9iven maus of solute
) qiven mass
massoF'solvent
Mgz molarr mus of solute
-) PA -Pe m molart mass of Solvent

-) PA- PA
P'A WAXM W X/ A-s
P'A
molecul at mass
of solut e RLVP
1
S0, mole culor mas of Solute d colliqativ e
Popetiy

ü) Elevation In Boiling point ( bullios copy)

Boiling, point is the tempet aturte at which vp of liqud is eq,uad to
the atmospheruc priasu
’ Whe a non-volatile Solute is added to a volatile solvent, the VP of
4ht solution decrteáso In orde to make this solution boil, its
V-p: mut be încrLeased by raising the temp. above the boiling Poin
OF pure solvent:
atmospheric prysune T2 boiling point of solvent
Solvgtsolutjón T2 boiling point of solution
vapourt
pressury
Ele vaton in boiling point dinectiy proporthi
t0
molality
Tenp. T /Kz mo lal elevation cónst
Ebulliosopic const
when mz 1 mole /kq
Then, ATb eKb

- Hence, molal tlevation const is defined u the elevation in boiling

Don-vol ati le solute is dissolve in 1 ka of
point when 1 mole of
the solvent
Unit oF Kb i5,kh 2 BT, z kelvin kq mol-l
m
(kkgmotr!)
 Derivation
Greatr the loweuing in vapout prUSW, high is the, elevation in
boiling poin t
(APAPA) (0
ACConding to RaouH's law, p'a- Pa.a, x -(2)
P'A-P'A,
q"(1) &(2),ATb ß X XB* mole Fr¡ction. of solutt)
ATb z k- XB K.
For dilut soi,

WA
Jf solv ent is taken in kg
WA
z Kh:

Wx A,T
NDTE Kpe RT2 Lyz Latut heat of vapourù sation.
WD0LV
R 9as consl
Ly z,AHvap Tb2 bp- of Pure solvent
AHvap enthalpy of vapoui sotion
M 2 molart masS oF solvent

îm) Depessicn In Fneczing Point (CryoscoPy

’
Fretzing point oF a liquid is defined as'he tumpunatue ot which
the solid and liqid stateofia substance has the isame vapouk
PrLessrte
when a nonvolatile solutt is addedi to solventi,the: vPofa sol"' is
lower than that of puse solvent freezing foint oF so|" is;
towe t han that of pute solvent
).Solvent in frozen.
State ti colven t
Vapous $olution
pressure

T2
 TË: freeìng point oF soI
T2 Fretzing point of liq solvent

DeprLSsion ìin frezing point is dinecthy prtop ional to mo lality

K molal depnession const (o) cryoscopic 'const
’ when m²l mole kg
ATE Kp|
Thu mola) depression const: , ke may be de Fined as dernesion in
Freezing poiFt oF a solvent when one mole of non. volaile solucte
is dissolved in t000 g of the solvent
’ unit of kE iS K- Kq-mol
Dlemì nation of molar maus of solute

x D00
.WB XO00
WA X ATe
NOTE
K z RT
freezing oint of putt solv ent
L¹ Latent heat of Fuio)
M
AHz enthalpy ofF fusion
(i) Osmosis 0Smotic PressuR
OSmosis (an be defined as the spontaneo low oF solver th ough
a semi prni able membrane FROm a pue solvent to a so|
from a dilute so |n to a contenttated so]."
’ The floN oF Soly f molecules From low con c of so| to high
conc® of so1" can be stopped bs applying some etrta prssurí on
the bigh concentration. side The mìnimun preSSute requie d
to co so is known as osmotic preSS We of soj
 so lvert
SPM

Low con hìgh (oncn

0snotie pru ssurtt is dirctty pnopontiona to the malanity of the so"
at a qiven temperatune
20mo posu;r
2 CRT R
molarüty
el ga C ¡ n t3
ecl qas con$t
2RT: T temp in kivih
VT WRi n noiOF: mole'of solut
M
qiven wt:, of solute.
M moleular, mass of colute
Hyrentonìc So|D
A460 with mort 0smotic pressure. thanth,othen is caled hypento niç.
Hyptonic sol" ASo wtHh lower osmotic pnsswe than oth is ca<led
hypotonîc sot (,(n2)
Tsotonie 1when
so a so1s:have the same tontentrato'n ,then thein
osmotic press ue: arg equal. at a giver tumperature 8uch
solution9 ane caled isoton ic sol0.(N N1)
.
Revse0Stn0sis ;

Application 0f,laKg! osmotic, Pres^ua:

PILRS^UR to the so| side reverges the
direction of 0Smosis Thìs phenomNon maku the pute sol vnt Flow
out ot the so through the semi perumeable membran e
DiFFUence betnDÌEFuivn &0smosis'
DiFFusion 0smosis

’ NO semi peumeable membrane is Semi,perune abl'e mun brane is

rLequired. tequured
’ In diFfusion both solvent andTt- involvs the movment oF solvet
solute nolecule (an move.' moleculs onl.
’ D0Ffuion can not be stopped 0smosis can be stopped [Link] Pd
by applyiìng additonal press uteon
the side oF bight (onc?
’ It i5 common in liqui d as well ’ It is Com mon only în liquid
CU
 Abroumal -Mol ast Mas
molart mass CUte calculated and iF they ue high at ok
when the culated) value ae known Os
pected ('noumal cal
loWer than the
abnorumal molar masses
’ These att calculattd using the colligahve properti
(i) Bå dissociatioin
the substonct is an electrolyte i.e the substurce wdgo
when increae in solution ,the ions act
Tonisafion and numbu oF pardicle
ionisafian ·
nunbeut of particles,,ths jncntaues on
paxticles The nunbe of partlcls th ma
’ Ascolligative propctis ane invauly proportion al tomolmoleculat
ecular majses
Of such substanc will be less-than: thir hormal
almost
Eq-In watUt whes Nact is dissolv d to, it unduqoe
compltte ionisation to gìve Nat(aq) and ( (aq-) .
Nate
Nacl NaT(aq) + cr (aa)
Thus ntumbor of solde partica becomt double due to discociahn.
Hence obsrtved mausalmost halt of its, noumal - molecul¡n mass
ii) By association
mote molecules OF
’ whenthe "substanc édtgos association ie 2or
the soluute assocìate to form a single. giant particle So nunbe oF
Pasticles deerte oF the qiven substance al so decrteasy andobsetved
molecula mass becomes highe than their noTUnal mol ec ulart
masss
’ when actic acid- is dissolvd in benzne, it"'undertqoes di monzAdEN
Beniene
a CHgto0H
OH0
Dimu oF acctic acid)
NOTE- As, colligative propucty d molar MOSS
T>

obsenyed coligative popercty heual nolort moas

Theonitica colliqattve propacty obsoved molarr mass
)
 Van 't Hof Far ton (i)
nobal moltrutar matt no- of articles prteset in 4he soi aftr
cbsuvd mol tculan mass dissocia tion c attociatton
nb: of particles pnesent inalsoriation
the soih
beforte diseociation on
obutved tolligative property
nortmal or theorÌ HCOl
teh iqati ve pnopenty
-’ van 4 Motr factor (i) modil ies tht ean of
i) evation in b-p- +A1: (olligafie propenty
ikym
) Dpnsion in fp - T:
iKpn
n) 05motic preUSuIe 0RT
iv) RLVP
P'A
i:1, here is no
association or dissociation
i>1,hue is dissociation of solute in so1m
i41, thene is association of solute in so
Calculate deqree of dissociati on bs using van't HofF Factort -
supose one mole of solutt 'A' ha undengou dissociation
to give 'n' particlu
Jniti al 1mol
1-d

No oF particles befone discoci ation 1

No oF Pparticls aftut disso ciatio nz ((-a)t nar Ita(n-1)
i2 1to(n-)
n

talculatt deqnte of association by uing van't Moff Factor

suppose 1 mole of solute 'A' is dissolved in a definite volum e of
a solvent where it ha wdtgou ausoci ation .
'n' moleculs of solute 'n' formed the asoci ated molecle Ao
atcendinq to the neaction.
 t*0 1
tzt
tet d' bt the degrte of association, then the no- oF associattd
moles 2
no oF un associattd moles$2 d 'hpiloo hin
total no of mol in sol after assócnation

1
IF D22 of more

1-1

) non- electrolgtt (i21)

alcohol, glucose, sucKose, wa
(i) Fort lectrolytt
Nacl
j2 2 cac: k,(F(CN)E) At (s04)3 Kj 'soi, Al,(s04)a 24H0
t.