BiologyNotes

4.1 cellularlevel organization

of
cell is the smallest structure
capable of performing
essential life functions

Schleiden Schwann Virchow Celltheory

All organism composed of cells
cells r basic unit of structure
function
Cells only comefrom preexisting
cells r self reproducing
Cells small needs surface area adequate for intake
v so
nutrients eliminate wastes so small cells better bigger
cells get surface area becomes inadequate

4.2 Prokaryotic Cells

fundamentallyonly 2types of cells exist

prokaryoticcells lackmembrane
bacteria archaeans bound nucleus
oncethoughtclosely Eukaryoticcells cells possess a
related due to 3T nucleus
shape
comparisonsofDNA RNAseparates
Prokaryotic most archaeans biochemicallydiff from
abundant diverse life bacteria eukaryotes
form on Earth while move closelyrelated to eukaryotes
lessstructurallycomplicated helpdefine 3 domains of life
their metabolic capabilites
far exceedeukaryotes Eubacterial
Archaea
Bothprokaryotic
cells
Eukarya halfeukaryotic
cells
 BiologyNotes

Bacteriais well known b cof seriousdiseases but r crucial

to Earth due to
many
decomposition of organisms
contribute to ecologicalcycles
use them to manufacture all sortsofproducts

The structure of Prokaryotes

Fimbrial hair like bristles that allow adhesion to
surfaces

gynae
f ÑÉ ÑÉ hd Éth hdf ffasm that
bacteria regulates entrance exits of molecules
cell wall covering that supports shapes protects
cell
Capsule gel like coating outside cell wall
Cytoplasm
Semi liquid fluid composed ofwater inorganic organic
molecules encased by the plasma membrane
since prokaryotes lack a membrane bound nucleus there is
a region in the cytoplasm where DNA is stored Nucleoid
have a single coiled chromosome eukaryote will
alley
have multiple
Many prokaryotes have extra chromosomal piecesof
circular DNA called plasmids

4 3 Introduction to Eukaryoticcells

strongscientificevidence that originof energyorganelles

occurred when larger eukaryotic cells engulfed smaller
prokaryotic cells
observationsshow amoeba infected w bacteria can
become on drew
 BiologyNotes
other evidence indicates mitochondria chloroplasts r
derived from prokaryotes that were taken up by larger

Whrso Mitochondria originally aerobicheterotrophic

bacteria
Chloroplasts originally cyanobacteria

The eukaryotic host cells would have benefitted from an

ability
to utilize oxygen or synthesizeorganicfood when bychance
theprokaryote was taken up not destroyed
After prokaryote entered hostcell 2 would live cooperatively
known as EndosymbioticTheory
So evidence supporting this includes
mitochondria chloroplasts r similar to bacteria in
structure
size
structure of uhangoticcell

Typical
Animal
 BiologyNotes

Typical
plant
Is

4.4 TheNucleus Ribosomes

TheNucleus
diameter of 5 µm
prominentstructure in eukaryotic cell
oval structure near the center ofmost cells
some
may have more than I nudeous
Ex skeletalmuscle cells
interior containssemifluidmatrix called nucleoplasm

Ribosomal RNA is produced in nucleolus

darkregionofchromatinwhere
RNAjoinsproteinsto form
subunits ofribosomes
the nucleus is separated from due cytoplasmthroughit's double
membrane nuclear membrane it hasporesthroughwhich
it communicates nuclearpores
gate sufficentsize 100hm this sizeallows
keepers for passageof ribosomalsubunits mRNA outof the nucleus
cytoplasm the nucleus
 BiologyNotes

Ribosomes
whereproteinsynthesis occurs
A large small ribosomal subunit r necessary components of
a functionalribosome
comprisedof a mix ofproteins mRNA

4 5 The Endomembrane
System
consistsof nuclear envelopemembranes
of
endoplasmic reticulum Golgiapparatus several
ofvesicles
RoughER studded w ribosomes on the exteriorsideof the
membrane that faces cytoplasm allows it to produce

IIII its lumen roughER allows proteinsto fold take

on duein final 3 d shape
Leaarded also contains
enzymesthat canaddcarbohydrate sugar chains
diff both to proteins formingessentialglycoproteins
[Link]
moleculesto
man a um mm mm ay mm
someorgansleavecellsw more smoothERdepending on the
from
more lipids in someorgans
organes
yyguse
more testosterone steroidhormone
liver allows for it to dexotifydrugslikealcohol
barbiturates

The GolgiApparatus
protein filled vesicles that bud from the roughER Lipid filled
cellsvesiclesfrom the smooth ER relieved byGolgi
Apparatus inner face
they r then altered when movedthroughsaccules
Ex golgiapparatuscontains
enzymestomodify
carbohydrates chains 1st attached to proteins
 a

881 can
modify 1 sugar into another sugar on glycoproteins
modifiedcarbohydrate chain cansignalmolecule or molecular
address label that determines the protein'sfinal destination
GolgiApparatussortsmodified molecules packages them into
vesicles that then departfrom the outer face

lysosomes
membrane bound vesicles producedbyGolgiApparatus
very lowpH store hydrolyticdigestive enzymes in an
inactivestate
act like the stomach of the cell w digestion

destroy nonfunctionalorganelles portionsofCytoplasm

called autophagy

endomembrane system
summary

The
endomembrane
system
BiologyNotes
4 6 Microbodies vacuoles
Peroxisomes
Membrane boundvesicles
containenzymeto break down fattyacid
enzymes in peroxisomes r synthesized by free
ribosomes transported into peroxisomefrom
cytoplasm
produce hydrogenperoxide 4202 when oxidizing
fattyacids toxic molecule
Also containenzymecatalase which breaksdown
4202into water oxygen
Resulting bubbles when pouring4202 on a wound
Metabolic assistant to other organelles
varied function but main is to break downlipids
in Liver some peroxisomesproduce bile salts from
Chloesterol others break down fats
Disease adrenoleukodystrophy ALD caused when
peroxisomes lack membrane proteinneeded
for import of a specific enzyme and or long
chain fatty acids from cytoplasm
this causes longchain fattyacidsbuild up in
the brain cause neurologicaldamage
Plant cells also have peroxisomes
seeds oxidize
germinating
into
fatty
molecules to convert
needed
acids
sugars
in leaves
carryout reactionopposite to
photosynthesis usesoxygenlets out carbon
dioxide

vacuoles r membranous sacs but larger than besides

can be
quitespecializedincluding ridding cell of excess
water or digestiveneeds nutrients
store substances but few animal cells have them
but focused ones can take 213
 BiologyNotes
Vacuoles r essential to plant function
not salts but also water soluble
only water sugar
pigments toxic molecules

4 7 The energy related organelles

chloroplasts mitochondria r due 2 eukaryoticmembrane
organelles that specalize in convertingenergyto a
form that can be used by the cell
Animal cells cotain only mito condira plants
have mitochondria chloroplasts

During photosynthesis chloroplasts use solar energy to

synthesizecarbohydrates serve as nutrient
molecules for plants hence all life onEarth

Photosynthesis
Solar carbon dioxide water carbohydrate oxygen
energy
PlantsAlgae Cyanobacteria capable of conducting
photosynthesis in manner but only plants chloroplasts
ble they r eukaryotes

cellular respiration mitochondria breakdown carbohydrate

derived products to produceATP adenosinetriphosphate

Cellular Respiration
Carbohydrate Oxygen carbon Dioxide water
energy
chloroplasts
3 membrane system surrounded by a double
membrane includesan outer inner membrane
due stroma semi fluid region w in double
membrane
 I

BiologyNotes containschlorophyll where light

reactions occur

Enzymes Thylakoid disk found like sacs form 3rd

chloroplast membrane w in stroma
Granum stack of Thylakoid
Thylakoid v believed to form a large internal
compartment called Thylakoid space
chlorophyll other lightcapturingpigments r found in
thylakoid membrane
enzymes that synthesizecarbohydrates located out
side thylakoid in fluid of the stroma
Mitochondria
nearly all eukaryotic cells contain mitochondria
smaller than chloroplasts can be seen w light microscope
of mitochondria can vary depending on metabolicactivities
energy needed by cell
Ex liver cells may have up to 1.000 mitocondria
4 8 The Cytoskeleton
Cells exposed to many physicalforces
Cellshape movement internaltransport Allrequire
structural support cytoskeleton
Proteincomponentsof cytoskeleton r interconnected
extend from nucleus to plasma membrane in
eukaryotic cells
1970 s
prior to believedcytoskeleton wasunorganized
mass of organic molecules
Usinghighvoltagemicroscopes shows cytoskeletonhighly
organized
techniqueof immunoflorescencemicroscopy
identified makeupofprotein components w
in cytoskeletal network
BiologyNotes
Centrioles
Short cylinders 9 0 pattern of microtubule triplets
9 sets of triplets r arranged in an outer
but center of centriole doesn't contain
ring
micr tubule
In animal cellsprotists centrosome contains 2
centrioles
lying riant anales to each other
major microtubule organizing center for cell
possible that centrioles involved in process
whichmicrotubulesassemble disassemble
Cilia Flagella fimbriae
hair like projections
can either move like undulatingfashion whip
like an oar
stiffly
In free cells cilia or flagella move cell
through
1 singlecelledparamecia r organisms that move
by
cilia
Sperm move flagella
ciliather
If cells attacked flagella can move liquid
over both cells
Ex Cells line have cilia to
upper respitory tract
sweep debris trapped w in mucus backup throat
to be expelled keepslungs clean
In
eukaryotic cells cilia is shorter than flagella but
similar construction
Both r membrane bound cylinders enclosing a
matrix area
9 pairs
of microtubules arranged in
circle around 2 microtubules 29 2
a

pattern
cilia flagella move when pairs of
microtubules slide 1 another