Biology Notes

6.1 Cells and the Flow of Energy

-To maintain their structural organization and carry out metabolic activities, cells need a constant supply of energy
*Energy is defined as ability to do work or bring about change

Forms of Energy
-Energy occurs in 2 forms
*Kinetic
**energy of motion (water flows over a waterfall)
*Potential
**stored energy (energy not being used at the current moment)
Two Laws of Thermodynamics
-formulated by early energy researchers
-explains why energy flows through ecosystems and cells:
*1st law: law of conservation of energy - states energy cannot be created or destroyed but changed
ex. When a leaf photosynthesis’s, used solar energy, carbon dioxide, and water; in return they
get carbohydrates and oxygen. Carbohydrates are energy-rich molecules due to their many bonds. Carbon dioxide and
water are energy poor molecules due to their lack of bonds. While not all solar energy becomes carbohydrates they also
become heat. The energy that plants use to photosynthesize is from the Sun. So the extra energy is used as heat.
ex. While a Moose walks it transfers potential energy (stored in Carbohydrates) into kinetic
energy (NONE OF THE ENERGY IS DESTROYED IT ONLY TAKES A DIFFERENT FORM)
*2nd law: Entropy - states that energy cannot be changed without a loss of usable energy.

Cells and Entropy

- 2nd law of thermodynamics can be stated as that every energy transformation makes the universe less
organized
-Entropy - used to indicate relative amount of disorganization
- B/c of the processes that occur in energy transformations, the 2nd law means every process that occurs in
cells also does so in a way that increases the total entropy of the universe
-Some cells can make glucose out of Carbon Dioxide and Water, and all cells can actively move ions to one
side of the membrane, they do this from energy entered from an outside source
-Photosynthesizing producers use energy from sunlight to create organized structure in biological molecules
-Organisms that consumer producers r then able to use the potential energy to kinetically drive their one
metabolic processes
-All this to say that everything begins with the energy from the Sun

6.2 Metabolic Reactions and Energy Transformations

Metabolism
-Sum of all the chemical reactions that occur in a cell
Reactants
-Substances that participate in a reaction 90 all together
Products
-Substances that form as a result of a reaction

A and B are the reactants, while C and D are the products ————> A+B -> C+D
Free Energy
-Amount of Energy left to do work after chem. Reaction has occurred
-The change in free energy after a reaction is determined by subtracting the free energy content of the
reactions from that of the products (Neg. Means products have less energy so reaction happened spontaneously)
Biology Notes

Exergonic Reactions
-Spontaneous reactions that release energy
Endergonic Reactions
-Require the input of energy
ATP Energy for Cells
-ATP (adenosine triphosphate) common energy currency of cells (when cells need energy they use ATP)

6.3 Metabolic Pathways and Enzymes

Chem. Reactions that constitute metabolisms wouldn’t easily occur without a catalyst called enzymes

Enzyme:
-molecule that speeds a chem. Reaction w/out itself being affected by the reaction
-most enzymes r proteins, some r made of RNA
*enzymes made of RNA r called ribozymes, they r involved in synthesis of RNA and synthesis of
proteins @ribosomes
-allow reactions to occur under mild conditions
-regulate metabolism
-they do all of this by partly eliminated nonspecific side reactions
-reactants in an enzymatic reactions r called substrates for that enzyme

Enzyme-Substrate Complex
-In the Active Site (the part of the enzyme the substrate connects to), the enzyme and the substrate r
positioned so that they fit together (like a key and lock)
-after reaction has completed, product(s) r released and active site returns to original state, ready to bond to
the next substrate
-only a small amount of enzyme is actually needed in the cell b/c enzymes r not used up by the reaction(s),
merely push the reaction faster

Energy of Activation
-energy must be added to cause molecule to react w/ one another
-essential to keep molecules from spontaneously degrading w/in the cell

Factors Affecting Enzymatic Rate

-rate of a reaction is the amount of product produced over time
-rate depends on how much substrate is available compared to the availability of the active site on the enzyme
[Link] amount of substrate & amount of enzyme can/will increase rate of reaction
-Denaturation
*Factors like changes in pH, temp, as well as inhibitors can alter shape of the active site (hence the
entire enzyme changing shape and being unable to fit with the substrate)

Substate Concentration
-as more substrate molecules fill active sites, more product results in per unit of time
-BUT when ALL active sites r filled continuously w/ substrate, rate of reaction can no longer increase

Optimal pH
-every enzyme has a pH where reaction rate is highest
ex. Pepsin has a highest rate at the pH around 2, while trypsin has a highest rate at the pH around 8
Biology Notes

-@ respective pH values, each enzyme can maintain normal structure configuration which enables optimum
function
-The globular structure of an enzyme is dependent on interactions b/w R groups
-a change in pH can alter ionization of side chains causing enzyme to denature
*under extreme conditions enzyme changes structure and becomes totally inactive

Temp.
-Typically as temp. Increases enzyme activity increases
-occurs b/c warmer temps. Cause more effective collisions b/w enzymes and substrates
-body temp. Of an animal seems to affect whether is it normally active or inactive
-been suggested that mammals r more prevalent today than reptiles b/c maintain warm internal temp. That
allows for enzymes to work @ a rapid rate

6.4 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions and Metabolism

Chloroplasts and Photosynthesis

-Overall equation
*
Light 6CO2 6H20 602
FYI
-equation shows that (during photosynthesis)
ft
hydrogen atoms r transferred from water to carbon dioxide to
form glucose
-in this reaction, carbon dioxide has been reduced and water has been oxidized
- it takes energy to reduce carbon dioxide to glucose
-the energy is supplied by solar energy (the Sun)

Mitochondria and Cellular Respiration

-Same equation as photosynthesis just flipped and instead of light there is energy
-Carbohydrate produced w/in the chloroplasts b/c substrate for cellular respiration reactions in the
mitochondria
-while carbon dioxide is released by mitochondria becomes a substrate for photosynthesis reaction that
occurs in the chloroplasts

6H12Out602 6H20 6002 t energy

Glucoses

name
energy w enzyme

[Link]