Pakistan Studies

SIR WALID FULARA

Geography Notes
Table of Content
[Link] Topic Page no

1 Topography & Land Of Pakistan 1

2 Climate Of Pakistan 36

3 Water resource 59

4 Forests 85
SIR WALID FULARA
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GEOGRAPHY

SIR WALID FULARA

The Geography is a combination of two words i.e. Geo and Graphy. Geo means land / earth
and Graphy means description, it means description of earth / land is called Geography.

Cardinal Points
The four main points of the compass i.e. North, South, East and West, but the other lies in the
midway between the cardinal points i.e. NE, SE, NW and SW.

Map
When the earth or part of it is transferred to a flat sheet of paper, it is called map. Before making
a map, it is necessary to make a scale.

Globe
Round maps of our world are called globe.

Border
The imaginary line between two continents is called border.

Equator
It is an imaginary line drawn around the middle of the earth. If we cut along the equator, the
earth separates into two hemisphere i.e. Northern Hemisphere and Southern Hemisphere. Most
of the earth’s land is the Northern Hemisphere.

Equator Northern and Southern Hemisphere

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Prime Meridian
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It is an imaginary line that runs from north to south poles. This creates eastern and western
hemisphere. The continents in the eastern hemisphere are traditionally called Old World, while
those in the western hemisphere called (U.S.A) Modern World.

South Pole Eastern and Western Hemisphere

Latitude
These are imaginary lines run east to west on the globe are called lines of latitude. OR The
horizontal lines on the globe are called lines of latitude. Total latitudes are 180, 90 in north of the
equator and 90 in south of the equator.

Longitude
The vertical lines on the globe run from North to south between the poles are called lines of
longitude. Total longitudes are 360, 180 in east side and 180 in west side.
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Introduction of Pakistan

SIR WALID FULARA

Pakistan emerged on the map of the world on 14th August 1947 as a result of the partition of the
Indian Sub-continent into two sovereign states namely Pakistan and India. Initially, Pakistan was
comprised of two distinct areas, namely East Pakistan and West Pakistan. In December 1971,
East Pakistan was separated and emerged as an independent state, ‘Bangladesh’.

Location of Pakistan
Pakistan is located between 24 to 37 North latitudes and extends from 61 to 76.5 East longitudes.
The total area of Pakistan is 796,096 square km, stretching over 1600 km from north to south and
about 885 km from east to west.
In the extreme north east Pakistan has a common border 585 km with China, while in the west it
has a 2252 km long border with Afghanistan, known as the Durand Line. To the north west,
Wakhan is the narrow strip of Afghan territory which separates Pakistan from Tajikistan. To the
south west, Pakistan has a common border with the Islamic Republic of Iran. The Arabian Sea
marks its southern border and to the east it has a common border with India, known as Radcliffe
Award.
Pakistan has Five Provinces and Balochistan is the largest of all, then comes Punjab, then Sindh,
then Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Gilgit-Baltistan which was declared as a province on 29th August
2009.

Fig.1, Show the Location, Boundaries and Five Provinces of Pakistan.

Fig.1
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Importance of Pakistan’s Location

SIR WALID FULARA

1. Pakistan is located in the centre of the Islamic World as Indonesia lies in south east, Gulf
States in the west, Central Asian States in northwest and Bangladesh in the east. Among
these countries Pakistan has a atomic technology.
2. Pakistan enjoys a key position in South Asia because there are few links by land to the north
and north west due to large mountain ranges and harsh climate. The Khyber pass provides a
route to Afghanistan and the Karakoram Highway makes communication with China easier
and promote the trade and tourism industry.
3. To the north and north west the areas are landlocked so Pakistan’s seaport of Karachi and
Gwadar can also serve these areas.
4. Pakistan’s coastline on the Arabian Sea is in a central position for trading by sea both with
South Asia, the Far East and beyond and with the Middle East to the west.
5. Karachi, a natural harbor and an important warm water port also serves as a refueling stop for
ships.
6. The Jinnah Terminal, Karachi could have immense importance as an International airport.
7. To the northwest the Central Asian States possess untapped power resources such as mineral
oil and natural gas, which can easily be transported through Pakistan and Iran to South Asia
and South East Asian countries by constructing pipelines.

Fig.2, Shows the Location of Pakistan.

Fig.2
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Physical Features of Pakistan

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Topography
It is the study and description of the surface features of land, which includes both natural and
artificial.
Topography means the study of geographical features on land surface such as mountains, rivers
and desert.
With respect to the surface features of land, Pakistan can be divided into seven major
topographical zones.

1. The Northern Mountains

2. The Western Mountains
3. The Balochistan Plateau
4. Potwar Plateau and Salt Ranges
5. The Indus Plain
6. Desert Areas.
Fig.2, shows the Topographical Features of Pakistan.

Fig.2
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Northern mountains
SIR WALID FULARA

To the north, north-east and north-west of Pakistan there lie three ranges of mountains. The northern
mountains comprise of three main mountain ranges:
¾ The Karakoram
¾ The Himalayas
¾ The Hindu Kush

Fig.3, shows the location of Northern mountains.

Fig.3

The Karakoram Range

● Karakoram means black gravel (mass of rock and ice).
● They are located to the North of River Indus and stretched from Hunza to Shyok.
● The ranges run east to west direction.
● Its average height is 6000 meters and K2 (8611) is the highest peak which is the 2nd highest
peak of the world.
● These ranges have deep narrow valleys, vertically sharp cliffs form a rugged landscape.
● Karakoram pass is the highest and Khunjrab pass provide link to china through Karakoram
Highway / Silk route.
● River Hunza, River Gilgit and River Karakoram provide drainage to this area.
● Precipitation in the form of snow.
● A number of glaciers exist in upper valleys such as Siachin, Hispar, Baifo, Baltoro and
Batura.
● Steep slopes.
● Important valleys of the area i.e. Karakoram and Hunza.
● After the construction of KKH, a new era of progress has been opened in this region
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Climatic Characteristics

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● Severe climate / very cold below freezing point.
● Large daily range (large difference between day and night temperatures).
● Large difference between sun and shade temperatures.
● Precipitation in the form of snow.
● Blizzards.

Photograph of Karakoram Mountains

Photograph of Karakoram Mountains

Photograph of Siachin Glacier.

Photograph of Siachin Glacier

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Climatic Effects
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● Too cold to grow food / for agriculture.

● Land frozen / covered by snow.
● Forced to stay at home and adopt indoor activities e.g. carpet making.
● No transportation / often cut off by snow.
● Need to stockpile food / fuel.
● Limited water supply due freeze in pipes.
● Danger of avalanches.
● Land sliding.

The Himalayas
The average height is about 4000m. these ranges are located to the south of the Karakoram
ranges. They run east to west. They comprise the following sub-parallel ranges.
¾ Siwaliks
¾ Lesser Himalayas
¾ Central Himalayas

1. Siwaliks
● Average height is about 600-1200 meters.
● These are the most southern ranges.
● The ranges cover the Rawalpindi hills.
● These ranges have been folded and faulted.

Fault
A fracture in earth's crust means the land is faulted.

Fold
A bend in rock strata caused by the movement of earth's crust.

Fig.4, shows the Himalayas.

Fig.4
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2. Lesser Himalayas

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● They are Located to the north of Siwaliks.
● Their altitude varies from 1800-4500 meters.
● These ranges have been folded and faulted.
● These ranges spread over Rawalpindi, Abbotabad and Mansehra district.
● There are many hill stations like Murree, Nathia and Ghora gallies lie in these ranges.
● In winter, precipitation in the form of snow which limits the human activities.

Photograph of Himalayas

Photograph of Himalayas

3. Central Himalayas
● They are located in southeast of River Indus which separates it from Karakoram Ranges.
● They mostly lie in Kashmir with an average height of more than 4600 meters.
● Due to great altitude, some glaciers as Rupal (18 kms) are found here.
● Valley glaciations features are traced at Lake Saif ul Maluk in Kaghan.
● Nanga Parbat (8126 m) is the highest peak of the area.
● Some deepest valleys and gorges are also located in these ranges as Dasu-Patan i.e. 6500 m
deep.
● River Indus is the main source of drainage for this range.
● Kaghan is the important valley of the area.
● Lake Saif ul Maluk and Satpara are the important lakes of the area.
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Photograph of lakes (Himalayas).

SIR WALID FULARA

Lake Saif ul Maluk Lake Satpara

The Hindu Kush

● They are located to the west of Karakoram and Himalayas mountains or North west of
Pakistan.
● Their average height is about 5000 meters.
● These ranges guard the north and north-western borders of Pakistan.
● Main body of the mountains lie in Afghanistan where it acts as a nest of earthquakes.
● Barren mountains, steep slopes and fast flowing are typical features of the area.
● Trich Mir (7690 m) and Noshaq (7484 m) are the highest peaks of the area.
● These ranges occupy the Chitral district and northern areas of Pakistan.
● Glaciation is another important feature forming glaciers such as Sakiz Jarab (30 kms)and
Trich Mir (22 kms).
● River Kabul, Ghizar and Mastuj provide the main drainage of the area.
● Important passes like Barogil Pass (provides link to Afghanistan through Wakhan strip),
Shandur Pass connects (Chitral to Gilgit), Babusar Pass connects ( Kaghan valley to
Chilas), Lowari Pass connects (Peshawar valley to Chitral valley) lie in these ranges.
● Precipitation in the form of snow.
● Chitral, Dir and Swat are the important valleys of the area.

The Kohistan, Swat and Dir Ranges

● They are located south of the Hindu Kush Mountains.
● They are sub-parallel ranges run north to south.
● These mountains are separated by rivers, the Kohistan mountains lie between the Indus and
Swat rivers, the Swat Mountains between the Swat and Panjkora rivers, the Dir Mountains
between the Panjkora and Kunar rivers.
● In north they rise to 5000 to 6000 meters and southward they descent as low as 200 meters in
altitude.
● Peaks are covered by snow.
● The Lawarai and Shandur are the important passes of these ranges.
● Precipitation in the form of snow.
● Agriculture is practiced in river valleys with terraced farming.
● Lumbering is an important source of livelihood.
● Tourism industry is promoting due scenic beauty of the ranges.
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Life Style of People at Northern Mountains

SIR WALID FULARA

● Sever climate makes this region extremely inhospitable so population density is extremely
low.
● Transhumance or Semi-nomadic is practiced and some people go to lowland areas during
winter season.
● Crops such as Wheat, maize, potato, peas, barley and millet are cultivated as terraced
farming.
● Fruit farming such as apricot, peaches, plum, cherry, apple and dry fruit plants are also grown
here.
● Where there is availability of water limited agriculture and settled lifestyle is practiced.
● In winter people are bound to stay at homes and adopt indoor activities e.g. carpet making.
● Limited amount of seasonal earning form tourism.
● Sheep and goat rearing is common to meet the family requirements.

Importance of Northern Mountains

● Snow capped peaks melt during summer to drain water into river Indus and its tributaries
which irrigate vast Indus plain.
● Historical passes connect Pakistan to China and Afghanistan.
● A natural border to China and Central Asian Republics. A land route through Karakoram
highway has been opened to carry out trade.
● A source of valuable minerals, timber and fruits.
● Provides raw material to several industries e.g. furniture, chipboard and chemical industries.
● Scenic beauty promotes tourist resorts which are a source of income to local people during
summer.
● Mountain peaks provide protection to Pakistan against the cold winds from Central Asia. The
temperature does not go below freezing point over the upper Indus plain and climate
remains tolerable throughout the year.
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Western Mountains
SIR WALID FULARA

● These mountains border the western territory of the country and the western branches of the
himalayas.
● These are lower in altitude than the northern mountains.
● These ranges receive less amount of rain in winter.
● These ranges run north-south direction making boundary between Pakistan and Afghanistan.
● Western mountains can be divided into sub ranges.
¾ Koh e safed
¾ Waziristan hills
¾ Suleiman ranges
¾ Kirthar ranges

Fig.5, shows the location of Western Mountains and Passes.

Fig.5
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Koh - e - Safed

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● They are located to the south of river Kabul and River Kurram flows in its North.
● These have east-west trend.
● Their height is up to 4700 meters.
● They are mostly snow covered and then called white mountains.
● Sikaram is the highest peak which is 4760 meters high.
● Khyber pass also lies in these ranges and connects Pakistan to Afghanistan.
● Rugged topography, steep slopes and severe winters are the main features.
● Precipitation in the form of snow.
● Large difference between day and night temperatures.
● Large difference between sun and shade temperature.
● People adopt nomadic life.
● Important valleys are Peshawar and Kohat, which are irrigated by canals from Warsak Dam
on River Kabul.

Waziristan Hills
● The height is up to 3500 meters.
● These hills are located between the Kurram and Gomal rivers.
● They form rampart between Pakistan and Afghanistan except Kurram, Tochi and Gomal
passes.
● Tochi, Gomal and Kurram are the important rivers that join river Indus and are known as
western tributaries.
● Tochi and Gomal are important passes of the area.
● These hills are rich in minerals.
● Bannu is the important valley.
● The Kurram dam on the River Kurram is the main source of irrigation.

Suleiman Mountains
● The average height is 1500 meters.
● They are located towards the west of river Indus.
● They run for a distance of 480 kms. and merge into Marri-Bugti hills in their south.
● The highest peak of the area is Takht e Suleiman (3383 meters).
● These ranges are composed of Limestone, Sandstone and Shale rocks.
● Bolan is the important pass of the area that links Quetta and Sibbi, providing communication
with Iran.
● River Bolan provides drainage to this area.

Kirthar Ranges
● The height is up to 2000 meters.
● They are located to the south side of Suleiman ranges, Balochistan Plateau in their west and
Sindh province in their east.
● These ranges form a border between Sindh province and Baluchistan plateau.
● They merge into low hill ranges of Sindh.
● The area is drained by two rivers namely Hub and Layari.
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Baluchistan plateau
SIR WALID FULARA

Plateau: It is a large upland area which is almost level and usually bounded by steep
slopes.

Main Features of Balochistan Plateau

● Located on west side of Sulaiman and Kirthar ranges, separates it from Indus Plain.
● Its Western boundary is marked by Iran, Northern by Afghanistan and southern by
Arabian sea.
● The altitude varies from 600 – 3000 m.
● Its total area is 347,190 [Link].
● This area is devoid of natural vegetation because of less rain.
● Landscape is covered with rugged mountains.
● Narrow streams flow downhill in rainy season and deposit sand, gravel and alluvial soil at the
foothills.
● Some river join the Indus forming the western tributaries such as River Zhob and Kalachi.
● Some rivers fall into Arabian sea such as River Hab, Porali, Hingol and Dasht.
● Some rivers such as River Mula, Bolan and Chakar absorb into the Kachhi Sibi Plain.
● Some rivers flow westward and drain into inland depression such as Hamun -e- Mashkel.
● This plateau is rich in minerals resources such as Natural gas, Oil, Gold, Silver copper &
Coal.
● It covers by small hill ranges, valleys, plains, water bodies and deserts.
● Dry climate is experienced and hot winds blow in summer.
● Winters are harshly cold including snowfalling.
● This plateau is divided into following natural topographical features.
1. Northern Basins
2. Western Basins
3. Mountain Ranges
4. The Coastal Areas

Fig.6, Shows the Location of Balochistan Plateau.

Fig.6
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1. Basins of Northern Balochistan

9 Zhob and Loralai basins which are situated between Toba Kakar and sulaiman ranges.

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9 To the south west of the Loralai basin is the Quetta valley surrounded by mountain
ranges.

2. Basins of Western Balochistan

9 Number of basins between the mountain ranges of Chagai, Ras Koh, Siahan and Central
Makran.

3. Mountain Ranges
● To the extreme north there is Toba Kakar Range.
● To the south of Quetta there is Kalat Plateau, which is criss crossed by Central Brahui ranges.
● To the south of Kalat Plateau a triangular region of Khuzdar Knot which is subject to
frequent earthquakes.
● Chagai hills are located at Pak-Afghan border.
● To the south of Chagai hills, Ras Koh range is located where some inland drainages called
Hamuns are found.
● To the south of Chagai hills curved shaped Siahan range is located.
● To the south of Siahan Range Central Makran Range is located.

4. The Coastal Areas

The coastal areas of the Balochistan Plateau can be divided into Eastern and Western parts.
● The eastern part comprises the Lasbela Plain which is marked by gravel and sand dunes.
● The western part is known as the Makran Coast. The Makran Coast has a narrow beach
backed by rock cliffs. Behind the cliffs, there is a coastal plain. The coastal plain is covered
with sand dunes and dotted with small hills.
The Makran coast is noted for a number of uplifted terraces, including the Clifton hills,
Manora, Cape Monze (Hawks Bay) Ormara, Gwadar and Jiwani.

Life Style of the People at Balochistan Plateau

● Rearing of animals (goat and sheep) is a major occupation in this area.
● Farming is practiced through Karez irrigation.
● Rain occur in winter by western depression and grapes are cultivated near Quetta.
● Marine fishing on Makran Coast provides living to the people at this area.
● Climatic conditions are ideal for flowering / ripening vegetables seeds.
● Gwadar port has a great potential for domestic as well as International trade.
● Road transport available only to main towns / Air transport is even more limited.
● Local traffic consists of camels and donkey.
● Density of population is very less (21 persons / [Link]) due rugged terrain.

Drainage System (Balochistan Plateau)

The natural flow of water from an area in rivers, streams and lakes. The following rivers
and lakes form the drainage system.
¾ River Hingol
¾ River Zhob
¾ River Porali
¾ River Mula
¾ River Dasht
¾ Hamun Makshel
¾ Hamun Lora
¾ Hamun Mergo.
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Inland Drainage System (Balochistan Plateau)

When the water from river or stream is absorbed into land or collects in a lake and does
SIR WALID FULARA

not join big river / sea. The following lakes form the inland drainage system.
¾ Hamun e Makshel
¾ Hamun Lora
¾ Hamun Mergo.

Potwar Plateau
Plateau: It is a large upland area which is almost level and usually bounded by steep
slopes.

Main Features of Potwar Plateau

● The average height is about 300 to 600 meters.
● It is located Northwest side of the Punjab Province and covers the area of 18000 km2.
● Its northern boundary is formed by Kala Chitta ranges and Margalla Hills, south side by salt
ranges, eastern side by River Jhelum and western by River Indus.
● The plateau cover the districts of Rawalpindi, Jhelum, Mianwali and Chakwal.
● It is a bad land topographic area.
● Ravines, Ridges, Gullies, Trough and Residual hills are the main features of the area.
These Gullies and Rivines are called khaderas.
● River Soam, Korang, Harro, Sill and Dharab are the main water bodies of the area.
● Kallar Kahar, Khabeki and Uchchali are main lakes of the area.
● Rock salt, Limestone, Gypsum, oil, Coal and Gas are the main minerals of the plateau.
● Important mountain ranges Khairi Murat,Kheri Mar, Bakralla Ridges, Jogi Tilla and
Salt ranges.
● Soan valley is the important of the area.
● Steep slope towards south side.

Fig.7, shows the location of Potwar Plateau and Salt Ranges.

Fig.7
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Photograph of Potwar Plateau showing a Bad Land Topographic area.

SIR WALID FULARA

Photograph of Potwar Plateau
Drainage System (Potwar Plateau)
The natural flow of water from an area in rivers, streams and lakes. The following rivers
and lakes form the drainage system of Potwar Plateau.
¾ River Soan Kaller Kahar
¾ River Korang Khabeki
¾ River Harro Uchali
¾ River Sill
¾ River Dharab

Inland Drainage System (Potwar Plateau)

When the water from river or stream is absorbed into land or collects in a lake and does
not join big river / sea. The following lakes form the inland drainage system.
¾ Kaller Kahar
¾ Khabeki
¾ Uchali.
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Photograph of Lakes (Potwar Plateau)

SIR WALID FULARA

Uchali Khabeki

Kaller Kahar

Salt Ranges
● Salt ranges are located to the south side of Potwar Plateau.
● Its average height is about 750 – 900 meters.
● Salt Ranges cover most of the Jhelum, Kalabagh and Mianwali districts has become famous
as the salt ranges. This is because of the salt mines of Khewra, a small town about 160 km
from Islamabad.
● The highest peak of the area is Sakesar (1527 m).
● Small streams like Khewra, Makrachi, Jaranwala and Jamsukh.
● It is a bad land topographic area.
● Some beautiful lakes exist in this area e.g. Kaller Kahar, Khabeki and Uchali, which add to
the scenic beauty of the area.
● This area is rich in number of minerals e.g. Rock salt, Limestone and Gypsum.
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Photograph of Salt Ranges (Potwar Plateau)

SIR WALID FULARA

Photograph of Salt Ranges
Life Style of People at Potwar Plateau / Salt Ranges
● Settled life style is practiced.
● Farming depends on rainfall (Barani Farming) because rugged landscape does not allow
canal Irrigation. Wheat, Maize, Barley and gram are cultivated.
● Infrastructure is available and area is accessible by road, rail and air transport due to urban
settlement.

Terms
Gully
It is a channel formed by flowing water along a hill slope.

Photograph of Gully
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Ravine
It is a narrow deep channel which is larger than gully.
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Photograph of Ravine
Trough
It is a long deep valley.

Photograph of Trough

Ridges
It is a narrow range of hills. OR
A ridge is a long and rather narrow upland
area with one or more steep sides.

Photograph of Ridges
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Residual Hills
Isolated blocks of rock remaining after an extended period of erosion has lowered surrounding

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hills.

Photograph of Residual Hills.

Photograph of Residual Hills

Indus Plain
Plain: An extensive area of level or gently undulating land, usually of low altitude.
The Indus Plain were formed by the alluvium laid down by the River Indus and its tributaries.
The River Indus is a mighty river about 2900 kilometers long. From its source in Mansorawar
Lake in Tibet, the Indus flows from east to west between lofty mountains like the Karakoram and
the great Himalayas. It then majestically flows into the Arabian Sea through a braided channel in
Punjab and a meandering channel in Sindh Province.

Fig.8, shows the location of Indus Plain (Upper and Lower Indus Plain).

Fig.8
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The Tributaries of River Indus

SIR WALID FULARA

Tributary: A river or stream flowing into a larger river or lake.

The river Indus is joined by a number of tributaries from the right and from the left. In general
the right-hand / western tributaries are small and carry a lower volume of water e.g. River
Kabul, River Gilgit, River Kurram and River Gomal.
A number of left-hand / Eastern tributaries are major rivers which carry large volumes of water
and sediments. These rivers are the Jhelum, River Chenab, River Ravi, River Beas and River
Sutlej. Eventually, all of them join at Mithankot. From there, they flow as one stream under the
name of Panjnad before they join the Indus. From there onwards, the Indus makes its way to the
Arabian Sea without being joined by any further tributaries.

Fig.9, shows the location of River Indus and its Tributaries (Eastern and
Western).

Fig.9

Indus plain is divided into two parts.

1. Upper Indus Plain 2. Lower Indus Plain

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1. Upper Indus Plain (Features and comparison )

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● The area between Attock to Mithankot is called Upper Indus Plain.
● Located in the northern part of the Indus Plain.
● Nearly flat, undulating plain and sloping towards the south-west.
● It stretches over the whole Punjab Province approximately.
● River Indus and its major tributaries flow here.
● River Jhelum, Ravi and Sutlej have joined the River Chenab at Panjnad to form the River
Panjnad which joins the Indus near Mithankot.
● The average width of the Indus is 1.4 km till Kalabagh and 1.6 km near Sukkur.
● River Indus is in its middle course in the north and enters its lower course towards south.
● Both erosion and deposition take place.
● Meanders, Oxbow-lakes, Braided Channel and Levees are present in doab areas.
● Doabs and Bars / Alluvial Terraces are formed between the rivers exist in this area.
● Piedmont Plain with alluvial fans to the north and west.
● Ideal for industries and agriculture with a network of perennial and link canals.

\Fig.10, shows the location of Upper Indus Plain.

Fig.10
Landf Forms / Natural Topographical Features of River Indus
Land forms of River Indus can be divided into four parts.
1. Active Flood Plain
2. Old Flood Plain
3. Scarp / Bluff
4. Alluvial Terraces / Bars.

1. Active Flood Plain

Flat area.
Flooded every year.
New alluvium is deposited.
Meanders, Oxbow-lakes, Braided Channel and Levees are present.

2. Old Flood Plain

Flat area.
Flooded every 7/8 years due to severe flood.
Old alluvium is deposited.
Meanders, Oxbow-lakes, Braided Channel and Levees are present.
Fit for agriculture.
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3. Scarp / Bluff
Steep slope.
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Fit for agriculture.

4. Alluvial Terrace / Bar upland

Bar Upland: Highland built by river deposition.
Flat / level area.
Old alluvium is deposited.
Fit for industry, houses and agriculture.

Piedmont Plains
Plain stretching out from the base of a mountain.
Piedmont plains are located at the foothills of the Sulaiman, Kirthar and Himalayas mountains.
The most dominant features of the Piedmont plains are the Alluvial Fans or cones that develop
eastward from the Sulaiman and Kirthar mountains.
When most of the rivers or streams coming from the Sulaiman and Kirthar ranges have low
water flows. They become active only during the rainy season, when they flow down the
mountain slopes swiftly. As they reach the foothills, they become slow and split into narrow
channels that fan out on to the slopes. The material brought down by the water is dropped within
the narrow channels of the streams. The gravel, sand and alluvium deposited by rivers form
alluvial fans. There are extensive areas of alluvial fans on the eastern side of the Sulaiman and
Kirthar ranges. The Sulaiman Piedmont plain is also known as Derajat. The piedmont plains are
mainly agricultural.
The Derajat consist of the trans-Indus territory and are located between River Indus and
Sulaiman Mountains covering an area of 2 million hectares in the districts of D.G. Khan
Ranjinpur plus adjacent tribal areas in the Punjab and D.I. Khan in Khyberpaktunkhan.

Alluvial Fan
Fan like deposit made by a river at the base of a hill

Alluvial Fan
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Photograph of Alluvial Fan

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Photograph of Alluvial Fan
Meander
The zig zag winding course of river is called meander.

Photograph of Meanders
Ox-Bow Lake
It is a curved river channel cut off from the main stream.

Photograph of Ox-Bow Lake

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Levees
Natural embankment built on the banks of a stream by deposition.
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Fig.11, shows the formation of Levees.

Fig.11

Braided Channel
A channel which flows into shallow interconnected channels divided by deposited material.

Photograph of Braided Channel

Doab
Area between two rivers called doab. Well known doabs are the following.

Bari Doab: Area between River Sutlej and River Ravi. Following districts are
Included in it. Lahore, Kasur, Okara, Shaiwal, Pakpattan, Vehari,
Multan, Khanewal and Lodhran.

Rechna Doab: Area between River Ravi and River Chenab. (Sialkot, Narowal,
Gujranwala, Hsfizabad, Jhang, Faisalabad and Toba-Tek-Singh).

Chaj Doab: Area between River Chenab and River Jhelum. (Gujrat, Sargodha,
Mandi Bahauddin and north western part of Jhang).
 PAGE 27

Sindh Sagar Doab: Area between River Jhelum and River Indus. (Khushab,
Mianwali, Leiah and Muzaffargarh).

SIR WALID FULARA

Alluvial Terraces / Bar upland
Alluvial Terraces / Bar Upland: Highland built by river deposition.
Alluvial Terraces have developed in some parts of the interfluves / Doab of the Upper Indus
Plain. The interfluves are locally called Doabs and the terraces are called Bars. These terraces
were formed the deposition during the past. Well known terraces are the following.
¾ Kirana Bar in Chaj Doab.
¾ Sandal Bar in Rechana Doab.
¾ Ganji Bar in Bari Doab.
¾ Nili Bar in between the old bed of River Beas and River Sutlej.

Fig.12, shows the location of Doabs and Bars.

Fig.12

Bahawalpur Plain
The Bahawalpur plain is grouped with the doabs because of the riverain tracts locally known as
sindh and an upland identical to the bar upland. The north eastern part is a cover and meander
flood plain, the central area is a sandy plain being leveled and irrigated and the south western
part is a cover flood plain of Dera Nawab. Along its southern border is the Ghaggar channel
way. Bahawalpur, Bahawalnagar, Chistian and Rahim Yar Khan’s irrigated areas are best
known for cultivation (cotton).
 PAGE 28

2. Lower Indus Plain

SIR WALID FULARA

● The area between Mithankot to Thatta is called Lower Indus Plain.

● It is located in the southern part of the Indus Plain.
● Nearly flat, undulating plain and sloping towards south.
● It stretches over the whole Sindh Province approximately.
● River Indus flows alone.
● River Indus flows into the Arabian Sea south of Thatta.
● Width of the River Indus is 1.6 km.
● River Indus is in its lower course.
● Deposition is the main function of River Indus.
● Meanders, Oxbow-lakes, Braided Channel and Levees are present.
● Doabs and Bars / Alluvial Terraces are not present.
● Cuesta is (A ridge of limestone) present.
● Piedmont Plain with alluvial fans to the west.
● Ideal for industries and agriculture with a network of canals.

Fig.13, shows the location of Lower Indus Plain.

Fig.13
The Kachhi-Sibi Plain
It is a barren area which is bounded on the north by the Marri-Bugti Ranges and on the west by
the Kalat Range and southern by Indus Plain. Heat and aridity are the common characteristics
of this area.

Cuesta
It is a ridge of limestone with a steep slope and a gentle slope. The steep slope of a cuesta may
also be called a scarp. The gentle slope of a cuesta is known as the dip-slope or back slope. They
are only two in Pakistan namely Rohri and Ganjo Takar. Both are located in the lower Indus
Plain. These limestone ridges provide a firm foundation for the construction of Barrages for
irrigation. They also add to the scenic beauty of the area.
 PAGE 29

Fig.14, shows the Picture of Cuesta.

SIR WALID FULARA

Fig.14

Indus / Tidal Delta

Delta: Triangular deposition made be river at its mouth is called delta.
When River Indus reaches near Arabian Sea its speed is reduced due to load (Sand, Clay) and
low gradient. So it divides into many smaller and larger distributaries. It is the 7th largest delta in
the world with an area 780 [Link].
In Pakistan only two rivers form the delta e.g. River Indus forms delta called Indus Delta and
River Hub forms delta called Hub Delta.

Photograph of Indus Delta

 PAGE 30

Features of Indus Delta

SIR WALID FULARA

● It is located to the south of Thatta.

● The larger distributries are Ochito and Gungro.
● The smaller distributries are Kalri and Panyari.
● Sea water often fills up Troughs between distributaries, resulting Mangrove forest.
● There are some depressions in deltic areas which are filled with water during flood, locally
called Dhands / ox-bow lake.
● Levees formed due to deposition of alluvium on the banks of distributaries.

Conditions (Formation of Delta)

¾ The River must carry the load.
¾ The River must deposit the load.

Fig.15, shows the formation of Indus Delta.

Fig.12

Fig.15
Fig.16, shows the location of Indus Delta.

Fig.16
 PAGE 31

Desert Areas

SIR WALID FULARA

Desert: A large barren area of land that has very less rain / no rain called desert.
The most important deserts in Pakistan are the following:
1. Thal Desert / Sindh Sagar Doab
2. The Thar Desert (Thar desert has three parts)
x Cholistan / Rohi
x Nara / Pat
x Tharparker
3. Kharan Desert

Features of Desert Areas

● Very hot in summer season and temperature remain above 40C .
● Arid conditions prevail (little or no rain).
● Winters are mild (Temperature remain 10C to 20C).
● Dust Storms / hot dusty winds blow during May to September.
● Sand dunes are present, they are in different shapes like Latitudinal, Longitudinal, Transverse
and Crescent.
● Sand plains are present.
● Large daily range.
● People adopt nomadic life and rear goat and sheep.
● Little / no agriculture due to shortage of water e.g. grams are cultivated.
● Little / no vegetation i.e. thorny bushes (mostly acacia) is a general picture of desert.
● Mineral deposits such as coal, oil and gas fields are present in Thar desert.

Fig.17, shows the location of Desert areas in Pakistan.

Fig.17
 PAGE 32

Photograph of Deserts areas.

SIR WALID FULARA

Photograph of Desert Areas

Photograph of Sand Dune

Photograph of Sand Dune

Life Style of People in Desert areas of Pakistan
● People adopt nomadic life in summer due to extreme hot and lack of water.
● People keep goat and sheep.
● Camels are widely used for transportation.
● Rabi crops are cultivated i.e. wheat and gram.
● Handicraft industries related to hide and wool are popular.
● Density of population is very less due to harsh climate and poor facilities.
 PAGE 33

Avalanches

SIR WALID FULARA

The huge masses of snow that move down the slopes.

Photograph of Avalanches.

Photograph of Avalanches

Landslide
The movement of rocks and soil down the mountain slopes known as landslide.

Photograph of Landslide.

Photograph of Landslide
 PAGE 34

Photograph of Landslide.
SIR WALID FULARA

Photograph of Landslide
 PAGE 35

Photograph of Landslide.

SIR WALID FULARA

Photograph of Landslide
 PAGE 36

C l i m a t e of P a k i s t a n
SIR WALID FULARA

Weather
Weather refers to the atmospheric conditions (Temperature, Rainfall, Humidity, Air
Pressure, Speed of winds, Direction of winds) of any place for a short period of time,
usually consist of one day. It is often localized.

Climate
Climate refers to the average weather conditions (Temperature, Rainfall, Humidity, Air
Pressure, Speed of winds, Direction of winds) of a place for long period of time usually
consist of 30 years.

Climatic Zones
Pakistan’s topographical features range from lofty mountains in the North to coastal
plains in the South. The diversity of terrain leads to a variety of climates. Climatic
divisions / regions of Pakistan are the following.

A. Highland climate
B. Lowland climate
C. Coastal climate
D. Arid climate
Fig.1 shows the climatic regions / zones of Pakistan.

Fig.1
 PAGE 37

A. Highland climate
Zone A indicates highland climate of Pakistan prevailing over Northern, North-Western

SIR WALID FULARA

and Western mountains

B. Lowland climate
Zone B has lowland climate, which prevail over the whole of the Indus Plain.

C. Coastal climate
Zone C has Coastal climate experienced by the Makran Coast and Sindh Coast.

D. Arid climate
Zone D has arid climate and includes the South-eastern desert and the South-western part
of Balochistan.

Season
Pakistan has four seasons that can be distinguished as follows.
Winter December to March.
Summer
Early summer (April to June).
Late summer (July to September).

Post Monsoon October to November.

Elements of Climate
There are four main climatic elements like, Air Pressure, Winds, Temperature and
Rainfall. These are responsible for the regional and seasonal variations in the climate of
Pakistan.

1. Air Pressure
As air is a mixture of gases and these gases have a certain weight, the air has weight too.
The weight of air presses down on the earth and this is called the atmospheric pressure. It
is measured by Barometer in millibar (mb). Air pressure and temperature run opposite
side.

2. Winds
A current of air, moving with sped in any direction, but generally assumed to be parallel
to the earth’s surface. The speed of wind is measured by an instrument called an
Anemometer. For wind direction a wind rose is used. Winds always blow from high
pressure to low pressure, it’s a natural principle.
During summer season, the temperature in central Pakistan is high. This causes the hot
air to rise up and form a low-pressure zone. At the same time oceans and seas have
comparatively low temperature. This is because water absorbs and discharges heat slowly
as compared to the land. The air pressure over the oceans and seas is higher than over the
land during summer. This leads to the movement of winds from sea to land called Sea
Breeze. These are moisture laden and bring heavy rainfall to the upper and lower Indus
Plain in the months of July and August.
 PAGE 38

During winter season the whole situation is reversed because the pressure over the land
gradually increases and a high-pressure area is created in the north-west of Pakistan.
Then winds move from land to sea called Land Breeze. These are generally light and
SIR WALID FULARA

dry.

Photograph of Winds.

3. Temperature
The degree of heat of a body, usually expressed in degrees on the Centigrade or the
Fahrenheit scale and measured by Thermometer. Temperature decreases in general from

Photograph of Winds

3. Temperature
The degree of heat of a body, usually expressed in degrees on the Centigrade or the
Fahrenheit scale and measured by Thermometer. Temperature decreases in general from
the equator towards the poles and temperature decreases with altitude.

Diversity (of temperature in various regions is due to the following factors).

1. Large spread of latitudes from 24 N to 37 N.
2. Diversity of relief ranging from the very high mountains in the north to low lying
coastal areas in the south.
3. The upper and lower Indus Plain heat up during the summer season e.g. Jacobabad,
located in the lower Indus Plain is known as the ‘thermal pole’ of the sub-continent
the maximum temperature reaches 53 C in June.

Temperature Key
1. 40 C and above Very hot
2. 31 C – 39 C Hot
3. 21 C – 30 C Warm
4. 10 C – 20 C Mild
5. 03 C – 09 C Cool
6. - 5 C – 02 C Cold
7. Below - 5 C Very cold
 PAGE 39

Factors (Affecting Temperature of Pakistan)

SIR WALID FULARA

1. Latitudinal Effect.
2. Continental Effect.
3. Altitude and Temperature.
4. Cloud cover and Temperature.
5. Latitude and the angle of the Sun.
Study Fig.2, shows the average January temperature for Pakistan.

Fig.2
Q.1. Describe the distribution of the area with an average January temperature
below 10 C.
Ans. Whole Northern Areas.
North Western areas.
Western mountains.
Western NWFP and Northern western Baluchistan is included.
Q.2. Explain the distribution of the area with an average January temperature below
10 C.
Ans. Higher in altitude (above sea level).
Mountainous areas.
Temperature remains below zero C.
Precipitation in the form of snow.
Q.3. Describe the distribution of the area with an average January temperature
above 15 C.
Ans. Lower Indus Plain.
Southern Balochistan.
 PAGE 40

Q.4. Explain fully the distribution of the area with an average January temperature
above 15 C.
Ans. Close to Tropic of Cancer.
SIR WALID FULARA

Effect of sea.
Effect of mountains due to nearer of Balochistan / desert.
Sindh is low land, so temperature is not affected by altitude.
Study Fig.3, shows the mean monthly temperature of Lahore and Quetta.

Fig.3
Q.5. Compare the mean monthly temperatures of Lahore and Quetta.
Ans. Both graph have a similar range / both 20 – 22.
Lahore warmer and Quetta colder.
Lahore sharp drop after June and Quetta smooth curve.
Lahore increases then decreases and Quetta slight drop May to July.
Q.6. Explain the seasonal changes in temperature at Lahore.
Ans. Effect of latitude / angle of the suns rays.
Rising in dry season / lack of cloud cobver before monsoon.
Drop in July related to start of monsoon season / heavy rainfall.
Study Fig.4, which shows the desert climate of Nok Kundi.

Fig.4
 PAGE 41

Q.7. Describe the yearly distribution of temperature in a desert climate.

Ans. Increases January to July and Decreases July to December.
Rises to maximum in June and July.

SIR WALID FULARA

Falls to minimum in December / January.
Hot summers and mild / cool winters.
4. Rainfall
Separate water drops which fall to the earth from the clouds, formed by the condensation
of water vapour in the atmosphere called rain.
Most of the areas of Pakistan are arid or semi-arid. Only in a few northern areas humid
conditions are found. The rainfall as a whole decreases from north to south.

Arid
Are those where there is a deficiency of rainfall, which is less than 250 millimeters. The
arid areas like whole of Sindh, Southern part of Punjab and southern part of Balochistan.

Semi - Arid
Are those where there is a moderate rainfall, that ranges between 250 – 750 millimeters.
The semi arid areas like, Northern Balochistan, Northern Punjab and major part of
NWFP.

Humid
Are those where there is sufficient rainfall, which is more then 750 milliters. The humid
areas are Northern strip of Punjab, the adjoining parts NWFP and a small area around
Parachinar.

Sources of Rain
1. Monsoon Winds
2. The Western Depressions
3. Convectional currents / Thunder Storm
4. Relief Rainfall
5. Cyclone

Monsoon (July to September)

The word monsoon is derived from the Arabic word ‘Mousim’ mean season, it means
these are seasonal winds, which blow during summer and winter.
Pakistan receives the tail end of the monsoon winds which enter the country after
crossing India. They usually reach Pakistan in early July and sometimes continue to early
September. Most of rainfall which takes places by this source. These winds come from
east side ‘Bay of Bengal’ and heavy rain occur in northern areas of Pakistan e.g.
Murree. So the amount of rain decreases towards south and because most the of
moisture is robbed due long journey. This system is called Primary Monsoon System.
When monsoon winds come from ‘Arabian Sea’ and heavy rain occur in Karachi and its
adjacent areas by this source then this system is called Secondary Monsoon System.
 PAGE 42

Factors (For the Development of Rain by Monsoon)

SIR WALID FULARA

1. Strong heating of land.

2. Low pressure created.
3. Rising air (warm).
4. Space created / gap.
5. High pressure created over Bay of Bengal / Arabian Sea.
6. Winds blow from high pressure to low pressure and bring moisture.
7. Condensation takes place.
8. Clouds form at higher altitude
9. Rain occur.
Study the map Fig.5, which shows the main monsoon wind and the rainfall distribution
from July to September.

Fig.5
Q.1. Describe the rainfall distribution shown in Fig.5.
Ans. Lowest / less than 25 mm in West Balochistan and extreme NW.
Large areas / Lower Indus Plain less than 125 mm.
Most of Balochistan less than 125 mm.
Decreasing towards NW and SW / increasing towards SE and NE.
Highest in NE Punjab / Murree area / over 500 mm.
Q.2. Describe the route of the main monsoon across Pakistan.
Ans. East to West / from NE / from East.
From Bay of Bengal / Northern India.
Towards the Northern areas / Mountains.
Across Punjab / upper Indus Plain.
 PAGE 43

Q.3. Explain why there are differences in amounts of rainfall caused by the
monsoon in different areas of Pakistan.
Ans. Depends on moisture content / humidity.

SIR WALID FULARA

Pakistan receives tail end of the monsoon.
More rain as it rises over hills.
Rain shadow effect on lee slopes. Climate change with reason e.g. global
warming, ozone layer. Condensation / clouds caused by cooling of rising air.

Q.4. Explain why the monsoon wind that is shown develops.

Ans. 1. Strong heating of land.
2. Low pressure created.
3. Rising air (warm).
4. Space created / gap.
5. High pressure created over Bay of Bengal / Arabian Sea.
6. Winds blow from high pressure to low pressure and bring moisture.
7. Condensation takes place.
8. Clouds form at higher altitude
9. Rain occur.
Q.5. Explain how the rainfall caused by the monsoon winds.
Ans. Winds from N India forced to rise by mountains.
Winds from Arabian Sea / Secondaries rise over SE Sindh
Wind has lost moisture over India and Bangladesh / tail end, so less rain in
Pakistan than India.
Balochistan remote from monsoon winds so less rain.
High mountains in NE increase rainfall.
Plains have less rain than mountains.

Study Fig.6, a bar chart showing precipitation for Peshawar.

Fig.6
 PAGE 44

Q.6. Describe the precipitation in the months from June to September.

Ans. Increases June – August.
Decreases in September.
SIR WALID FULARA

Maximum in August 68 mm.

Minimum in June 8 mm.
Ranges from 8 mm to 68 mm.
Q.7. Explain how this precipitation is caused by the monsoon winds in these months.
Ans. Low pressure over Himalayas.
High pressure over the Bay of Bengal.
Moist winds (from the E / SE).
Air rises.
Cools.
Vapour condenses.
Droplets form.
Study Fig.7, rainfall charts for Chitral and Lahore.

Fig.7
 PAGE 45

Q.8. Compare the amounts of rainfall for Chitral and Lahore.

A. From January to May
B. From June to September.

SIR WALID FULARA

Ans. CHITRAL LAHORE
Higher in C than L Iower in L than C.
High range 35 – 106 mms / 71 mms Low range 23 – 41 / 18 mms.
Lowest in January Lowest in April.
Highest in March Highest in March
Increases then decreases Jan – May Increases then decreases Jan – May.
Same pattern at both places.

B. June to September.
CHITRAL LAHORE
Lower in C than L Higher in L than C.
Low range 5 – 9 mms / 4 mms High range 62 – 205 mms.
Highest in September Highest in July.
Rises June – September Decreases July – September.
The map Fig.8, shows the locations of two weather stations and their records of rainfall
and mean monthly temperature.

Fig.8
 PAGE 46

Q.9. Compare the amount and seasonal distribution of rainfall at Quetta and
Lahore.
SIR WALID FULARA

Ans. QUETTA LAHORE

Winter Maximum Summer Maximum.
Max December to March Max July to August.
Lower total than L Higher total than Q.
No rain in June and September Rain in all months.
Highest in February Highest in July.
Equal rain in March and November at both stations.
Q.10. Give reasons for the differences in amount and seasonal distribution of rainfall
at these locations.
Ans. QUETTA
More rain from western depression.
Summer convectional rainfall.
No / negligible monsoon rainfall.
LAHORE
Less rain from western depression.
Little convectional rainfall.
Monsoon winds this should include both the SE and NW monsoon.
Monsoon brings more rain than depressions.
Q.11. What are the benefits and problems for farmers in the area of Lahore which
result from the rainfall?
Ans. Benefits
Some rain in all months / throughout year.
Enough without irrigation / for barani farming.
Monsoon rain for Kharif crops.
Depression and convectional for Rabi crops.

Problems
Uneven distribution.
Too much in July – August / too little in October / November.
Flooding in wet season.
Lack of sunshine for ripening crops.
High evapo-transpiration in April – June.
Heavy rain damages cereals, cotton.
Pests, Diseases, virus in wet season.
Heavy rain ineffective / does not soak in.
Q.12. Chose one of the problems from (Q.11) and explain how it can be reduced.
Ans. Uneven distribution / too little in some months
Storage in reservoirs, ponds, tanks, barrages.
Canals from storage in mountains.
Use of underground supplies in dry season, tubewells.
Flooding / too much in some months
Storage of water in dams, barrages.
Strengthen the river embankments / levees.
Planting trees.
Weather forecasts.
 PAGE 47

Study Fig.9, which shows the desert climate of Nok Kundi.

SIR WALID FULARA

Fig.9
Q.13. With reference to Fig.9, describe the yearly distribution of rainfall in a desert
climate.
Ans. Wetter in winter than summer.
Decreases January to May.
Increases in December.
Variable May to November.
Q.14. Heavy rain and thunderstorms affect Business and Industry in urban areas.
Explain the advantages and disadvantages of the rain and storms.
Ans. Advantages
Water supply.
Reservoirs filled for HEP / power supply.
Disadvantages
Floods. Damage and blockage of roads.
High winds. Damage to buildings, trees.
Erosion of land. Effect on roads / railways / runways.
Loss of water supply. Loss of production, Business.
Danger of lightening.
Loss of raw material e.g. cotton, sugar cane.
Disruption of fishing / trade.
No flights for businessmen.
Q.15. Explain the importance (benefits and problems) of the arrival of the monsoon
to people who live and work in urban areas.
Ans. Benefits.
Cooler – better working and living conditions / pleasant climate.
Fresher – less dust, cleaner air, no pollution.
Water supply – for drinking, factories, market gardens, buffalo.
Problems
Flooding.
People cannot get to work.
Loss of production.

Early Arrival Monsoon (Rain from April to June ).

Late Arrival Monsoon (Rain from July to September).
Post Monsoon. (Rain from October to November).
 PAGE 48

The Western Depression (December to March)

SIR WALID FULARA

The western depression originates in the Mediterranean Sea, travel across Afghanistan
then reach the western areas of Pakistan. Quetta receives most of its rainfall during the
winter season.

Factors (For the Development of Rain by Western Depression)

1. Temperature increases in winter season.
2. Comparative low pressure beyond the Mediterranean Sea.
3. Come from Mediterranean Sea.
4. Enter Pakistan through Afghanistan.
5. Bring moisture.
6 Condensation takes place.
7. Clouds form on higher altitude
8. Rain occur.
 PAGE 49

Q.1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of winter rainfall in Northern
Pakistan.
Advantages

SIR WALID FULARA

Ans.
Fills reservoirs / rivers / more storage.
Water for irrigation.
Water for HEP.
Water for barani crops.
Water for winter crops / fruit trees.
Lighter form of rain – can soak in.
Snow for tourism.

Disadvantages
May fall as snow.
Rivers / lakes frozen.
Temperature too cold for growth.
Damage to environment – landslides, mudslides, floods etc.
Damage to roads – blockage, slippery etc.
Silt collects in reservoirs / dams.
Difficulties meaning farmers must do transhumance / nomadism.
 PAGE 50

Convectional Currents / (April – June and Oct - Nov)

SIR WALID FULARA

At the start of summer, hot air rises up which also contains a high moisture content.
When it reaches the higher layers of the atmosphere, condensation takes place. This
causes rainfall, often as thunderstorms. Strong winds accompanying the storms may pick
up dust as well.
Only the northern and north-western areas of Pakistan receives rainfall from this
source. Southern Pakistan is deprived of convectional rainfall due to a temperature
inversion layer. Temperature Inversion Layer (On clear winter nights the
temperature increases with the altitude) does not allow condensation to take place at
the height of 1600 m due Criss-Cross system of winds. As a result warm air descends
and no rainfall occurs. That is why Karachi and adjoining areas do not receive rainfall by
this source.

Factors (For the Development of Rain by Convection currents /

Thunderstorm)
1. Strong heating of land.
2. Low pressure created.
3. Rising air (warm).
4. Space created / gap.
5. Winds blow from high pressure to low pressure.
6. Moisture evaporated from rivers / lakes.
7. Air cooled as it rises.
8. Condensation takes place.
9. Clouds (Cumulonimbus) form at higher altitude.
10. Strong winds blow.
11. Lightning and thundering.
12. Rain occur.
Fig.10, shows the Criss-Cross system of winds.

Fig.10
 PAGE 51

Photograph of Clouds and Lightening.

SIR WALID FULARA

Photograph of Clouds and lightening

Relief Rainfall / Orographic

Relief rainfall is related to the height of land. It occurs where moist unstable air moves up
a mountain or scarp edge and it is chilled. This chilling causes heavy condensation and
precipitation, on the windward side. The leeward slopes tend to receive sinking,
warming air and a dry ‘rain shadow’ are may lie leeward of the barrier.
 PAGE 52

Tropical Cyclone
SIR WALID FULARA

When the wind is spirally moving in towards the low pressure called cyclone.
A tropical cyclone is a severe storm which tales place largely in South Asia, South East
Asia, Northern Australia, South America and the South-Eastern part of North America. In
South Asia, it is referred to as the Cyclone, in South-East Asia as the Typhoon, in
Australia as the Willy-Willy and in America as the Hurricane.

Cyclones in Pakistan
In Pakistan, cyclones originate in the Arabian Sea, gradually moving towards the land.
Very often, they die out before reaching the coast. Sometimes they attack the coast and
cause damage with violent winds, high ocean waves and cyclone surge.
Tropical cyclones occur either in the Pre-monsoon season from May to June or in the
Post-Monsoon season in September and October. The life of a tropical cyclone is seven
to ten days. In 90s Pakistan has been struck by tropical cyclones.

Natural / Physical Conditions (Occurring of cyclone)

1. Low pressure created in Sea / Ocean.

2. High winds blow.
3. High waves produced.
4. Heavy rainfall.
5. Floods.
6. Thunderstorm / Thundering / Lightening.
7. Damage.

Photograph of Cyclone.

Photograph of cyclone
 PAGE 53

Photograph of Cyclone (Waves).

SIR WALID FULARA

Photograph of Big Waves

Photograph of Cyclone (Destruction in coastal areas)

Q.1. What effects do these storms have on the economy and lives of the people who
live in the coastal area?
Ans. Strong / violent winds
Floods……
Kill people. Kill livestock. Ruin crops. Cause famine / food shortage. Destroy
homes / factories. Destroy bridges. Interrupt communication. Interrupt services /
utilities / electricity supplies / water supplies. Disrupts fishing. Loss of property.
Danger of diseases. Poverty / loss of income / loss of taxes.
 PAGE 54

Study Fig.11, a map of natural hazards in Pakistan.

SIR WALID FULARA

Fig.11
Q.2. Which area is affected by tropical cyclones?
Ans. Sindh coast, (Indus delta).
Balochistan coast, (Makran coast).
Q.3. Describe the physical effects of tropical cyclones in this area.
Ans. High winds blow.
High waves produced.
Heavy / high rain occur.
Floods.
Thunderstorms / thunder / lightening.
Damage.
 PAGE 55

Storm

SIR WALID FULARA

A very bad weather with strong wind, precipitation and sometimes with lighting and
thundering.

Dust Storm
A storm in which dense masses of dust are carried by the winds.
Dust storms are most common in Sindh, particularly in the desert areas. Dust storms are
usually experienced in summer season in May and June. In the absence of moisture,
dust is wipped up to form dust storm. Dust is created by intense heating of desert. Areas
where an intense low pressure develops temporarily. This low pressure attract winds from
nearby region. These strong winds pickup dust, sand and dust storm is created. About 15
to 20 dust storms take place every year.

Photograph of Dust Storm.

Photograph of Dust Storm

Flood
The excessive water in rivers which over flow the banks or not called flood.

Flash Flood
Sudden flood which disappears quickly called flash flood.

Causes of Flood
There are two causes of flood which are as follows.
1. Natural
i. Melting of snow.
ii. Heavy rain by monsoon.

2. Human
i. Cutting of the trees on the foothills increases surface run-off.
ii. Weak embankment.
iii. less storing capacity (water) of dams.
 PAGE 56

Photograph of Flood.
SIR WALID FULARA

Photograph of Flood

Advantages of Flood
1. Floods return nutrients to the land.
2. Floods refresh the streams.
3. Floods spread a layer of alluvium which increases the fertility of the land.
4. Store maximum water in dams.
5. Rise water level.
6. Promotes inland fishing industry.

Effects of Flood / Problems

1. Destruction of crops.
2. Loss of food supply.
3. Mud houses and huts could be severely damaged.
4. Danger of diseases.
5. Interrupt communication / roads / railway.
6. Kill livestock.
7. Little / no supply of raw material to industries.
8. Destroy bridges.
9. Interrupts services / utilities / electricity supplies.

Measures (To reduce the flood risk)

1. Planting trees on the foothills to check the flow of running water.

2. Enlarging the river channel so that it can be hold more water.
3. Building embankments on either side of the river to prevent the spread of water.
4. Building reservoirs on the river to store water and control peak discharge.
5. Preventing building in areas where flooding is most likely.
6. Publicizing flood warnings through Radio, Television and Newspapers.
7. Providing necessary facilities for rehabilitation in flooded areas.
 PAGE 57

Drought

SIR WALID FULARA

Extreme dryness due to lack of rain. It is almost found in deserts areas like Cholistan and
Tharparkar.

Causes of Drought
There are two factors which causes the drought in Pakistan.
1. Natural Factors
2. Human Factors

1. Natural Factors
1. Unreliability of monsoon.
2. Dry and hot dusty winds can reduce the moisture content.

2. Human Factors
1. Deforestation.
2. Unfair distribution of water between Punjab and Sindh Province.
3. Over grazing of land by goat and sheep.
4. Global Warming.

Fig.12, shows the areas affected by Drought.

Fig.12
 PAGE 58

Effects of Drought on the Physical Environment

SIR WALID FULARA

Desertification: The processes of turning the land into a desert.

Exposed soil leading to soil erosion, dust storms.
Extension of desert areas, rise in temperature,
Loss of vegetation.

Drying up of Rivers, Harm to fisheries and other aquatic life, growth of

Lakes and Streams : Algae in shallow water bodies, unsafe drinking
Water.

Drop in water table: Less water available to plants and humans from
from ground sources.

Effects of Drought on the Human Environment

Population: Widespread famine, Migration from affected areas,
Health problem, Loss of lives, Break-up of rural social
Set-up, Nomadic life.
Economy: Crop failure, Death of livestock, Shortage of raw material
to industries, reduced exports and increased imports.

Strategies to reduce negative impacts of Drought

1. People are settled in temporary refugee camps specially sick.
2. Supplied of food by charities and international relief agencies.
3. Water storage schemes (construction of Dams and tanks) Irrigation canals to grow
crops, planting of trees.
4. Use of new technology (Desalination of sea water, Reclaiming waste water and
turning into clean water, using drought resistant varieties of crops).
5. Lining the canals.
 PAGE 59

DEVELOPMENT OF WATER RESOURCES

SIR WALID FULARA

Irrigation
It is the artificial supply of water to land in order to encourage the plant growth. It is very
important in Arid, Semi Arid and Humid areas just to improve yield. In our country 75%
of cultivated area is under irrigation. This system has developed from traditional lift
irrigation to complex canal system. But in our country agriculture totally depends on
irrigation.

Why We Need Irrigation

1. Most of the areas in our country experience aridity or semi-aridity which increases
from north to south.
2. High variability in the distribution of rainfall. This variability ranges from 30 to 70 %
in humid areas, 30 to 40 % in arid areas and 40 to 70 % in semi arid areas.
3. Long dry spell (April to June and October to November) in Pakistan.
4. High variability in the timings of rainfall.
5. Small no. of rainy days which are 20 in south, 20 to 50 days in northern areas and 93
at Murree per annum.
6. High rate of evapo-transpiration especially in arid and semi arid areas.
7. In 1948 India has stopped the water of canals, irrigated the areas of newly founded
Pakistan.
8. Recently India has constructed the dams on River Indus and River Chenab.

Methods of Irrigation
There are two methods of irrigation.

1. Traditional / Conventional Methods of irrigation.

i. Lift Irrigation
ii. Shaduf
iii. Charsa
iv. Persian Wheel
v. Karez

2. Modern Methods of irrigation

i. Tubewell
ii. Canals.

Traditional Methods of Irrigation

Lift Irrigation
One of the oldest methods of irrigation in Pakistan is lift irrigation. In early times, water
was lifted by hand in a bucket attached to a rope from shallow wells and ditches. Because
it involved a considerable amount of labor, only a small area of land could be irrigated.

Shaduf
The shaduf consists of a bucket suspended by a rope from one end of the pole. A weight
(like a rock) is placed at the other end of the pole. The pole is suspended on a Y shaped
post at a well or a river bank. The bucket is dipped into the water by hand and the weight
at the other end of the pole helps to lift it up. With a lot of efforts, only one-tenth of a
hectare can be irrigated and this method is now outdated.
 PAGE 60

Photograph of Lift Irrigation.

SIR WALID FULARA

Photograph of Lift Irrigation

Photograph of Shaduf.

Photograph of Shaduf
 PAGE 61

Charsa

SIR WALID FULARA

In this method the use of animal power to pull the bucket, which was suspended by a
rope on a pully erected near a well. It then became possible to draw water from wells up
to a depth of 5 to 7 metres, meaning that a larger area could be irrigated.

Photograph of Charsa.

Photograph of Charsa

Persian Wheel
In the Persian wheel, a number of buckets are lowered into a well on a chain. As a result,
there is a continuous supply of water as the empty buckets descend into the well and
come out full of water. With this method, water up to a depth of 23 to 26 metres can be
accessed and powered by a pair of Bullocks or Camel. The Persian wheel, along with the
charsa, are the most common methods of lift irrigation in Pakistan and have used for
several centuries.
Study Fig.1, Photograph A of Persian Wheel.

Photograph of Persian Wheel

 PAGE 62

Photograph of Persian Wheel.

SIR WALID FULARA

Photograph of Persian wheel

Photograph of Persian wheel

Photograph of Persian wheel

 PAGE 63

Q.1. With reference to the photograph A, explain how this machine is used for
water supply.
Ans. Worked by animal (bullock or camel) or man power.

SIR WALID FULARA

Using wooden shaft / pole.
Turns horizental wheel / a wheel rotated.
Which is attached to vertical wheel.
With buckets / cups to raise water.
Water goes into trough / pipe / channel.

Modern Methods of Irrigation

Tubewell
The tubewell is a fairly new addition to Pakistan’s irrigation system. It can tap water up
to depths of several hundred metres and is operated by diesel or electric motors. Tubewell
also help to lower the water-table thereby protecting the land from water logging and
salinity.

Photograph of Tubewell

Photograph of Tubewell
Advantages of Tubewell
1. More efficient / faster / does not need to rest.
2. Larger area can be irrigated.
3. Regular supply / can be used at any time of year / continuous.
4. Cleaner water.
5. Reduces waterlogging and salinity.
6. Less labor required.

Disadvantages of Tubewell
1. Expensive / cannot be used by poor farmers.
2. Maintenance is difficult / expensive.
3. Diesel is expensive.
4. Spare parts are expensive.
5. Reduces groundwater / lower water table.
 PAGE 64

Photograph of Tubewell
SIR WALID FULARA

Photograph of Tubewell
Fig.1, map shows the irrigated areas.

Fig.1
 PAGE 65

Pakistan is water-deficit country. The rainfall is neither sufficient nor regular and does
not meet the growing needs of water. Agriculture is a major user and good yields depend
on the adequate availability of water at the right time. The increasing pressures of

SIR WALID FULARA

population and industrialisation have already placed great demands on water supplies and
there are an ever increasing number of local and regional conflicts over water availability
and use.

Q.1. Why do the writers refer to Pakistan as a ‘water-deficit country’?

Ans. Insufficient rainfall.
Growing needs.
Q.2. Using examples, explain why there ae conflicts over water availability and
use.
Ans. Examples.
Farming vs Industry. Domestic vs food processing vs HEP vs others.
India vs Pakistan 1947 – 1960.
NWFP and Punjab vs Sindh.
Explanation.
Irrigation for more agriculture.
Industrialisation – water for washing, cooling, processing.
Population growth – need for more.
Electricity for modern technology.

Most farmers in Balochistan do not have access to water from the River Indus. There are
many small rivers that flow into shallow lakes but they are dry for most of the year.
These small rivers can provide some water for irrigation. Other sources of water are
underground and some water flows in tunnels form the mountains.

Q.3. Describe the irrigation methods that can be used by farmers in Balochistan
and comment on the success of such schemes for increasing farming output.
Ans. Karez.
Canals from rivers.
Wells.
Shaduf to lift water.
Charsa to lift water.
Persian wheel to lift water.
Tanks for storage. Dams (small).
Success:- less important now, neglected – bad.
Sources drying up.
Lack of government investment.
Continuous supply – good.
Only water in the desert (oasis) good.
Water from mountains put to good use – good.
Does not evaporate – good.
 PAGE 66

Canal
SIR WALID FULARA

A man made water way used to transport goods or irrigation water.

Canal has two types.
i. Inundation Canals / Seasonal Canals
ii. Perennial Canals.
Inundation / Seasonal Canals
These are seasonal canals and provide water to the fields in summer when the donner rivers are
in flood. These canals open in rainy season and closed in winters. These canals are beneficial for
kharif crops. Rabi crops took advantage of the moisture left in the land from summer flooding.
These canals irrigate the active flood plains where the land is sufficiently leveled and down ward
slopes from the river banks. The main net work of these canals in sindh and southern Punjab.
The bar upland areas were not served by these canals as they could not rise up 5 to 7 metres high
bluff separating the flood plains and the bar upland.

Advantages
1. To reduce the flood pressure.
2. Useful for lower areas like Sindh and southern Punjab.

Disadvantages
1. Do not supply water through out the year.
2. Single crop is cultivated.
3. Do not supply water to upland areas.

Perennial Canals
These canal bring water to the fields through out the year and are useful for both crops.
These canals have been taken out in bar upland areas from the dams and barrages.
Q.1. What are perennial canals and how may they lead to problem of
waterlogging and salinity in area S, photograph B.
Ans. Canals that can supply water al year round from reservoirs / barrages, via link
canals.
Problems
Too much irrigation water leading to evaporation in hot, dry climate.
Rise of water table.
Rise of salts to surface.

Advantages
1. Supply of water round the year.
2. Both crops are benefited.
3. Provide water to the higher areas.
 PAGE 67

A. Lined Canals
Lined canals are paved with cement and brickwork on the bed and sides.

SIR WALID FULARA

Photograph of Lined Canal

B. Unlined Canals
Unlined canals are without any brick work. Their bottom and sides are of earth and soil.

Photograph of Unlined Canal

Disadvantages of Unlined Canals
1. Rise water table to the surface level.
2. Cause waterlogging and salinity.
 PAGE 68

Factors leading to the development of the canal irrigation

system in Pakistan.
SIR WALID FULARA

1. Cheap labor and availability of cement reduces the cost of canal construction.
2. Southward slope of the rivers makes construction of canals easier because water flows
southwards naturally.
3. Huge quantities of water from monsoon rainfall and melting of snow can be stored in
in reservoirs during summer season.
4. Irregular supply of water in the rivers is then regulated by construction of dams and
barrages.
5. Soft soil and level land of the Indus plain makes digging of canal easier than in the
rugged lands of Baluchistan.

Why do we construct the canals / Purpose?

1. To reduce pressure of floods.
2. To avoid wastage of water.
3. To provide water for irrigation.

Effectiveness of conventional methods of irrigation

1. Limited areas are irrigated due to less amount of water.
2. Require manual labour or animal power.
3. More time consuming.
4. Difficult to maintain, built and use.(karez)
Study Fig.2, which shows canal water supply in Pakistan.

Fig.2
Q.1. Study Fig.3. In which year was the water supply highest?
Ans. 1999
Q.2. How much higher was this than the supply in 2002?
Ans. 31 (million acre feet).
 PAGE 69

Q.3. Why is there not enough water supply from canals to meet the needs of all
users?
Ans. Shortage of rainfall.

SIR WALID FULARA

Evaporation.
Less river water / restrictions by India / more dams on rivers.
Siltation in reservoirs / canals.
Seepage / leakage from canals.
Wastage by users.
Water pollution.
High demand / variety of uses.
Theft of water.
Population increase.
Lack of investment.

Water Table
Level of ground water is called water table. It is very easy to obtain ground water in
foothills of mountains and difficult in desert areas.

Water logging
The rise of the water table to the surface level is called water logging and the appearance
of salty patches is called salinity.
Water available all year.
Crops given more water than they use.
Water table rises to surface level.
Fertilizers add to salts in water.
Salts left behind / form a hard crust on surface.
Soil becomes infertile / toxic.

Salinity
Evaporation of water.
Salt in irrigation water.
Salts brought to surface.
Unlined canals leak.

Measures (to overcome the problem of waterlogging and salinity)

1. Lining the canals.
2. Planting the trees in affected areas.
3. Installing the tubewells.
4. Education to improve farming methods.
5. Flushing out of salts by water from tubewells surface drains.
The tubewells pump out water at high speed and keep the water level down. If the
pumped water is fresh, it could be used for irrigation, e.g. in Punjab province. If pumped
water is saline it would be drained into river or lake, e.g. in sindh which is drained into
Manchar Lake.
 PAGE 70

6. Government Schemes
Government of Pakistan have chalked out a reclamation project to solve the problem in
SIR WALID FULARA

1959. Name of the project was SCARP (Salinity control and Reclamation project).
According to it Indus Basin divided into different projects and tubewells were installed.

SCARP I.
It covers the areas of Rechna Doab including Faisalabad and Sheikhupura and Reclaimed
1.9 million acres.

SCARP II.
It includes the areas of Chaj Doab and reclaimed 2.27 million acres. 3311tubewells were
installed, 450 miles long lined canals and channels were built.

SCARP III.
It includes the areas of Jhang, Muzaffargarh and covers 1.28 million acres.1550 tubewells
were installed, 150 miles long lined canals and channels were built.

SCARP IV and V.
It includes the areas from Khairpur to Ran Kutch in Sindh and 257 miles long lined
canals built to carry extra water to Manchar Lake.
Q.1. Explain why waterlogging and salinity of soils causes problems to farmers.
Ans. Reduces cultivable area / makes land un-usable.
Reduces yield / damage crops.
Reduces income / profit.
Expensive to reclaim land.
Study Photograph B, showing an area in Hyderabad District damaged by waterlogging
and salinity.

Photograph B
 PAGE 71

Q.2. Describe the appearance of the area S in photograph B

Ans. Bare / no vegetation.

SIR WALID FULARA

Cracks / cracked mud.
Pools of water.
Saline water.
White / mustard color.
Edged with black / grey.
Q.3 Name the project set up to control salinity.
Ans Salinity Control and Reclamation Project (SCARP).

The Indus Water Treaty (1960)

In 1947, when Pakistan was created, the province of Punjab was divided. Part of it was
given to India and part to Pakistan. The head works at Madhupur on the river Ravi and at
Firozpur on the Sutlej were in India, but many of the canals that branched off from them
were irrigating agriculture lands of the newly founded Pakistan.
In March 1948, India stopped the flow of water into Pakistani canals. This was a serious
matter. Pakistan took the issue up with India and an interim agreement was arrived at on
4 May 1948. For a permanent solution to the problem, negotiations started in 1952 under
the auspices of the World Bank. In September 1960, an agreement was signed which
came to be known as the Indus Water Treaty, Pakistan received exclusive rights over the
three western Rivers, the Indus, Jhelum and Chenab and India those of the three eastern
rivers,
The Ravi, Beas and Sutlej. There was to be a transitional period ending on 31 March
1970, which was extendable by three more years. During this transitional period, India
agreed to continue supplying water to Pakistan. During the same period, it was expected
that Pakistan would construct two storage dams, five Barrages, one Gated Siphon and
eight link canals to divert some of the water of the western rivers into the interfluves of
the eastern rivers. The construction cost was to be met with the help of aid from the
United States, The United Kingdom, West Germany, Canada, Australia and New
Zealand. A part of the cost was also to be paid by India. The remaining expenditure was
to be met by Pakistan. The replacement works were entrusted to WAPDA.

Q.1 In which year was the Indus Water Treaty signed?

Ans. 1960.
Q.2 Why was the Indus Water Treaty necessary for Pakistan?
Ans. 1. Most of Pakistan suffers from low rainfall.
2. Most of Pakistan suffers from unreliable rainfall.
3. Increasing population means more food is needed.
4. Punjab divided between India and Pakistan in 1947 / at partition.
5. Head waters of Pakistan’s main rivers / eastern rivers, Ravi, Beas, Sutlej are
in India. Head works in India at Madhupur on Ravi and at Firozpur on
Sutlej. Canals from them provided water for irrigated land in Pakistan.
6. India cut off water supplies to Pakistan in 1948 and the land became arid.
7. Pakistan made to buy water from India.
8. Construction of dams on western rivers by India.
 PAGE 72

Dam
SIR WALID FULARA

A man made structure built across a river in order to control the flow of water / use
Water for irrigation. Following are the types of dam.

Tarbela Dam (IWT)

The two storages dams which were to be built as part of the Indus Water Treaty were at
Tarbela and Mangla. The Tarbela Dam is located on the River Indus near Tarbela about
47 kilometres upstream from Atock. It is a multipurpose project designed to store 11.0
million acre-feet of water and to generate 2.1 million kilowatts of electricity. It irrigates
part of the Potwar Plateau, but its main function is to supply water to the Chashma-
Jhelum Link Canal through which the Trimmu-Sidhnai-Mailsi-Bahawal Link Canal
system is also [Link] Tarbela Dam also feeds the Taunsa-Panjnad Link Canal. The
Jinnah, Chashma, Taunsa, Gudu, Sukkur and Kotri Barrages built on the River Indus are
supplied with water from the Tarbela Dam in winter when the flow is low. It is 143
metres high and has a reservoir area of 243 square km. It has nine huge gates to control
the outflow of water. It is the world’s largest earth filled dam and has two big spillways
from the reservoir which was impressive feature.

Photograph of Tarbela Dam.

Photograph of Tarbela Dam

 PAGE 73

Mangla Dam (IWT)

The Mangla Dam which was completed in 1969, is located on the River Jhelum and has a

SIR WALID FULARA

storage capacity of 5.5 million acre-feet. In future, it will be possible to raise its storage
capacity to 9.6 million acre-feet. It supplies water to canals irrigating the chaj and bari
doabs. The water is also used to generate electricity. Ultimately, three million kilowatts
of electricity will be generated from this dam. The Mangla lake, besides serving as the
reservoir of the dam, has also been developed as a fishing center and a tourist resort.

Photograph of Mangla Dam.

Photograph of Mangla Dam

Warsak Dam
Warsak a multipurpose project, designed to provide water for irrigation and for the
generation of electricity. It is located on the river Kabul about 32 kms. from Peshawar. Its
installed capacity is 240MW.

Kurramgarhi Dam
It is located on the river Kurram at Kurramgarhi. The dam provides water to the Bannu
civil canals and has improved the irrigation of 530 square kms. of land.

Ghazi Barotha Project

A new hydel project which is located on the river Indus near Ghazi town. It is a large
project with a capacity of 1450 MW. It is expected to be completed soon.

Purpose of the Reservoirs / Dams

1. The dam and reservoir is used for flood control, irrigation and generation of HEP.
2. The reservoir is an artificial lake which can be used for fishing, boating and recreation.
3. Water can be supplied to nearby towns for domestic purposes.
4. The dam also provides a road across the river.
 PAGE 74

Small Hydel Plants

There are a number of small hydel plants in Pakistan. Their installed capacity is 107 MW.
SIR WALID FULARA

One of them is Renala, located in the Upper Bari Doab Canal and commissioned in1925,
it is the oldest hydel plant in Pakistan. Another is in Rasul, located between the Upper
and Lower Jhelum Canals. It was commissioned in 1952, after which import of electricity
from India was stopped.
Small Dams
Besides large irrigation projects, a number of small dams have also been built in the
Western Highlands. They irrigate relatively smaller areas and are located on narrow
streams commanding small alluvial areas in hilly regions. Some of these dams have been
built by the WAPDA and others by the Small Dams Organisation set up by the
Agricultural Development Corporation. An example of a smaller dam is Rawal dam on
the river Kurang. Besides supplying water to Islamabad, it irrigates about 50 square kms.
of land. The Khanpur dam on the river Haro, which will irrigate 148 square kms. in the
Abbotabad, Attock and Rawalpindi districts, has been recently commissioned.
Balochistan has a number of small dams. The Nari-Bolan Project uses the monsoon flow
of the Bolan River to irrigates 97 square kms. of the Sibi plains. The Narachip Project
irrigates 13 square kms. of the Loralai District. The Hab Dam in the Lasbela District,
which was commissioned in 1982, is designed to irrigate 340 square kms. of land in and
around Lasbela and Karachi.
Q.1 What are the natural factors that have favored the construction of dams and
reservoirs.
Ans. Deep valleys increases storage capacity / provides high head of water for hydel.
Narrow valleys for dams reduces amount of materials required for dam.
Solid rock for dams to support weight of dam.
Large basins For water storage.
Impervious rocks for reservoir to seepage of water.
Low evaporation rates.
Forested valley sides hold soil / slow rate of siltation.
High precipitation/ rainfall / snowfall.
Study Fig.3, shows a diagram of a hydel plant

Fig.3
 PAGE 75

Main Features of a Hydel Plant are:

1. The dam wall is constructed to create a water reservoir.

SIR WALID FULARA

2. Tunnel leads the water from the reservoir to the turbine.
3. The power station is located at the base of the dam. The force of water from the
tunnel runs the turbine which moves the generator. The generator generates the
electric current.
4. The reservoir is the storage of water which is necessary to run the turbine
continuously.
5. A natural feature is the hilly region where the dam site is located. Hills are seen in the
back ground.
6. Pylons and transmission lines to supply electric current to nearby large towns.
Study Fig.4, which shows the distribution of large and small dams.

Fig.4
Q.2 Study the map, Fig.4, describe the distribution of the dams.
Ans. 1. In mountains.
2. Major dams all in N / and NW Pakistan / Upper Punjab and NWFP.
3. Major dams all on river Indus and its tributaries.
4. Most of small dams are in N and NW.
5. Most of small dams are on tributaries of the river Indus.
6. One small dam on river Hab in south (Baluchistan).
7. One small dam near Sibi.
 PAGE 76

Q.3 Naming an industry in each case, describe three different purposes for which
manufacturing and processing industries use water.
Ans. 1. Cooling water for iron and steel industry.
SIR WALID FULARA

2. Washing / cleaning in textile industry.

3. For boiling in food processing.
4. As ice to preserve frozen food.
5. To provide humidity in textile mills.
Q.4 Compare the purposes for which the water is stored by the two types of dam.
Ans. 1. Small dams and large dams store water mainly for irrigation.
2. Major dams serve near and far areas but small dams only serve local areas.
3. Small and major dams provide water for the use of domestic and industry.
4. Major dams are more multi-purpose than small dams.
5. Two major dams have purpose of providing water to link canals……
…..Tarbela and Mangla dams
…..water from Indus and Jhelum rivers
…..transferred to eastern rivers.
6. All major dams are major suppliers of HEP but small dams supply little / no
HEP.
7. The reservoirs behind both large and small dams are used for fishing /
recreation e.g. Mangla reservoir produces 2 % of inland fish catch.
8. Large dams more important for flood control than small dams.

Q.5 State three problems caused by the storage of water in reservoirs and its use
for agriculture.
Ans. By storage of water.
1. People have to be moved from the area to be flooded for storage.
2. Silting of reservoirs.
3. Loss of silt downstream for agriculture.
4. Loss of water downstream for irrigation by inundation canals.

By use for agriculture.

1. Water logging in irrigated areas.
2. Salinity in irrigated areas.
3. So much used in Punjab that parts of Sindh are suffering from a shortage of
water.

Q.6 What is silting and how is it caused.

Ans. Silting means the deposition of silt, mud and sand on the bed of the reservoirs.

Causes of siltation.
1. Rivers erode the material from bed / sides.
2. Large load carried by the river.
3. Deforestation.
Q.7 Why is silting a problem / effects.
Ans. 1. May damage the machinery.
2. May block the pipes.
3. Increases the risk of flooding.
4. May shorten the life of reservoir.
5. Decreases water holding capacity of the reservoir / canals which limits the
HEP production / water for irrigation.
6. Has to be removed for drinking water.
7. Expensive / difficult to remove.
 PAGE 77

Methods to control the silt

1. Planting trees along the hill slopes surrounding the river valley.

SIR WALID FULARA

2. To build small dams in the river up streams from the dam.
3. To build small dams in the tributary streams joining the main river.
Q.8 Other than supplying water to industry, for what purposes may reservoirs
and dams be used?
Ans. Storage of water. Hydro electric power. Domestic water. Irrigation. Fishing.
Recreation of reservoir. Flood control, Road on dam.
Q.9 Name in full the two institutions set up by the government to build the dams.
Ans. 1. Water and Power Development Authority.(WAPDA)
2. Small Dams Organization.(SDO)
Q.10 Why do the reservoirs of these dams hold large quantities of water?
Ans. Deep valley / large valley.
Steep sites.
Large river / permanent flow / water from snowfields / glaciers.
Low evaporation / cool climate.
High rainfall.

Study photograph C showing the Hanna Dam.

Photograph C
Q.11. Describe the site of the dam.
Ans. Steep rock.
Bare rock / rocky / barren.
Deep and narrow valleys.
Gravel / sand.
Q.12. What evidence shows that the water level in the reservoirs is low?
Ans. Dry ground / Silt / flat land at edge.
 PAGE 78

Q.13. Compare the barrage shown in Photograph D with the dam in Photograph
C.
Ans. Barrage is:- Longer / wider / less high.
SIR WALID FULARA

Water on both sides.

Low / flatter land.
Dam is:- Steep rock.
Bare rock / rocky / barren.
Deep and narrow valleys.
Gravel / sand.

Study Photograph D showing the Balloki Barrage.

Photograph D
Q.14. Suggest why the amount of water stored in the reservoir is decreasing.
Ans. Siltation / silting deposited due to soil erosion / deforestation.
Less water supply due to climatic change / lower rainfall.
Increased usage.
Q.15. What can be done to stop the amount of water in the reservoir from reducing
further?
Ans. Silt traps.
Afforestation.
Removal of silt.
Reducing wastage / pollution.
 PAGE 79

Barrage

SIR WALID FULARA

A structure built across a river in order to store water / to use water for irrigation.

Photograph of Trimmu Barrage

Details of the five barrages and the gated siphon constructed under the Indus water Treaty
are given below:

Chashma Barrage (IWT)

Located on the River Indus and completed in 1970. Designed to divert one million cusecs
into the Chashma-Jhelum Link, thereby irrigating areas served by the Sidhnai-Mailsi-
Bahawal Link system and the Haveli and Rangpur canals.

Rasul Barrage (IWT)

Located on the River Jhelum and completed in 1968. Its flood discharge capacity is
850,000 cusecs. Supplies water to the Rasul Qadirabad Link canal and eventually to the
Sulaimanki Barrage on the Sutlej.

Marala Barrage (IWT)

Located on the River Chenab and completed in 1969. Its flood discharge capacity
is 1.1 million cusecs. Supplies water to the Ravi Link canal and the Upper Chenab Canal.

Qadirabad Barrage (IWT)

Located on the River Chenab and completed in 1970. Its discharge capacity is 0.9million
cusecs. Supplies water to the Qadirabad Balloki Link through the Rasul Qadirabad Link.

Mailsi Siphon (IWT)

A gated siphon located on the River Sutlej near Mailsi. Its purpose is to carry water on
the Sidhnai-Mailsi Link across the Sutlej into the Bahawal canal. The Sidhnai Barrage
supplies water to the Sidhnai-Mailsi Link canal.
 PAGE 80

Uses / Purpose of Barrages

1. Provide water for irrigation.
SIR WALID FULARA

2. Reduce flood pressure.

3. Source of inland fishing.
4. Act as a bridge across the river with a road connecting both river banks.

Difference between Barrage and Dam

1. No generation of HEP on Barrages, Dams generate the HEP.
2. Barrages can be constructed in flat areas, Dams are constructed in mountainous areas.
3. Less construction cost on barrages and High construction cost on Dams.
4. Barrages are constructed in 1-2 years and dams are constructed 10-15 years.

Other Barrages
Jinnah Barrage
It is located on the river Indus. Two canals have been taken out from this barrage.
Namely Upper Thal Canal, South Thal Canal. It irrigates the areas of Mianwali
Muzaffargarh, Khushab, Bhakkar, Lieh and irrigates the 2200000 acres.

Taunsa Barrage
It is located on the river Indus. Two canals have been taken out from this barrage.
Namely Right and Left Bank canal and Taunsa Panjnad Link canal. These canals irrigates
the areas of Muzaffargarh, [Link], Rajanpur and drained 1900000 acres.

Guddu Barrage
It is located on the river Indus. Three canals have been taken out from this barrage.
Namely Ghotki, Begari and Desert Pat Feeder canals. These canals irrigates the areas of
Sukkur, Mirpur, Rohri, Jacobabad and commanded area is 11600 square kilometers.

Kotri / Ghulam Muhammad Barrage

It is located on the river Indus. Four canals have been taken out from this barrage.
Namely Kotri, Kalri, Penyari and Phuleli. These canals irrigates the areas of Badin,
Sanghar, Hyderabad, Mirpur, Nawabshah and irrigates11100 square kms. of land.

Sukkur Barrage
It is located on the river Indus. Seven canals have been taken out from this Barrage,
namely NW canal, Rohri canal, Nara, East Khairpur, West Khairpur, Rice, Dadu and
irrigates 22000 square kms. These canals irrigates the areas of Hyderabad, Sanghar,
Larkana, Dadu, Nawabshah and Khairpur.
Q.1 Name an example of a barrage.
Ans Balloki Kotri Sidhnai Chashma Marala
Sukkur Guddu Sulaimanke Islam Khanki
Qadirabad Taunsa Rasul Trimmu. Jinnah
Panjnad
 PAGE 81

Q.2 What is the main purpose of a barrage and how is this purpose achieved?
Ans. Main Purpose:
To provide water for irrigation.

SIR WALID FULARA

How purpose is achieved:
1. Gates closed.
2. Barrages store water behind it.
3. Canals / Link canals take water and distribute it into a network of smaller
canals.
4. Link canals take water from western rivers to eastern rivers.
Q.3 Briefly describe the changes that have taken place in the land use of the
lower Indus plain as a result of building barrages.
Ans. 1. Large areas (previously desert)are cultivated.
2. Different crops are cultivated e.g. rice / sugarcane / wheat / bananas.
3. Led to an increase in land used for settlement.
4. Water logging and salinity (areas) due to poor management of irrigation.

Cusec
Cubic unit of water passing per second through a river or canal.

Discharge
The quantity of water passing through a river.

Span
Door of a Barrage.

Gated Siphon
Inverted U-shaped pipe which carries water over a barrier to the other side. The
flow of water is controlled by the gate.

Link Canal
Canal which carries water from one canal to another.

Link canals (under the Indus Water Treaty)

1. Rasul Qadirabad
Carries water from the Rasul Barrage on the River Jhelum to the River Chenab.
2. Qadirabad-Balloki
An extension of the Rasul-Qadirabad Link by which water is transferred to Ravi.
3. Balloki-Sulaimanke
Connects the Ravi and Sutlej.
4. Trimmu-Sidhnai
Transfers water from the Trimmu Barrage to the Ravi.
5. Sidhnai-Mailsi
Takes the water transferred from the Trimmu Barrage to the Ravi into the Sutlej.
 PAGE 82

6. Mailsi-Bahawal
Supplies water to the Bahawal canal.
SIR WALID FULARA

7. Chashma-Jhelum
Transfers water from the Chashma Barrage on the Indus to the Jhelum.
8. Taunsa-Panjnad
Transfers water from the Taunsa Barrage on the Indus to the Chenab to feed the
canals in Punjab

Fig.5, shows the irrigation system of Pakistan.

Fig.5

Purpose of the Link Canals

1. In general the purpose of the link canals is to transfer water from the three
western rivers (Indus. Jhelum. Chenab) to two eastern rivers (Ravi and Sutlej).
2. To provide water for irrigation canal / perennials canals.
3. To compensate for water lost (to India) from eastern rivers.
 PAGE 83

Remodel the Existing Canals

In addition to the construction of new links, existing link canals, like the Marala-Ravi,

SIR WALID FULARA

Balloki - Sulaimanke and Bambanwala-Ravi-Bedian-Dipalpur (BRB), have been
remodeled. Thus, Punjab is interlaced with a network of canals to compensate the loss of
three eastern rivers to India.

Prupose of Remodel the Existing Canals

1. Assurance of continuous supply of water for irrigation.
2. To avoid siltation.
3. To avoid soil erosion.

Minor Irrigation System

1 .Karez
The karez is a water-tunnel or a narrow underground canal. It starts from the base of a hill
or mountain where ground water is present. It runs for 1 or 2 kms under ground (or
sometimes up to 10 kms). The karez irrigates orchards and agricultural fields. Throughout
its length, the karez is dotted with vertical shafts which are used to clean and repair it and
in certain areas they are used to extract water for domestic purposes. If the karez is
cleaned and repaired regularly, it can remain productive for a century or more. The
selection of a site for digging the karez is done by experienced village elders, while the
digging and repair is done by a group of laborers trained in this tradition.
The karez is usually privately owned by a group of people rather than a single person.
The owners share the water according to their percentage share in the karez. The main
problem of karez is that its water cannot be stopped from flowing. Further more their
maintenance is difficult and expensive. Karez irrigation is practiced only in Baluchistan.
Within this broad region, most of the karez are located in Zhob, Loralai, the Quetta-
Pishin and Mastung valleys and in favorable areas in Makran. However, karez irrigation
is gradually losing its importance.

Main Points (Karez)

Underground canals / tunnel
Uses ground water
Vertical shafts for cleaning
Irrigates oases
Example – Quetta – Pishun valley, Mastung valley.

Photograph of Karez

Photograph of Karez
 PAGE 84

Advantages
Continuous supply
SIR WALID FULARA

Water from mountains put to good use

Does not evaporate
Only water in the desert.

Disadvantages
Less important
Lack of government investment
Less rain in Baluchistan.
Q.1. Explain how karez irrigation helps date palms to grow in the oases.
Ans. Provides water for irrigation
Underground canals
Reduces evaporation
More rain on mountains / higher slopes

2. The Diversion Canal

The Diversion canal and Sailaba are minor irrigation systems which are practiced in the
western highlands. In the diversion canal, water is taken off from narrow streams through
small man-made channel to irrigate small areas. This can only be done when the river is
full. Diversion canals are called kaurjo in Makran. This form of irrigation is practiced
over a large area, from Chitral to Makran.

3. Sailaba
Sailaba irrigation uses the surface run-off of hill slopes. Whenever a sufficient quantity of
rainfall takes place, water flows down hill slopes and reaches the plains, where the
agricultural fields are located. This water is diverted into the fields and nourishes the
crops. Of course, a sufficient quantity of rainfall does not take place every year, so this
method of irrigation has limited utility. The available water is never enough to irrigate a
large area of land.

Ground Water
Water beneath the surface of the ground called ground water.
There is a scarcity of water in Pakistan and so there is a big need of irrigation for the
cultivation of crops. Both ground water and surface water are used for irrigation. Ground
water is tapped by tubewells, karez, and wells. Surface water is tapped by canals,
diversion and sailaba. They are used to re-channel the surface water flowing into the
streams and rivers. Ground water is extremely useful in the areas like Baluchistan Plateau
and desert areas because in these areas irrigation is impossible due to less rainfall and
unsuited land. In big cities like Karachi, there is a shortage of water due to growing
population. People use water for domestic purposes so they pump out the water through
pipes drilled into the ground.
Ground water can be saline or sweet. It is non-saline near the source of re-charge i.e
rivers and major canals. It gradually becomes more saline as the distance from re-charge
sources increases.
In big industrial cities like Karachi, ground water may not be fit for human consumption
due to seepage of toxic chemicals, sewage or sea-water into the ground. Therefore ground
water should be tested in a laboratory before it is used.
 PAGE 85

NATURAL VEGETATION

SIR WALID FULARA

Forest
A large area of land covered with trees and under growth either naturally or artificially.
Trees are most important to human because they supply timber and fire wood. They
also help to reduce surface runoff, soil erosion and air pollution.
Infect it is claimed that 20 – 25 % of a country should be covered by forests in order to
maintain a balanced economy. So trees must be planted extensively and promoted
widely for future generation.
In Pakistan only about 4.8 % of total area is forested which is very less. Every year we
import large quantity of wood from other countries of the world. In 1947 forest covered
only 1.7 % of total land area. So the increase in forest area was achieved by reforestation
(re-afforestation) or regeneration programmes.
The arid conditions and reckless cutting of the trees account for the low percentage of
forest covered areas in Pakistan.

Forestation
Forestation is the planting of new forest on a new location. This process is done with
careful planning. The selection of plant species depends upon the type of soil, climatic
condition and availability of water.

Reforestation
Reforestation is the planting of a forest in an area where deforestation was done.

Contribution of Forest by Different Provinces

NWFP 32 %
Northern Areas 25 %
Sindh 18 %
Punjab 17 %
Balochistan 08 %

Types of Forest
There are two types of forest:
1. Productive Forests 2. Protection Forests

1. Productive Forest (Production Forest)

Production forests are those forests which are exclusively grown for production of fruits
and medicinal purposes.
One third of forest area in Pakistan is covered by productive forests. These forests have
great commercial value because they are mainly used for the extraction of timber and
other products.
 PAGE 86

2. Protection Forest
SIR WALID FULARA

Protection forests are those forest which either exists naturally or grown in particular
area for the protection of environment.
These forests cover two third area and planted along roads, railway track and in parks.
The main function is to protect the soil from erosion and to keep the environment
pleasant by lowering the temperature and providing shade.
Importance of Forest /Advantages
1. Forest prevent soil erosion.
2. Forests regulate water supply in river to prevent floods.
3. Forests check the pollution and provide clean environment.
4. Forests provide raw material for wood based industries.
5. Forests provide employment opportunities in the forest department..
6. Some plants are used for medicinal purposes.
7. Forests provide recreational facilities and develop tourism.
8. Forest provide natural habitat for wild life.
9. Forest provide oxygen and absorb carbon dioxide.
10. Forest provide shade and fruits.
11. Leaves and branches intercept the rainfall.
12. Leaves fall, decompose and mix with the soil.

Determinants
There are number of factors that determine the type and density of forests.
1. Areas with different altitude have different types of forests.
2. The arid and semi arid conditions prevailing over the Balochistan Plateau and the
southern part of the Indus Plain is not favorable to support plant growth and results
in thorny bushes and scrub.
3. Higher precipitation in the northern mountains encourages the growth of trees.
 PAGE 87

4. In Indus and Hub deltas the deposition of alluvium in the salt water has
encouraged

SIR WALID FULARA

the growth of mangrove vegetation.
5. The diversity of topography (type of soil) also determine the type and density of
forests in different areas of Pakistan.

Tree Line:- The altitude above which no trees grow on a mountain. (below 4500
m)

Snow Line:- The altitude above which snow never melts. (above 4500 m)
Fig.1

Types of Forest in Pakistan

1. Alpine Forest ( 4000 m )
2. Coniferous Forest ( 1000 – 4000 m )
3. Sub Tropical Dry or Scrub Forest ( up to 1000 m )
4. Tropical Thorn or Rakh Forest ( below 1000 m )
5. Mangrove Forest ( below 1000 m )
6. Riverain or Bela Forest ( below 1000 m )
7. Irrigated Forest ( below 1000 m )

Tree line: The altitude above which no trees grow on a mountain i.e. above 4000
m.
Snow line: The altitude above which snow never melts i.e. 4500 m.
Determinants
1. The arid and semi arid conditions prevailing over most parts of Indus Plain and
Balochistan Plateau.
2. The humid conditions prevailing over parts of the northern hills and mountains.
3. The diversity of topography, ranging from low plains to lofty mountains.

Alpine Forest
Alpine forest are found at an altitude of 4000 meters, alpine forests are found in the
districts of (Distribution) Chitral, Dir, Swat, Shangla, Kohistan and the northern
areas. Long severe winters and frequent freezing temperature prevent trees from
attaining their full height. The dwarfed and stunted growth of (Species) silver fir,
juniper and birch takes place in sheltered nooks. Often, the trees are prostrate. As the
mountains rise to the height of the treeline, they become craggy and steep and there is
limited area for tree growth. In such a severe climate and difficult topography, alpine
forests are found in a limited area. They are not of much economic importance.
 PAGE 88

Features or Characteristics
SIR WALID FULARA

1. These are evergreen forest.

2. They have long needle shaped leaves.
3. Their branches sloping downwards to prevent the snow accumulation.
4. These trees do not attain their full height.
5. The wood of these trees very soft.
Study Photograph A,

Photograph A
-For Photograph A,
Q.1. Name the main type of natural vegetation shown.
Ans. Alpine / Coniferous forests.
Q.2. Describe the natural vegetation.
Ans. These are coniferous forests.
These are evergreen, tall and straight.
Their branches sloping downwards.
Their leaves are long and needle shaped.
These are soft wood trees with thick bark protection from cold.
Q.3. Explain why there is little or no natural vegetation in area X in the
background of Photograph A.
Ans. In area X there is permanent snow exist due to low temperature.
Above the tree line.
 PAGE 89

Coniferous Forest

SIR WALID FULARA

Coniferous forests are found between 1000 and 4000 meters [Link] forests are
found in (Distribution) northern areas districts of Swat, Dir, Malakand and
Kohistan. In NWFP, Mansehra and Abbotabad. In Punjab Province Murree,
Islamabad and Rawalpindi. In Balochistan Province Quetta and Kalat divisions.

Species
Fir, Spruce, Deodar, Kail, and Chir.

Features or Characteristics
1. These are evergreen forest.
2. These are in conical shape.
3. These forests have sloping branches which prevents snow accumulation.
4. These forests are needle shaped leaves and check excessive transpiration.
5. Trees of these forests are full in height and straight.

Photograph of Coniferous Forest

Photograph of Coniferous Forest

Importance
1. Source of timber, the timber is put to industrial use and for making into furniture
and
boxes..
2. These forests protect the environment.
3. These forests are good breeding place for birds and wild life.
4. Add to the scenic beauty of the area.
5. Attract the tourist and promote the tourism industry.
 PAGE 90

Photograph of Thick Bark

SIR WALID FULARA

Photograph of Thick Bark

Study Photograph B

Photograph B
For Photograph B,
Q.4. Describe in not more than two words the topography (relief) shown in the
Photograph.
Ans. Mountainous / Wooded / Coniferous / Steep slopes.
Q.5. What type of trees are shown in the Photograph?
Ans. Coniferous.
Q.6. At what altitude do these trees grow in NWFP?
Ans. 1000 - 4000 m.
 PAGE 91

Q.7. How is this type of tree adapted to the climate of this area?
Ans. Evergreen to take advantage of short growing season and can save energy.

SIR WALID FULARA

Conical shape to shed snow.
Small leaves.
Thick, leathery leaves to reduce transpiration.
Can shed snow with sloping branches.
Can tolerate cold with a thick bark
Can absorb water from melting snow with shallow roots.
Study Fig.2, which shows a map of forest type in Pakistan.

Fig.2
Q.8. Name the forest types found in each of the areas A,B and C.
Ans. A. Coniferous / Alpine
Q.9. Explain why the forest type A grows naturally in cool, hilly areas.
Ans. Evergreen to take advantage of short growing season and can save energy.
Conical shape to shed snow.
Small leaves.
Thick, leathery leaves to reduce transpiration.
Can shed snow with sloping branches.
Can tolerate cold with a thick bark
Can absorb water from melting snow with shallow roots.
 PAGE 92

Sub Tropical Dry Forest or Scrub Forest

SIR WALID FULARA

These forests are located up to a height of 1000 [Link] forests are found on the
hills and foothills of Gujrat, Jhelum, Rawalpindi and Attock districts in Punjab and
the Mansehra, Abbotabad, Mardan, Peshawar and Kohat districts in NWFP and
are covered with dry, evergreen forests. In Balochistan, vegetation in the form of
scattered patches of dry mixed scrub, is confined to the Sulaiman Mountains and other
hilly areas.
Over grazing and heavy firewood cutting, bad agricultural practices, urbanization and
lopping had badly affected the original vegetation. Due to shortage of vegetational
cover, the area is suffering from excessive rate of soil erosion. The open areas are
covered with grass and are useful for grazing. The dominant trees in this region are
Phula and Kao. Among the deciduous trees found in this region are the Chestnut,
Juniper, Walnut and Oak.

Features or Characteristics
1. Dry ever green forest
2. Trees have broad leaves and have umbrella shape with long canopy.
3. Their height is up to 1000 meters.

Importance
Fire wood
Timber
Grazing purposes.
 PAGE 93

Study Photograph C

SIR WALID FULARA

Photograph C
For Photograph C
Q.1. Name the type of natural vegetation shown.
Ans. Sub-tropical dry forest / scrub.
Q.2. Describe the natural vegetation.
Ans. The natural vegetation consists of small trees and shrubs.
Small rounded bushes and clumps of dry grass with bare patches of soil.
 PAGE 94

Photographs of Scrub Forest.

SIR WALID FULARA
 PAGE 95

SIR WALID FULARA

Photograph of Scrub Forest

Irrigated Forest
These forests are man made and are planted under the supervision of Government
especially Forest Department. First irrigated forest was planted in 1866 at Changa
Manga. The main purpose was to supply wood for railway engines. Some other
irrigated forests have been planted in various parts of the country. e.g.
Chichawatni. Sahiwal. Thal. Gudu Barrage. Kotri Barrage. Khanewal. Shorekot.
Bahawalpur and Sukkur Barrage.
After the partition the government of Pakistan has taken special interest for the
extension of these forests. But there was a problem for the extension of these forests,
that was shortage of water especially between November to March.

Common Species
1. Shisham 2. Babul 3. Mulberry

Importance
Used as a fire wood.
Timber.
Provide shade in the form of linear plantation.

Features / Characteristics
Planted in rows / lines.
Equal distance between species.
Same age / height.
Same species.
 PAGE 96

Study Fig.3, the map showing Irrigated forests.

SIR WALID FULARA

Fig.3

For Irrigated Forests

Q.3. Name an area;
Ans. Bahawalpur. Khanewal
Changa Manga Kotri
Chichawatni Taunsa Barrage
Guddu Barrage Thal
Hyderabad Shorkot
Q.4. For irrigated forests describe their main features.
Ans. Man made and planted in rows
Equally spaced. Same age and single species are planted in one block.
Near rivers and canals. Main species are Shisham / Babul / Eucalyptus
Q.5. For irrigated forests explain why they were developed in Pakistan.
Ans. Lack of fuel in the past.
Firewood for steam engines / railways. Wood for railway sleepers.
Timber for construction / furniture / paper.
Firewood for domestic use. To reduce timber imports.
 PAGE 97

Study Fig.4.

SIR WALID FULARA

Fig.4
Q.6. Describe the distribution of Both the areas with natural forests and the
irrigated forests shown on Fig.3.
Ans. Northern mountains / northern KPK / northern areas.
Potwar plateau / Salt Range.
Western highland.
Indus delta / Sindh coast.
Below snowline / 4500 m
Areas with wet climate
Irrigated Forests
Most by rivers / by Indus
6/7 in Punjab / most in Punjab / UIP
1 in lower Sindh / LIP
1 on the border of Punjab and KPK / confluence of river Indus and Gomal.
Q.7. Why are there irrigated plantations of trees in the Indus Plain?
Ans. Prevent soil erosion of banks. Reduces air pollution. For shade. Reduce timber
import. For construction. For firewood. For furniture. For boxes. For
agricultural implements.
 PAGE 98

Study Photograph D
SIR WALID FULARA

Photograph D
Q.8. What evidence in Photograph D shows that this is a plantation?
Ans. Trees in lines / rows.
Same age / height.
Same species.
Q.9. Why is the plantation being irrigated?
Ans. Depends on irrigation schemes like tube well and canals.
Low rainfall / there is not enough rainfall.
High rate of evaporation.
Q.10. There has been development of forests in lowland areas of Punjab and
Sindh using irrigation. Why is irrigation necessary for new plantations of
trees?
Ans. Low rainfall / high evapotranspiration.
Seasonal rainfall.
Irregular rainfall.
Keeps the soil wet / prevents soil erosion.
Root system needs to grow.
 PAGE 99

Q.11. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of developing more irrigated

plantations of trees in lowland areas of Punjab and Sindh.

SIR WALID FULARA

Ans. Advantages
Timber for named use e.g. construction, fencing, Firewood.
Food for animals / people.
Leaf fall for humus / fertility.
Rainfall / humidity.
Shade / shelter / reduce temperature.
Clean air / more oxygen.
Scenic beauty / promote tourism.
Protection from soil erosion.
Employment.
Habitat for wildlife.
Eucalyptus trees can reduce water logging and salinity.

Disadvantages
High cost / long term investment.
Cost of maintenance / care.
Need for irrigation / more demand on water supplies.
Loss of land for housing / farmland.
Problems caused by roots, leaves etc.

Linear Plantation
Planted by man but in a lane.
These are found alongside canals / rivers
Alongside roads / railways
Along field boundaries.
 PAGE 100

Photograph of Linear Plantation.

SIR WALID FULARA

Photograph of Linear Plantation

Purpose of Linear Plantation

Prevent soil erosion
Lower the temperature
Provide shade
Fruit / food
Firewood / timber
Leaves / roofing
To reduce air pollution / make clean air.

Tropical Thorn or Rakh Forest

Tropical thorn forests are open, low forests dominated by thorny hardwood trees. In
Punjab, especially in the plains, they are characterized by scrub called Rakh which can
survive on very small amounts of water. They are also found in Sindh, with scattered
patches in southern and western Balochistan. In general, the scrubs are 6 to 10 meters
high. Common species include acacia, tamarisk and salvadora. They are primarily used
as firewood.

Features or Characteristics
1. These forests are thorny hard wood trees.
2. Their height is 6 to 10 meters.
3. They can survive in small amount of water.
 PAGE 101

Importance

SIR WALID FULARA

Fire wood
Timber

Riverain or Bela Forest

These forests are located along the banks of river Indus and its tributaries. Mostly
forests are found in Sindh Province and cover the active flood plain. Important species
are Babul and Shisham. These are hard wood trees.
Fig.5, a map showing the Bela Forest.

Fig.5
Mangrove Forest
These forests are found in Indus Delta, Hub delta and its adjoining areas.
These forests can survive easily in salty water, trees are stunted and only a limited
number of species grow, due to dumping of industrial, agricultural and chemical waste
into the Arabian sea. Important species like Timar, Kirani and Kuni. The general
height is about three to four meters. These are called low trees. These forests are good
breeding place for fish and shrimps and protect the fish from big waves. The roots of
these trees protect the young fish from the predators.
 PAGE 102

Photograph of Mangrove Forest.

SIR WALID FULARA

Indus Delta

Importance
Wood is used as a fuel.
Coastal communities use wood for making boats.
Mangrove forests are good breeding place for fish and shrimps.
Leaves of these used as a feed for animals (camel).

Characteristics
These are low trees grown on mud flats.
Survive in salty water.
General height is about 3 to 4 meter.
Stunted growth of trees due to dumping of industrial waste.
Q.1. Why is it important that forests by the coast are protected?
Ans. Breeding ground for fish.
Feed amongst roots / protected by roots.
Shelter from storms / cyclones.
Prevent coastal erosion.
Resources for local people e.g. wood for houses, boats, food.
Habitat / shelter for wildlife.
Under threat from oil spills / over cutting / polluted effluent.
Q.2. Suggest how mangroves help to reduce erosion of the coast.
Ans. extensive / large root system / many roots
reduces water flow / movement
roots work as wave break.
 PAGE 103

Q.3. Why is this type of forest only found in this area (Sindh Coast)?
Ans. Tidal regular flooding.

SIR WALID FULARA

Saline soil / salt water in soil.
Trees are adapted to this environment / roots filter.
Salt secreted.

Deforestation
Cutting of trees or reckless cutting of trees.

Causes of Deforestation
Urbanization
Timber for industry
Clearing land for farming
Clearing land for fuel purposes
Building of roads
Over grazing of land.

Photograph of Deforestation.

Photograph of Deforestation
Methods (To overcome the problem of Deforestation)
1. Creating awareness among the people.
2. Supplying irrigational facilities.
3. Improving the techniques of raising nurseries.
4. Planting trees along roads and open places.
5. Provision of Gas to Northern areas.
6. By selective cutting method.
7. Restricting the use of bulldozers during selective cutting method.
 PAGE 104

Study Fig.6, a map of deforestation in Pakistan.

SIR WALID FULARA

Fig.6
Q.1. Name the areas of deforestation A and B.
Ans. A. Sulaiman range B. Safed Koh

Selective Cutting
Cutting of selected single or group of trees known as selective cutting.

Advantages ( Selective cutting )

1. Reduce over crowding.
2. Save valuable species.

Disadvantage ( Selective cutting )

1. Expensive
 PAGE 105

Effects ( Deforestation )

SIR WALID FULARA

1. Soil Erosion due to water and wind.
2. Increase surface runoff.
3. Floods.
4. Loss of crops and property.
5. Silt in reservoir.
6. Disturb of water supply.
7. Less yield.
8. Loss of inhabitant.
9. Pollution.

Q.1. In many parts of Pakistan forests have been cut down. Describe and
explain the effects this deforestation has had on the land and people of
Pakistan.
Ans. No roots to hold soil.
Soil erosion.
Loss of nutrients.
Silting of rivers / reservoirs
Rain not intercepted.
Floods.
Houses destroyed.
Bridges washed away.
Road / railways washed away.
Loss of wood for fuel.
Loss of timber for furniture and paper.
Q.2. There has been deforestation within the areas with natural forests. How
has this caused problems for:
1. Communication in the mountain areas,
2. Farming on valley floors and plains,
3. Hydro-electric power supplies?
Ans. 1. Communication in the mountain areas:
Soil erosion.
Land slides.
Flooding.
Telephone wires grounded.
2. Farming on valley floors and plains:
Soil erosion.
Flooding.
Canals blocked.
Less rain.
Crops destroyed.
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3. Hydro-electric power:
Soil erosion.
SIR WALID FULARA

Silt in reservoirs.
Less rain.
Silt in pipes.
Landslides may break power lines.
Study Photograph E

Photograph E
Q.3. Study Photograph E, trees have been cut down in area X. What effects
may this have on the soil there?
Ans. Leaching.
Soil erosion.
Gullying.
Land sliding.
Q.4. How can deforestation affect water supplies?
Ans. Muddy water undrinkable / polluted.
Reduced evapotranspiration so less rain.
Silt in reservoirs reduce storage capacity.
Silt blocks irrigation channels.
Flooding / increase surface runoff.
Q.5 Explain how forests can become a source of income for the people of rural
areas.
Ans. Firewood
Raw material e.g. timber / ephedra / fruit
For cottage / small scale / pharmaceutical industries
Forests attract tourism
Goods can be sold to tourists
Creates employment e.g. forest guide / forest department.
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Study Fig.7, a map of environmental damage in Pakistan.

SIR WALID FULARA

Fig.7
Q.5. Locate the areas most affected by deforestation.
Ans. North West Borders.
NWFP.
Northern Balochistan. FATA.

Q.6. State three causes of deforestation in these areas.

Ans. Firewood.
Industry.
Road building.
Housing / Construction.
Mining.
Dams.
Farming.
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Study Photograph F
SIR WALID FULARA

Photograph F
Q.7. Study Photograph F and describe the scene.
Ans. Bare ground / rocky / barren
Steep Slopes.
Gullies.
Small amount of vegetation.
Red colour.
Mountains / hills.
Badland area.
Q.8. Explain why scenes such as this are caused by deforestation.
Ans. No roots to hold the soil together.
Soil erosion.
No interception.
More runoff.
Loss of leaf fall.
Lack of decomposition.
Loss of fertility.
Less rainfall.
More exposure to sun and wind.
Leaching.
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Q.9. With reference to Fig.6, explain how deforestation can cause soil erosion.
Ans. Soil is exposed / lack of protection from leaves and branches.

SIR WALID FULARA

Surface water flow carried soil away.
Lack of infiltration into ground.
Less water absorbed by roots / less evapotranspiration.
No roots to hold soil.
No leaf fall to add humus / fertility.
Leaching of nutrients / nutrients lost.
No new plants grow.

Soil Erosion
It is defined as the wearing away of topsoil by natural agents i.e. wind, water, rain and
glacier. Topsoil is the top layer of soil and is the most fertile because it contains the
most organic, nutrient-rich materials.

Causes of Soil Erosion

Erosion by natural agents i.e. wind, river, rain and glacier
Deforestation by humans
Over grazing by livestock
During mining
Effects of soil erosion
Loss of fertile soil and nutrients
Output reduced
Income of the farmer reduced
Eroded material deposited in dams, reduce the storing capacity of water
Less generation of power
Cause flooding.

Types (Erosion )
1. Sheet / surface Erosion
This occurs when rain falls on bare soil, loosening fine particles (silt, clay and humus)
that are carried downhill in surface run-off.
2. Rill Erosion
It is the removal of soil by concentrated water running through little streams.
3. Wind Erosion
The removel of topsoil by wind. It occurs mostly in flat, bare areas; dry, sandy soils;
or anywhere the soil is loose.
4. Gully Erosion
It is the removal of soil along drainage lines by surface water runoff.
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Methods (To overcome the problem of Soil Erosion)

SIR WALID FULARA

1. Planting the trees.

2. Terracing.
3. Laid the layer of stone.
4. Contour farming
5. Strip farming
6. Cover cropping.

Photograph of Replanting.

Photograph of Terracing.
 PAGE 111

Photograph of Terracing and Layer of stones.

SIR WALID FULARA

Photograph of Terracing and layer of stones
Study Fig.9, a map of natural hazards in Pakistan.

Fig.9
 PAGE 112

Q.1. Describe the distribution of soil erosion in Baluchistan.

Ans. Scattered / widespread / in mountains.
SIR WALID FULARA

Especially in south west of Punjab Province.

Central and western part of Khayber Pakhtunkwah.
Chagi hills.
Northern part and north eastern part of Balochistan.
Southern side of Balochistan Province.
Central part of Sindh Province.
Q.2. Explain why the dry climate of Balochistan increases the risk of soil
erosion.
Ans. Lack of natural vegetation / bare soil.
Slow to re-grow.
Wind blows soil away.
Over cultivation.
Dry soil less cohesive.
Q.3. Where does eroded soil go to?
Ans. Into rivers / canals.
Reservoirs / dams / lakes.
On foot hills of the mountains.
Q.4. How can soil be protected in areas of low and unreliable rainfall?
Ans. Afforestation.
Irrigation of the trees.
Prevent over grazing.
Fill gullies / improved cultivation.
Terracing.
Laid the layer of stone.
Contour ploughing.

Forest Products
There are two types of products.
1. Major Products ( used as a fuel and timber ) The main sources of timber are
Coniferous, Irrigated and Riverain. Fire wood is obtained from trees in general.
2. Minor Products Minor products are the following.

1. Resin
It is useful for the manufacturing industries and particularly for the production of
Varnish. It is extracted from the Chir which is generally found in NWFP.

2. Ephedra
It is used in the manufacture of ephedrine, a drug which is used to treat asthma.

3. Mazri
It is used for making mats, Basket and packing material.
 PAGE 113

Sustainable (Meaning)

SIR WALID FULARA

The available forest resources (wood and wood products) meet the needs of growing
population for present and future generation but not harm the environment.

Sustainable Forestry
1. Replanting trees that have been cut down.
2. Looking after forests / maintaining.
3. Action against illegal logging / fines / penalties
4. Selective cutting
5. Use of alternative fuel / natural gas instead of burning wood
6. Government protection of forest areas / national parks / reserves
7. Planting species that do not need irrigation.
8. Cutting of mature trees
Q.1. Why is afforestation called a ‘long-term investment’?
Ans. Trees take many years to grow.
Many years before financial return / start production.
High cost of planting.
Costs during growth.
Q.2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of developing a forest area
for tourism?
Ans. Advantages
Employment opportunities
Source of income.
Provision of named infrastructure / electricity, roads, water, sanitation.
Provision of other modern facilities e.g. shops.
Reduces the effects of deforestation / destruction of habitats / soil erosion.
Disadvantages
High cost of development.
Damage to trees / effects on habitats.
Litter / garbage.
Resettlement of local people.
Tourist may not come due to problem of security.
Loss of culture.
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Study Fig.10, a map of Pakistan.

SIR WALID FULARA

Fig.10
 PAGE 115

(i) Name the forest type which grow in Area A, Area B and Area C.

SIR WALID FULARA

A. Coniferous / Alpine
B. Irrigated / Bela / Rakh / Tropical Thorn
C. Mangrove forest.

Q.1. To what extent is it possible to save and even increase the area of forests
in Pakistan?
Ans. Possibilities
Action of illegal logging / fines / penalties
Government protection of forest areas / national parks / reserves
Selective cutting
Use of alternative fuel / natural gas instead of burning wood
Public awareness campaign
Planting trees
Providing alternative grazing area
Action against pollution [which affects mangroves]
Problem
Cost / lack of finance
Security issues
Lack of government will
Demand for timber / firewood / wood for construction
Land needed for housing / industry / agriculture / roads
Very long term project.
Q.2. Explain how forests can become a source of income for the people of rural
areas.
Ans. Firewood / charcoal
Named raw material e.g. timber / roots / leaves / ephedra / fruit / nuts
For cottage / small scale / craft / pharmaceutical industries
Named product e.g. furniture, toys, souvenirs
Forests attract tourism
Goods can be sold to tourists
Creates employment e.g. forest guides / rangers / forest department / forestry.
 PAGE 116

Study Fig. 11 which is a map showing different forest types in Pakistan.

SIR WALID FULARA

Fig.11
Q. In the key, name the types of forest shown on the map.
Ans. (Top to bottom) Mangrove, Riverain / Bela, Irrigated, Coniferous / Alpine
 PAGE 117

Q. For one of the forest types you have named in (i):

• Describe the features of the forest.

SIR WALID FULARA

• Explain the uses or purpose of the trees that grow there.
Ans.