1
Physics For Engineers
NS (1001)
Oscillations
Oscillatory motion
A
Motion which is periodic in time, that is, motion that repeats itself in time.
Examples:
• Power line oscillates when the wind blows past it
• Earthquake oscillations move buildings
Sometimes the oscillations are so severe, that the system exhibiting oscillations break
apart.
Simple Harmonic Motion
Simple harmonic motion (SHM) refers to a
certain kind of oscillatory, or wave-like
motion that describes the behavior of
many physical phenomena:
a pendulum
a bob attached to a spring
low amplitude waves in air (sound), water, the
ground
the electromagnetic field of laser light
vibration of a plucked guitar string
the electric current of most AC power supplies
Simple Harmonic Motion
When the block is displaced a small
distance x from equilibrium, the
spring exerts on the block a force that
is proportional to the displacement
and given by Hoo ke’s law
An object moves with simple
harmonic motion whenever its
acceleration is proportional to its
displacement from some equilibrium
position and is oppositely directed.
Simple Harmonic Motion
In the figure snapshots of a simple
oscillatory system is shown. A particle
repeatedly moves back and forth about
the point x=0.
The time taken for one complete
oscillation is the period, T. In the time
of one T, the system travels from
x=+xm, to –xm, and then back to its
original position xm.
The velocity vector arrows are scaled
to indicate the magnitude of the speed
of the system at different times. At
x=±xm, the velocity is zero.
Simple Harmonic Motion
Frequency of oscillation is the number of oscillations that are
completed in each second.
The symbol for frequency is f, and the SI unit is the hertz
(abbreviated as Hz).
It follows that
1
T=
f
Simple Harmonic Motion
Any motion that repeats itself is periodic or harmonic.
If the motion is a sinusoidal function of time, it is called simple
harmonic motion (SHM).
Mathematically SHM can be expressed as:
x (t ) = xm cos(t + )
Here,
•xm is the amplitude (maximum displacement of the system)
•t is the time
• is the angular frequency, and
• is the phase constant or phase angle
Simple Harmonic Motion
Figure a plots the displacement of two
SHM systems that are different in
amplitudes, but have the same period.
Figure b plots the displacement of two
SHM systems which are different in
periods but have the same amplitude.
The value of the phase constant term, ,
depends on the value of the
displacement and the velocity of the
system at time t = 0.
Figure c plots the displacement of two
SHM systems having the same period
and amplitude, but different phase
constants.
Simple Harmonic Motion
For an oscillatory motion with period T,
x(t ) = x(t + T )
The cosine function also repeats itself when the argument
increases by 2p. Therefore,
(t + T ) = t + 2p
→ T = 2p
2p
→ = = 2pf
T
Here, is the angular frequency, and measures the angle
per unit time. Its SI unit is radians/second. To be consistent,
then must be in radians.
Simple Harmonic Motion
The velocity of SHM:
= x m cos(t +
dx (t ) d
v (t ) =
dt dt
→ v (t ) = −x m sin( t +
The maximum value (amplitude) of velocity
is xm. The phase shift of the velocity is p/2,
making the cosine to a sine function.
The acceleration of SHM is:
= − x m sin( t + )
dv (t ) d
a(t ) =
dt dt
→ a(t ) = − 2 x m cos(t + )
→ a(t ) = − 2 x (t )
The acceleration amplitude is 2xm.
In SHM a(t) is proportional to the displacement but opposite in
sign.
Force Law for SHM
From Newton’s 2nd law:
F = ma = −(m ) x = −kx 2
SHM is the motion executed by a system subject to a
force that is proportional to the displacement of the
system but opposite in sign.
Force Law for SHM
The block-spring system shown
on the right forms a linear SHM
oscillator.
The spring constant of the
spring, k, is related to the
angular frequency, , of the
oscillator:
k m
= → T = 2p
m k
Phase (Time) Phase Diffference
Energy in SHM
The potential energy of a linear oscillator
is associated entirely with the spring.
U (t ) = kx 2 = kxm cos 2 (t + )
1 1 2
2 2
The kinetic energy of the system is
associated entirely with the speed of
the block.
K (t ) = mv 2 = m 2 xm sin 2 (t + ) = kxm sin 2 (t + )
1 1 2 1 2
2 2 2
The total mechanical energy of the
system:
1
E = U + K = kxm
2
2
SHM and uniform circular motion
Consider a reference particle P’ moving in
uniform circular motion with constant angular
speed (w).
The projection of the particle on the x-axis is
a point P, describing motion given by:
x (t ) = xm cos(t + ).
This is the displacement equation of SHM.
SHM, therefore, is the projection of
uniform circular motion on a diameter of
the circle in which the circular motion
occurs.
Uniform circular motion can be
considered a combination of two
simple harmonic motions, one along
the x axis and one along the y axis,
with the two differing in phase by
90°.
[Link]
/SHM/[Link]
Pendulums
In a simple pendulum, a particle of mass
m is suspended from one end of an
unstretchable massless string of length L
that is fixed at the other end.
The restoring torque acting on the mass
when its angular displacement is q, is:
= − L( Fg sin q ) = I
is the angular acceleration of the
mass. Finally, mgL
=− q , and
I
L
T = 2p
g
This is true for small angular displacements, q.
Damped Oscillations
In a damped oscillation, the
motion of the oscillator is reduced
by an external force.
Example: A block of mass m
oscillates vertically on a spring
with spring constant k.
From the block a rod extends to a
vane which is submerged in a
liquid.
The liquid provides the external
damping force, Fd.
Damped Oscillations
Often the damping force, Fd, is proportional
to the 1st power of the velocity v. That is,
Fd = -g v
d2x dx
m 2 + g + kx = 0
dt dt
The solution is:
-g t
x(t) = x0 e 2m
cos(w 't + j )
æ g ö
2
w ' = w0 - ç ÷
2
è 2m ø k
w0 =
m
Damped SHM
Often the damping force, Fd, is proportional
to the 1st power of the velocity v. That is,
Fd = −bv
From Newton’s 2nd law, the following DE results:
d 2x dx
m 2 +b + kx = 0
dt dt
The solution is:
− bt
x (t ) = x m e 2m
cos( ' t + )
Here ’ is the angular frequency, and is given by:
k b2
' = −
m 4m 2
[Link]
15.5 Damped Oscillations
-g t
x(t) = x0 e 2m
cos(w 't + j )
The above figure shows the displacement function x(t)
for the damped oscillator described before.
The amplitude decreases as x0 exp (-g t / 2m) with time.
# The above is for g < 2m0 (underdapmed).
# For g > 2m0 (overdapmed)
and g = 2m0 (critical damping),
the oscillation goes like the right
figure.
In many real systems, dissipative forces, such as friction,
retard the motion.
Consequently, the mechanical energy of the system
diminishes in time, and the
motion is said to be Damped.
Retarding force
[Link]
æ g ö
2
w ' = w0 - ç ÷
2
è 2m ø
Forced Oscillations and Resonance
When the oscillator is subjected to an external force that is
periodic, the oscillator will exhibit forced/driven
oscillations.
There are two frequencies involved in a forced oscillator:
I. w0, the natural angular frequency of the oscillator,
without the presence of any external force, and
II. we, the angular frequency of the applied external force.
The equation of motion is like the following:
d x2
dx
m 2 + g + kx = F0 cos(wet)
dt dt
Forced Oscillations and Resonance
d x 2
dx
m 2 + g + kx = F0 cos(wet)
dt dt
The steady state solution is
x(t) = Acos(we t + d )
F0 / m
A=
æg ö
2
(w - w ) + ç w e ÷
2 2 2
0 e
èm ø
g we k Resonance occurs at
tan d = w0 =
m w 02 - we2 m e ~ max < 0 , for
g < 2mw0
Example (Mass-Spring System)
Periodic driving
force of freq. f
Oscillating with
natural freq. fo
Resonance
When a system is disturbed by a periodic
driving force which frequency is equal to
the natural frequency ( fo ) of the system
the system will oscillate with LARGE
amplitude.
Resonance is said to occur.
[Link]
Example 1
Breaking Glass
System : glass
Driving Force :
sound wave
Example 2
Collapse of the Tacoma Narrows
suspension bridge in America in 1940
System : bridge
Driving Force :
strong wind
Example
Example
Example
Example
Example
46
An oscillator consists of a block attached to a
spring (k=400 N/m). At some time t, the position
(measured from the system’s equilibrium location),
velocity, and acceleration of the block are
x =0.100 m, v =13.6 m/s, and a= -123 m/s2 .
Calculate (a) the frequency of oscillation, (b) the
mass of the block, and (c) the amplitude of the
motion `
Example