Review

Sesame (Sesamum indicum) in the rice fallow environment - a critical appraisal

K RAMESH1, P RATNA KUMAR1, C HARISUDAN2, S BHASKAR3 AND A VISHNUVARDHAN REDDY1
1
ICAR-Indian Institute of Oilseeds Research, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad-500 030, Telangana
2
TNAU-Regional Research Station, Vriddhachalam-606 001, Tamil Nadu
3
ICAR-Krishi Anushandhan Bhavan-II, New Delhi-110 012
ABSTRACT
Rice fallow sesame in the states of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Odisha and to a limited extent in
eastern Indian states, is an opportunity for horizontal expansion of sesame area and its production in the country.
The productivity of sesame remains abysmally low as compared to the world average and research efforts needs to
be focused to enhance the productivity of this crop which has a huge potential for export. Unlike rice fallow pulses
cultivation, sesame cultivation needs concerted efforts to enhance its productivity in rice fallows. This review
critically appraises the rice fallow environments in general, determinants of sesame production in this fragile
environment and efforts needed for the successful area expansion of sesame crop in the country.

Keywords: Edible oilseed crops, Production, Rice fallow, Sesame

The setting crop plants of India. Although, India ranks first in both
acreage and production of sesame in the world, the
Oilseed crops continue to remain as the backbone of productivity is too low compared to its original potential.
agricultural economy of the country since time immemorial India exports a large quantity of sesame to other countries.
and the largest producer of sesame in the world. Sesame is Sesame seed exports during April, 2018-February, 2019
one of the most versatile crops that can be grown in stood at 2,86,760 tons in comparison to 3,08,172 t during the
semi-arid and arid regions with the unique attribute of being previous year. In value terms, it increased to ` 3405.56
a short duration crop requiring minimal inputs (Oyeogbe et crores from ` 2701.24 crores. However, we have also
al., 2015) inhabiting "hungry and thirsty" environments. imported 70,652 metric tons during April, 2018 - February,
Vegetable oil consumption is expected to reach almost 200 2019. The export of sesame oil during April, 2018 to
billion kilograms by 2030 (Troncoso-Ponce et al., 2011). February, 2019 was 9229 tons mainly to Iran, China, Taiwan,
The level of productivity in India is far below the world Mexico, Netherlands, Singapore, UAE and USA (IOPEPC,
productivity. The demand-supply gap in the edible oils has 2019). It is cultivated in Africa, Middle East, and Asia since
necessitated huge imports accounting for 60 per cent of the ancient times for its edible oil and seeds used in traditional
country's requirement (2016-17: import 14.01 million tonnes; foods (Park et al., 2010). The top producer, exporter and
cost ` 73,048 crore) ([Link]). In the budget importer of sesame in the world are Tanzania, Ethiopia and
speech of 2019, Finance minister was quoted saying that China respectively. India produces 13.1% ([Link])
India imports about 15 million tonnes of edible oil spending of the global output (Tanzania 15.4%, Myanmar 13.3%,
around ` 77,000 crores to meet the annual requirement. To China 10.6%, Nigeria 7.5% and Ethiopia 4.4%). A quantum
cope up with the increasing per capita demand of edible oils, of 350 mm of well distributed rainfall could sustain a
horizontal expansion of oilseeds in rice fallow is one of the successful sesame crop at an optimum temperature range of
options. Sesame is an important oilseed crop with huge 25-35°C. As a dry season crop, it experiences severe water
export potential. As the majority of the area under oilseeds stress in one or the other part of its life cycle. Wherever
cultivation is still rainfed (around 75%), there is significant raised as an irrigated crop excess irrigation particularly under
impact of vagaries of monsoon particularly water stress heavy soils is a serious concern which hampers the
during most parts of the life cycle of the crop, on the productivity. India produces a wide range of sesame seed
productivity of sesame under rice fallow. Still there are varieties and grades, each peculiar to the region where they
several constraints and opportunities in utilising these rice are grown. The following five states viz., Gujarat, Madhya
fallow lands for sesame production. Pradesh, Rajasthan, Odisha and Uttar Pradesh house
The sesame crop maximum acreage of sesame as a kharif (70%) season crop,
although it is cultivated as a winter/summer crop to a limited
The sesame is one of the oldest oilseeds crops of the extent (30%).
world (Langham, 1985) and the genus consists of about 36
Rice fallow - an opportunity for the sesame crop
species, of which the most commonly cultivated is Sesamum
indicum L. (Falusi, 2006) and is one of the domesticated Rice occupies the kharif season in Southeast Asia, but a
--------------------------------------------------------------------------- large chunk of this area (15 million ha) remains uncultivated
*Corresponding author's E-mail: [Link]@[Link] or left as fallow in the subsequent season rabi or post-rainy

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 RAMESH ET AL.

season, due to water scarcity (Subbarao et al., 2001). This fallow is concentrated in the Cauvery deltaic zone as a result
land is regarded as paddy fallow. Of the total paddy fallow of single cropped medium duration rice (Season: Samba;
area in South and Southeast Asia, about 44 million hectares Sowing/planting in August)) and double cropped short
is in the country (Kumar et al., 2018), with a share of 30% duration rice [Season: kuruvai (sowing/planting during
area (11.65 million ha) under kharif fallow (NAAS 2013). In Jun-Jul) - thaladi/late samba (sowing/planting during
addition to this area, there is one more paddy fallow under Sep-Oct)]. The harvest of samba season rice and thaladi
either paddy-paddy-fallow (summer) or Paddy-fallow season rice falls during January first fortnight to facilitate
(summer), where in the farmer has two paddy crops in the sowing of rice fallow crops around January 15.
system with short-medium duration rice crops, while the In coastal Andhra Pradesh, covering the districts of
latter has only one medium duration rice coinciding the post Srikakulam, Vijayanagaram and Visakhapatnam, the rice
monsoon or northeast monsoon paddy. As per an estimate in fallow is the result of rice with 150 days duration which is
2008, it is stated that more than 80 percent of the paddy harvested during December-January. Most part of this rice
fallow lies in the states of Assam, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, cultivated area is under submergence due to floods. Flood
Madhya Pradesh, Odisha and West Bengal (Kumar Rao et prone rice varieties are cultivated in this region.
al., 2008). Rice covering an area of ~26.8 million ha and Annual Sesame area is about 260.62 thousand ha and is
accounting for ~63.3% of the total rice acreage during the cultivated in all the 30 districts of the Odisha State. Out of
kharif in the Eastern India. Out of which, ~11.7 million ha which summer irrigated (January-March) area is about 63.82
area remains as rice fallow during the succeeding winter thousand ha in the coastal delta track. Major districts under
season due to several limitations (Kumar et al., 2019). Sesame are: Angul, Malkangiri, Sundargarh, Sambalpur,
Majority of rice grown soils in India are heavy soils and Dhenkanal and Bolangir (Singh and Samal, 2013). In
clay or clay loams. Such soils, with high water-holding Odisha, the rice fallow is the result of rice with 150 days
capacity, produce higher rice yields and are suitable for duration which is harvested during November-December.
second crop of pulses/oilseeds (Pande et al., 2012). Alluvial, Flood prone long duration rice varieties are cultivated in this
red, laterite and lateritic, black, saline and alkaline, and peaty region. At the time of harvest of rice, the atmospheric
and marshy soils are the dominant soil types in which rice is temperature remains below 15°C and environmental stress
grown (Raychaudhuri et al., 1963). dictates the dates of sowing of sesame crop.
Rice fallow areas are characterized by a little residual In a low land rice-based cropping system due to flooding
moisture for sowing the rabi/summer crop (For eg. Ranchi of soil for over 2-3 months, the soil chemistry, microbiology,
and Hazaribagh in Jharkhand, Midnapore in West Bengal, and the ultimate nutrient releasing capacity of the soil is
Mayurbhanj in Odisha, Raichur in Karnataka, altered to suit the low land rice crop. For example, soil redox
Jagdalpur/Kanker in Chhattisgarh; Mandla in Madhya potential, physical properties, light status, and nutrient
Pradesh), waterlogging in selected areas resultant of sources for the micro flora are modified. In such a soil,
excessive moisture in November/December (For eg. Nimpith Roger (1995) has opined that all kinds of N2-fixing
and Gangasagar in West Bengal; Dhenkanal in Odisha; rice organisms are benefitted.
fallows of Assam), and to some extent socio-economic Way back in 1976, Patrick and Reddy (1976) have
problems like stray cattle (for eg. Eastern Uttar Pradesh, reported that, approximately one-fourth applied nitrogen to
Bihar and Jharkhand), blue bulls etc. (Ali and Kumar, 2009) rice remains in the soil and roots at the time of harvest. i.e.,
destroying the crop. Improving the productivity of the land precisely a considerable portion of applied nitrogen fertilizer
by growing the second crop in rice fallow needs suitable crop to rice system (24.2 to 27.1 kg/ha) remains in the rice soil.
management technique by utilizing the residual soil moisture. A decade later, Buresh et al. (1989) confirmed that a
Regardless of ample opportunities for rice fallow systems, significant portion of accumulated soil NO3 may be lost from
research in this area has taken not off due to a number of rice fallows upon the flooding of aerobic soil for rice
constraints. Being short duration in nature, sesame is an ideal production. When the flooded rice completes the life cycle,
crop for cultivation in rice fallow areas (Chauhan et al., organic and NH4-N could dominate in the soil over NO3.
2016). Choice of appropriate crop like sesame with short Upon fallowing, transmission of aerobic N occurs and NO3
duration variety to tide over the water scarcity is the need of starts accumulating.
the hour. In addition, cultivation of early to medium duration Flooded soils are devoid of oxygen and two distinct soil
varieties of rice (Behera et al., 2014) during the rabi season layers viz., aerobic top layer and an underlying reduced or
to enable farmers to grow sesame on residual moisture in anaerobic layer (Reddy, 1982) are formed. Traditionally rice
time is a felt need. fallows are occupied with leguminous crops like green gram
and black gram as bonus crop to rice farmers. These crops
The rice-fallow environment
can conserve the rice soil NO3 besides capturing the
Rice grows in flooded conditions during part or all the atmospheric N through biological nitrogen fixation (BNF)
crop period for about 6 months. In Tamil Nadu, the rice (George et al., 1992) although the amount of N fixed by

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 SESAME (SESAMUM INDICUM) IN THE RICE FALLOW ENVIRONMENT - A CRITICAL APPRAISAL

legumes depends on the interaction of microbial, plant and a detrimental effect on the rice fallow sesame crop in general.
environmental determinants. Legume-Rhizobium interactions Compaction normally increases the mechanical strength of
are unique because they supply 80-90% of total nitrogen the soil but excessive use may create soil management
requirement of legumes. However, in case of oilseed crops problem and can adversely affect plant growth (Raghavan et
like sesame, additional nutrients are ought to be supplied to al., 1977). Elfadil and Salih (2017) have found that soil
reap the potential yields. compaction significantly affects sesame growth since
excessive compaction impedes root penetration at levels
Ecological considerations for cropping in the rice fallow higher than 1.6 g/cm3. A decrease in the soil porosity after
mechanical operations (Silva et al., 2008) is a common
Recent studies made by Haque et al. (2015) have phenomenon. In an experiment conducted at Vridhachalam,
projected an alarming situation that the dried fallow season a part of Cauvery Delta area in Tamil Nadu, sowing of
after flooded mono paddy in the temperate zones of Korea sesame after harvest of rice under till condition (rice-follow)
and Japan contributed to approximately 30-60 % of the had a positive impact on germination, crop growth rate and
annual net global warming potential scale through yield in comparison to sowing under no-till condition as rice
greenhouse gas emissions. In such systems, paddy fields fallow sesame (Annual Report, 2018-19; Harisudan and
were flooded for less than 100 days during the rice cropping Sapre 2019). Moreover, the rice crop is under submerged
season and then are aerobically managed during the fallow conditions for over 2-3 months and changes the soil ecology
season of over 200 days. Although this is applicable to as discussed above which is not favourable for the growth
temperate conditions, in Cauvery delta of Tamil Nadu, single and development of sesame. In an organic fertilisation
rice (medium to long duration rice) crop is raised during the experiment, it was noticed that approximately 80% of the
samba season and followed by pulses predominantly. Similar sesame roots were distributed in the top 10 cm (Rodrigues et
conditions prevail in the coastal Andhra Pradesh and al., 2016), but this is not a universal fact. A change in soil
[Link] both of these coastal regions, after the harvest of ecology from flooded rice to aerated farming results in soil
rice the land remains fallow for a period of not less than 45 physical constraints and provides a hostile soil environment
days owing to low atmospheric temperature, which is to sesame germination and establishment. Added to this, soil
unfavorable for sesame germination. structure, soil water deficit, aeration, temperature, and
mechanical impedance of the seed zone play the destroyer
Determinants for sesame cultivation role. Possibilities of sesame shallow root distribution in rice
fallow soils may be due to soil compaction from the puddled
Rice fallow or follow sesame? : Rice fallows are those lands rice, porosity and lack of well drainage.
either low lands kharif or rabi sown rice areas which
remained uncropped during rabi (winter)/summer season due 1.2. Atmospheric temperature : In many parts of the world
to various reasons. Ghosh et al. (2012) reported an area of including India, sesame is sown during the winter following
11.7 m ha after kharif rice as fallow in the subsequent rabi. rice harvest. As early in 1960s, Matsuoka (1958) has found
Unlike leguminous crops, there is no great deal of that the germination temperature of sesame ranges from 10°C
information on raising sesame under rice fallow conditions. to 55°C, the proper temperature being between 30°C and
Hence in parts of Andhra Pradesh and Odisha, the crop is 35°C and those varieties collected from tropical conditions
raised only as rice follow crop in a rice-sesame cropping show poor germination under low temperature. In Myanmar,
system. Although pulse crops are sown in the standing rice farmers cultivate sesame in the winter in rice land after
crop just 5-7 days before harvest in the wet/moist conditions monsoon rice is harvested similar to the condition that
of the soil, the seed ecology fits to the rice microclimate for prevails in coastal Andhra Pradesh and Odisha. To utilise the
first week and gets established well in the rice fallow residual nutrients and utilising the moisture after rice harvest,
ecosystem. But the sesame crop is poorly adapted to rice the sesame needs to be seeded in cold, wet soil immediately
fallow regime (Harisudan and Sapre, 2019) due to the after rice harvest. These conditions, however, are not suitable
following possible reasons. for germination of sesame. The seedlings which grow slowly
are susceptible to damage by seed and root-rot organisms,
1. Ecological determinants which lead to an uneven plant stand low in vigor and yield
potential. This winter planting subject the seeds to cold and
1.1. Effect of rice soil compaction on rice fallow sesame wet soils, with erratic germination and seedling growth
and tillage requirement : The extensive use of heavy (Kyuak et al., 1995) and is the major bottleneck in extending
machinery in rice farming brings about numerous benefits the sesame in rice fallows in India in Andhra Pradesh and
through the creation of a compact soil layer particularly to Odisha. Crop seeds sown in cold soil are very slow to
arrest the water loss through percolation and this could have germinate and emerge and it would obviously be desirable to

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 RAMESH ET AL.

shorten the time from sowing to seedling emergence. cultivated during rice fallow season also. Sesame crops are
Salicylic acid may provide a solution to the chilling injury, highly sensitive to water logging conditions. Crop will wither
as this helps in chilling tolerance in plants (Farooq et al., if water logging prevails for six hours in field during its
2009) and its application alleviated the chilling (Miura and vegetative stage. There is a lack of noticeable improved
Tada, 2015) and freezing injury (Tasgin et al., 2003). Khan sesame varieties available for cultivation in rice fallows.
et al. (1989) has found that at 15°C, root initiation did not Particularly sesame varieties which can tolerate excess water
occur up to 10 days after planting, and was delayed up to the during the initial phase of establishment are not available.
fourth day at 20°C, and at 25°C, the main roots initiated on Besides low temperature tolerant sesame varieties are also
the second day. The lateral roots did not initiate until the not available.
sixth day after planting. One year later, Kyuak (1990)
postulated that less than 20°C has adverse impact on sesame 2.2 Nutrient management: As an oilseed crop, sesame
germination since only 46.86% germination was noticed at demands all essential nutrients for a profitable crop.
15°C temperatures. However, recently Bakhshandeh et al. Wherever, sesame is sown in rice fallows, the crop is seldom
(2017) have reported 14.7° C as the base temperature. supplied with nutrients, and consequently the crop suffers
due to nutrient stress. In an irrigated well managed lowland
1.3. Poor moisture availability, anaerobic conditions rice fields with grain yields of 5 to 7 t/ha, fertilizer recovery
and/or drought : It is important that sowing of sesame seed efficiencies are 30 to 60 percent, 35 percent and 15 to 65
(either broadcast or line sowing) at optimum soil moisture percent for N, P and K (BCI, 2002). In order to produce 1
content (either excess or deficit) in rice fallow fields. Excess tonne of paddy (rough rice), the rice crop absorbs an average
soil moisture content can cause anaerobic environment for of 20 kg N, 11 kg P2O5, 30 kg K2O, 3 kg S, 7 kg Ca, 3 kg
seed germination. Several studies (Mensah et al., 2006; Mg, 675 g Mn, 150 g Fe, 40 g Zn, 18 g Cu, 15 g B, 2 g Mo
Tantawy et al., 2007; Uçan et al., 2007; Hassanzadeh et al., and 52 kg Si (Roy et al., 2006).Removal of straw from the
2009) have indicated that sesame is very susceptible to field is widespread in India and so the depletion of soil K and
environmental stress particularly moisture be it for Si reserves which has a significant impact on the succeeding
germination or subsequent growth and development. fallow crop. In the process, some or all of the nutrients
Recently, Bahrami et al. (2012) have concluded that contained in straw may be lost from the rice field
regardless of the sesame cultivar, drought during early (Dobermann and Fairhurst, 2002). In order to produce 1
phases severely affects the germination and seedling growth. tonne of yield the sesame crop absorbs an average of 51.7 kg
Low moisture content in the soil after rice harvest, fast N, 22.9 kg P2O5, 64 kg K2O, 11.7 kg S, 37.5 kg Ca, 15.8 kg
receding of water table with the advancement of retreating Mg (Roy et al., 2006a). As the fallow sesame crop is
monsoon season, and risk of intermittent soil moisture stress cultivated with zero nutrient inputs, the nutrient management
towards flowering and pod filling stages are some of the in rice would have an astounding impact on the succeeding
water related constraints for the establishment of fallow crop sesame crop. Further, the physical condition of soil is poor
of sesame. During the kharif season water table is generally due to puddled rice and consequently nutrient mobilization
high but as the monsoon rains withdraw, the water table is reduced. The ongoing discussion indicated that sesame
recedes very fast. Even if the crop gets well established need to be supplied with balanced fertilisers in addition to
utilizing available soil moisture, lack of rabi rainfall towards the residual nutrients obtained from the previous rice crop in
flowering stage creates drought conditions leading to crop the rotation.
failure (Kumar et al., 2018). Chun et al. (2018) has
concluded that sesame root growth from germination to early 2.3 Weed management: A literature search for weed
seedling is determined by soil moisture and not just genetic management in rice fallow sesame could not show any
factors. This issue could be overcome by using appropriate significant work in the direction. As a rice fallow crop, the
seed pelleting chemicals to induce stress tolerance in sesame sesame crop is vulnerable to weed competition. In Tamil
and /or appropriate seed drills. Nadu, Cauvery delta areas of Tiruchirappalli district, rice
fallow sesame area has become abysmally low due to severe
2. Production constraints weed competition from Carpet weed (Trianthema
portulocastrum). Farmers are forced to postpone first
2.1 Lack of improved varieties : Sesame crop varieties are irrigation to Sesame crop in the rice fallow season to avoid
highly photo sensitive. Varieties bred for kharif may not the proliferation of this weed species. The irrigation is
perform under rice fallow conditions. Except sesame variety scheduled in such a way that the weed competition period
VRI(SV) 1 released from TNAU, Coimbatore suitable for just crosses in four weeks after sesame sowing
the rice fallow season of Tamil Nadu, in most of the states, (Muralidharan, personal communication).
all state recommended varieties for other seasons are only

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 SESAME (SESAMUM INDICUM) IN THE RICE FALLOW ENVIRONMENT - A CRITICAL APPRAISAL

3. Opportunities for sesame cultivation in the rice fallow rice-fallow area that is available. However, there is a need to
regions develop appropriate package of practice to make this a
reality as there are grey areas in terms of availability of right
Opportunities for the successful cultivation of crops in technologies as well as adoption of the existing technologies.
the rice fallow sesame with minimal investment need to be This opportunity is being explored through concerted efforts
explored, particularly where a couple of supplemental that have been initiated under NARS.
irrigation is assured to realise optimum yields. The following
research issues needs attention.
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