AP European History

A COMPLETE GUIDE

GENERAL OUTLINE

1450 - 1648
1.​Renaissance and Exploration
2.​Age of Reformation
​ 1648 - 1815
3.​Absolutism and Constitutionalism
4.​Scientific, Philosophical, and Political Developments
5.​Conflict, Crisis, and Reaction in the Late 18th Century
​ 1815 - 1914
6.​Industrialization and Its Effects
7.​19th-Century Perspectives and Political Developments
1914 - present
8.​20th Century Global Conflicts
9.​Cold War and Contemporary Europe
The Middle Ages - Review

What were the Middle Ages?

●​ Fall of Rome to *roughly* 1450 (the Renaissance).

●​ Governing system = feudalism
●​ Catholicism is the only faith in Europe (Christendom).

Feudalism

●​ Rome was an immense empire, but ultimately fell to Northern Germanic tribes → Led to
government and economic collapse.
●​ Feudalism arose from this collapse.
●​ In Feudalism: King → protected by nobles → protected by soldiers → served by
peasants.
○​ Members of society thought their duty was to protect those above them. Left
power resting in the hands of about 2% of the European population.

The Church Hierarchy

●​ Roman emperor Constantine chose the word “Pope” to lead the Church of Rome before
he left to go live in Constantinople.
●​ Kings and Popes struggled for power.
●​ During the Middle Ages, the feudal and church hierarchy maintained control and stability
throughout Europe.

REVIEW: The system that governed society during the Middle Ages was called ___________,
which arose after the fall of __________. The only faith in Europe (Christendom) was
_______________, led by the _________. During this time, _________ and the _________
struggled for power.
The Renaissance and Exploration: 1400s and 1500s

Three Main Causes

●​ The Hundred Years' War (between England and France).

○​ King wants French throne, France does not want an English King, thus they
picked a noble to be kind.
○​ Led to the development of weapons technology.
■​ Longbow (can pierce a Knight’s armor from 200 yards away) → Knight’s
became obsolete → Feudal system is weakened
■​ Canons → castles became obsolete → Feudal system weakened
○​ England held no significant power in Europe.

●​ The Great Schism

○​ 1378, Italian cardinals in the Vatican elected a pope, French cardinals claim it is a
fraudulent vote and held another vote in Avignon. There is now a pope in both the
Vatican and Avignon → Split Europe.
○​ Many Europeans began to see the Church as corrupt and realize the corruption in
the higher ranks of the clergy.
○​ People began to look to people that did not belong to the clergy for guidance.

●​ Bubonic Plague
○​ Highly contagious, medicine was not prepared, and doctors did not know what to
do.
○​ Around 50% of the European population was lost → ensuing famines as there
were a lack of peasants to farm → higher demand for peasants led to higher
wages for peasants.
○​ Higher wages for peasants meant more bargaining power for change.

REVIEW: The _____________ ________ _______ led to the development of weapons

technology, namely the ___________ and the ___________. This meant that _________ became
obsolete, leading to the decline of _____________.

The __________ ___________ allowed people to realize the corruption in the higher ranks of the
clergy, and began to look elsewhere for guidance.

The _____________ _____________ led to extreme decline in the European population. This
led to an increase in wages for peasants, and more bargaining power for ___________.
Origins of Renaissance Humanism

●​ Italy was broken up into a number of different city states:

○​ Florence was essentially a Republic throughout the 1300s and part of the 1400s.
The Medici family came to dominate the “Republic.”
■​ Middle class family was able to rise to extreme economic power by
bringing about modern banking.
■​ Became the “bank of Europe”
■​ Florence reaches economic prosperity, new wealth is generated by banking
→ Florence became a hub of culture and new ideas in the Italian peninsula
as ideas began to change.

●​ Petrarch (1304-1374)
○​ Father of Humanism
○​ Trained as a member of the clergy, surrounded by Ancient Roman texts, had many
opportunities to read literature that were not religious or biblically based.
○​ Encourage secular (in addition to) religious learning. Studied Cicero, Aristotle,
etc.
○​ Shifted his focus to teaching → sparked controversy from the Church. People
thought he was preventing people from getting into heaven by studying
non-religious texts.

●​ John Wycliffe (1320-1384)

○​ Oxford University professor in England
○​ Argued that the Church was too remote (all conducted in Latin).
○​ Argued that ordinary people did not need the clergy, they simply needed scripture.
○​ Translated the Bible into English (by hand) and made a number of copies in his
older age.
○​ Taught people how to read the Bible →he is called a heretic.
○​ Followers are called “Lollards” who continued their activities in secret for quite
some time.
■​ Succeeded by Jan Hus, who was ultimately burned at the stake.

●​ Lorenzo Valla
○​ Lived in Italy in the mid-1400s
○​ Scholars inspired by the teachings of Petrarch.
○​ Showed the Donation of Constantine was a forgery by identifying words that did
not exist during the time it was supposedly written.
○​ Undermined religious authority and exposed papal corruption.
 ●​ Leon Battista Alberti (mid-1400s)
○​ Known for using Roman architectural techniques in his buildings.
○​ Example of humanism in architecture
○​ Brought about a whole new idea of architecture in Florence
○​ Florence became decorated with architecture different from the rest of Europe.

REVIEW: The _________ family invented what is now known as ___________ __________
and brought about economic prosperity in Florence. This meant that Florence became a hub of
culture and new ideas. ____________ is called the Father of Humanism because he encouraged
the reading of classical and secular texts rather than exclusively religious literature.

_______ __________ thought that the Church was too remote because everything was conducted
in Latin. He translated the Bible into ___________ and was called a heretic.

_____________ ________ undermined religious authority and brought attention to papal

corruption by showing that the ______________ ____ ______________ was a forgery.

________________ __________ __________ was known for using Roman architectural

techniques in his buildings in ______________.

Humanist Authors

●​ 1453: Byzantine Empire is conquered by the Turks (Islam).

○​ Many scholars flee the Byzantine Empire and come to the Italian peninsula,
bringing all of Plato’s teachings with them.
○​ Lorenzo de Medici pays Ficino to translate the texts into Latin.
■​ Brings about Neo-Platonism → reconciled teachings of Plato, Aristotle,
and other philosophers with Christian teachings.

●​ Pico Mirandola: 1496

○​ Wrote “Oration on the Dignity of Man” which was meant to be spoken at debates
on his ideas. It detailed why humans were different from all other species, and the
potential of man (INDIVIDUALISM - people should reach their highest
potential).
○​ Works were burned and condemned by the Church.

●​ Castiglione: 1528
○​ Wrote “the book of the Courtier”
■​ Manual for local rulers/princes to find more skilled help for their
government.
 ■​ Describes the characteristics of a well-groomed man.
■​ Talks about education and the ability to be a protector.
■​ Values well-roundedness
■​ Talked about the traditional role of women.

●​ Machiavelli
○​ Wrote “The Prince” as an application to work in the Florentine government
during a time when Medici rule was declining.
○​ Father of political science - divorced politics from religion.
○​ “Better to be feared than loved” - a more effective system of governing. You can’t
be an effective ruler and maintain Christian values.
○​ Rulers should prioritize their state over the good of all Christendom.

●​ Gutenberg printing press

○​ Prior to the printing press, there were teams of monks who copied ecclesiastical
literature by hand.
○​ Gutenberg printed the Bible in 1456 → brought the cost of the bible (and other
books) down → rise in literacy rate.
○​ Vernacular printing began to spread (people are able to read in their own
language).

REVIEW: Match the authors to their works.

Pico Mirandola ​ ​ ​ ​ The Book of the Courtier

Castiglione​ ​ ​ ​ ​ The Prince
Machiavelli​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Oration on the Dignity of Man (individualism)

_______________ ___ _________ payed Ficino to translate Plato’s texts into Latin, which
brought about _____-_____________. This was a movement that reconciled Ancient
Grecco-Roman teachings with Christian teachings.

The Gutenberg Printing Press printed the Bible in _______.

Humanism in the 1500s

●​ Humanism spreads into Northern Europe → Christian Humanism

○​ Context: Papal corruption
■​ Alexander VI
■​ Simony: People paying cardinals/clergy to vote for them to become Pope
(Medici).
 ■​ Nepotism
■​ Indulgences
■​ Absenteeism: Bishops and archbishops weren’t paying attention to their
parishes. Faith is not conducted in the appropriate manner.
○​ Commoners were discontented and did not want to answer to the Church, but they
were still very focused on their faith.
○​ Northern Renaissance ideals were more focused on ending corruption.
○​ Studying Greek and Latin in order to better understand the Bible.

●​ Thomas More (1516)

○​ Wrote “Utopia” which described a society based on Christian values.
○​ Frustrated with the corruption of the Catholic Church, but still very devoted to his
faith.

●​ Desiderius Erasmus (1509)

○​ Taught the philosophy of Christ and argued that the Church had lost sight of its
original mission (spread the faith, heal the sick, feed the poor).
○​ Wrote “In Praise of Folly” in which he poked fun at the Church and corruption.
■​ Talks about monks and priests collecting money from people to give to the
poor and profiting off of it.
■​ Talked about the drunkenness of the clergy.

REVIEW: Write the name of the Northern Humanist author of the following works.

Utopia: __________________.
In Praise of Folly: ___________________________

Art in the High-Renaissance

●​ The Last Supper - Leonardo da Vinci

○​ Commissioned by a family in Northern Italy.
○​ Focus on symmetry and balance
○​ Use of perspective
○​ Individualism

●​ Sistine Chapel - Michelangelo

○​ Michelangelo was first known for his sculpture of David (Florence).
○​ Pope Julius II commissioned Michelangelo to paint the chapel
○​ He spent four years painting the Sistine chapel (1508-1512).
○​ The figures were painted very much like Grecco-Roman sculpture
 ○​ Included “Sybils” which were prophets in ancient Greece
○​ Grecco-Roman influence is clear while maintaining a Christian theme

●​ School of Athens - Raphael

○​ Worked at the same time as Michelangelo
○​ Paid for by Pope Julius II
○​ Very secular painting
○​ Demonstrates the nature of the papacy at the time: focused on POWER rather
than religion.
○​ Michelangelo and Raphael are both depicted in the piece.
○​ Heaven and Earth are both represented

●​ Mannerism
○​ Still considered “Renaissance Art” but was more of a stepping stone to Baroque
art.
○​ Developed out of the High Renaissance.
○​ Rebellion against classicism.
○​ Colors are often unnatural and complex. Body parts are often elongated and not
depicted naturally.

●​ Peter Bruegel - NORTHERN RENAISSANCE

○​ Northern Renaissance artist
○​ Highlighted the common people
○​ Attention to detail
○​ Realistic elements
○​ Use of oil

REVIEW: __________________ developed out of the High Renaissance. It was a rebellion

against _______________ and often used unnatural colors and elongated body parts.

Peter Bruegel was a ________________ ________________ artist who placed an emphasis on

the common people.

New Monarchies

●​ Medieval Kings were dependent upon the nobility.

○​ Kings received funds from taxes (which were collected by nobles).
○​ Nobles protected Kings in exchange for land and peasants to farm that land.
○​ Kings relied on nobles for advice and counsel.
 ○​ Kings did not have much to do with writing laws; it was mostly up to nobles to
maintain and follow laws. Nobles were in charge of enforcing laws in their land.
○​ Kings had to share power with the Church.
○​ Long Bow and Canon made feudalism obsolete.

●​ New monarchies were:

○​ Kings will continue to receive funds from the nobles, but they will have their own
tax collectors.
○​ Develop their own professional standing army that is training at all times.
○​ Start creating their own administration and their own counsels.
○​ Kings in new monarchies will rely less and less on the Church.

●​ Jean Bodin (mid-1500s)

○​ Thought monarchs should have more power.
○​ First political philosopher to argue for sovereignty.
○​ Argued that the monarch should rule without any interference
○​ Believed in “Divine Right”

Throughout the 1400s and 1500s, we see varying degrees of feudal monarchies transitioning into
New Monarchies.

●​ England
○​ Henry VII came to power at the end of a civil war (War of the Two Roses), which
had divided the country (beginning of the Tudor dynasty).
○​ He had to find a way to check the power of nobles.
○​ Adapted the Star Chamber to weaken the nobility
○​ Developed a royal navy
○​ Created a system of judges to enforce laws

●​ Spain
○​ Ferdinand and Isabella united Spain by marrying.
○​ Spanish inquisition - wanted Catholic religious unity
■​ Spain was a very religiously diverse region
■​ Required people to leave Spain if they didn’t convert to Catholicism
■​ Mass murder of those who did not convert

REVIEW: New monarchies began to centralize power by limiting the power of ___________.
________ __________ was one of the first philosophers to argue that monarchs should have
more power, which was justified by the principle of “____________ ___________.” Henry VII
centralized power in England by adapting the ___________ ____________ and developing a
_________ ______________. _________________ and ______________ of Spain centralized
power by expelling religious minorities.

Age of Exploration

●​ Origins:
○​ Rooted in the crusades centuries before. Mission was to “protect” the Holy Land
→ open minds to new ways of thinking.
○​ Renaissance: New ways of thinking about the world, desire for knowledge.
○​ Population growth after the Black Death ended.
○​ Centralized monarchs needed funds for standing armies etc.
○​ Luxury goods from the east were very expensive due to Arab control of trade
routes. Access to new trade routes would make Spain and Portugal very wealthy.
○​ Mercantilism: fixed amount of wealth in the world. One country can only get
richer if another country gets poorer. States felt the need to harness wealth in
other parts of the world.
○​ Spain and Portugal were forced to trade by sea due to isolation. Due to traces of
Muslim rule, they had arab navigation techniques from navigating deserts that
were applied to the sea.

●​ Portugal
○​ Prince Henry the navigator (member of Portuguese royal family).
○​ Wanted to find a sea route to India by sailing South down the coast of Africa and
establishing a trade network.
○​ Established a school for cartography (later trained by Christopher Columbus).
○​ Puts Portugal at a major advantage
○​ Bartolemue Diaz made it around the Cape of Good Hope
○​ Vasco de Gama went around the tip of Africa all the way to India.

●​ Spain
○​ Spain begins to see Portuguese expansion.
○​ Expels the Jews and Muslims (Spanish Inquisition). Needed wealth to fund these
policies.
○​ Provided funding for Christopher Columbus to sail West and get to Asia
(miscalculated the size of the Earth). Crew almost mutinied.
○​ 1492: Columbus and his crews landed in the Bahamas.
○​ → Treaty of Tordesillas: Portugal bribes the Pope to give all lands in the East to
Portugal and West to Spain. Essentially, Spain got all the land discovered in the
New World.
REVIEW: The economic thought which theorized that there was a fixed amount of wealth in the
world was called _________________. ________ dominated exploration early on, with
explorers such as ______________ _________, who went around the tip of Africa and
__________ de ____________, who made it all the way around the Cape of Good Hope to India.
Exploration was later dominated by ______________ due to the Treaty of _________________.

Effects of Exploration

●​ Economic effects
○​ Wealth moves from Italy to the Atlantic States (Spain and Portugal Initially, but
later France, England, and the Dutch).
○​ Valuable natural resources that come from the New World causes a major boom to
the economy in Europe (especially Spain and later France, Portugal, and England)
→ population boom → many new industries develop →increase mercantilist
tensions → states try their best not to trade with other countries.
○​ A wealth of new products (tomatoes, potatoes, squash, corn/maize, turkey,
tobacco) virtually eliminates widespread continental famine.
○​ Europe brought wheat, cattle, pigs, horses, as well as a number of deadly diseases.
○​ PRICE REVOLUTION: The general increase in prices due to the wealth being
brought in from the New World → wealth gap!!!
○​ Charles V, leader of the HRE and Spain, inherited the Spanish throne at the age of
19. Took out a loan from the Fugger family to bribe lower ranking princes in the
HRE. Soon after great wealth is discovered in Mexico and Peru. Jacob Fugger
demands full repayment from Charles or he will expose him. CHANGING
POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC SYSTEM: RISE OF THE MIDDLE CLASS.

●​ Disease
○​ Upon Columbus’ return, he tried to explain to Ferdinand and Isabella the great
wealth that they would be able to find in the New World → Europe makes a mad
dash for the New World.
○​ 1492-1520s: Spanish sailors explored the coastline of the Americas.
○​ Conquistadors (explorers on land): begins in 1519 with Hernando Cortés arriving
in Mexico with several hundred troops, weapons, and men on horses. Indigenous
people did not kill in battle, they captured and bartered for release.
○​ Disease was a major factor in conquering the Aztecs: chicken pox, measles, and
smallpox had been dealt with by Europeans for generations and developed
resistance to them.
○​ The same thing happened in modern day Peru with a conquistador named Pizarro.
Sixty men challenged the Inca King after the conclusion of a civil war.
 Conquistadors killed the king and stole as much Gold as possible. Civil War
erupted again. Disease + civil war meant that Peru was easily conquered.

●​ Encomienda system
○​ A system of forced labor to pay taxes to the Spanish (essentially slavery). Worked
very harshly, many died due to harsh working conditions. About 90% of the
population in North and South America was wiped out due to disease and the
encomienda system.
○​ When the Spanish conquered the Americas, the way of life for indigenous people
changed drastically.
○​ Some people spoke out against this: Father Bartolemé de las Casas. Sends a letter
to Charles V outlining the horrors that he has witnessed → Charles passes laws
demanding that Conquistadors treat indigenous people with respect.
○​ Encomienda systems ultimately fails due to labor shortage.

●​ Slavery
○​ European slavery had been in use since the Middle Ages. The Portuguese were
the first to respond to labor shortage by shipping millions of slaves from Africa to
the New World.
○​ Used in all forms of labor throughout the New World.
○​ Disease and death was rampant on slave ships that traveled across the Atlantic.

REVIEW: The wealth of goods from the New World caused inflation in the European economy.
This is called the __________ _________________. The introduction of new goods from the
Americas also caused a _______________ boom. New products and diseases are introduced to
both Europe and the Americas. Indigenous people will be ravaged by the ______________
system as well as disease. The economic system known as ___________________ causes great
rivalries between European powers.
The Age of Reformation: 1500s and 1600s

Origins/Causes

●​ The Black Death changed ideas about life, death, and spirituality.
●​ Renaissance encouraging new ways of thinking about the world.
●​ Corruption and absenteeism in the clergy was rampant.
○​ Popes were more interested in political power, not religion.
○​ Medici were able to use their money and engage in simony to bring a Medici to
the throne.
●​ Gutenberg Printing Press allowed for the spread of reformation ideas.

Martin Luther

●​ Origins
○​ Grew up in a commoner family that valued education. The only way to get
educated was to become a member of the clergy.
○​ Martin Luther became a member of the clergy and went to law school to become a
lawyer.
○​ Gets caught in a lightning storm, devotes his life to God. Gives up the idea of
becoming a lawyer and joins a monastery. Luther becomes obsessed with his own
salvation. Luther felt that, no matter how well he behaved, he still engaged in sin.
○​ Luther comes up with the idea that sins can be forgiven if you have faith in God.
○​ Pope Leo X sold indulgences to remodel the Church. He sent very persuasive
clergymen out throughout Europe to sell indulgences.
○​ Luther comes into contact with Yohan Tetzel, a member of the clergy who sold
indulgences.

●​ 95 Theses: 1517
○​ Written after witnessing a sermon of Yohan Tetzel by Luther to explain why the
sale of indulgences was wrong, and as to why justification by faith is the real
answer.
○​ Supposedly nailed to the Church door where Yohan Tetzel had given his sermon.
○​ Spread throughout Europe with the Gutenberg Printing Press with easy to read
pamphlets (16th century twitter). Used simply worded language that could be
understood by commoners.
○​ Yohan Tetzel’s sales drop, and clergy notify Leo X that Martin Luther is doing
this. Martin Luther continues to publish his works.
 ○​ In one pamphlet, Luther demands that HRE Charles V call a council to end the
Church abuses.

●​ Diet of Worms: 1521

○​ Luther is excommunicated, he does not care. Leo calls Luther to a trial (Diet of
Worms).
○​ Leo asks Luther to recant everything he has said. He says he cannot recant
anything → Martin Luther is scheduled to be burned at the stake.
○​ Prince Frederick III of Saxony kidnaps Luther and hides him for many years. In
those years, Luther is able to define a new branch of Christianity (Lutheranism).
Meanwhile Luther's works are still being published.

●​ Lutheran Church
○​ There are only two sacraments: Baptism, and the Holy Communion.
○​ All people should learn to interpret the Bible.
○​ The Bible should be printed in the common language.
○​ Priests could get married.

●​ Peasant Revolts
○​ The peasant population supported Martin Luther, because he wrote and spoke in a
way that they understood.
○​ Peasants began rebelling against their lords, taking inspiration from Luther who
rebelled against the Church.
○​ Luther ultimately supports secular authority in order to gain support and
protection from the Catholic Church.

Other Reformers

●​ Lutheranism doesn’t really spread outside of Northern Germany. Peace of Augsburg

meant that Lutheranism was very much tied to state authority.

●​ Urlich Zwingli: Switzerland

○​ Much like Luther, he was influenced by Erasmus. He believed in the supremacy
of the Bible. Argued for an end to the celibacy of the clergy.
○​ Contrasted with Luther in that he believed that Baptism and Communion were
simply ceremonies rather than necessary to salvation.
○​ Zimgli supported the peasants.
○​ Emphasized simplicity in Churches.
 ○​ Killed by Catholic forces in 1531. Movement somewhat died, but was later picked
up by John Calvin.

●​ John Calvin: France → Switzerland

○​ Heavily influenced by Martin Luther.
○​ Trained as a Catholic Priest, then lawyer, developed his own beliefs that were
separate from those of Luther and Zwingli.
○​ Left France for Switzerland where his ideas were more welcome. Quickly
becomes the leader of Geneva’s reformation.
○​ Writes Institutes of the Christian Religion in 1530.
■​ Agreed that the Bible was the authority of the faith, not the clergy.
■​ Agreed that there were only two of seven necessary sacraments: Baptism
and Communion.
■​ Agreed that Priests do not have to be selebate.
■​ DIFFERED from Luther in the idea of predestination: everything is part of
God’s plan, humans have no free will, only few are predestined for
heaven.
○​ Geneva had a very strict code of rules. If you could follow them, you were
predestined for heaven.
○​ Geneva is a theocracy, governed by Calvinist views.
■​ Leadership is dominated by male church elders. Violators of the specific
codes were given very harsh punishments. Religious dissenters were
persecuted and forced to leave.
○​ Thousands will find refuge from the Catholic Church in Geneva. Many people
thought that it was predestined for them to find this community, and if they could
follow these rules they were predestined for heaven.
○​ Calvinism spread all over the world, but had different names in different places:
(Huguenots, Presbyterians, Puritans, Dutch Reform Church).
○​ Calvinism spread much further than Lutheranism.

●​ Thomas Munzer: Anabaptists

○​ Main belief: adult baptism was most important.
○​ Refused to swear allegiance or take any oaths towards governments.

REVIEW: The ___________________ _______________ ____________ was an invention

integral to the spread of the Protestant Reformation. Martin Luther wrote his _____
_____________ after witnessing a sermon from _____________ ____________ who promoted
the sale of indulgences. In 1521, Luther was called to a trial known as the __________ ____
__________ and the Pope, __________, asks Luther to recant what he has said. Despite the fact
that many ________ supported Martin Luther, and rose up against their lords in response to his
teachings, Luther ultimately sided with Kings for support against the Catholic Church.
Lutheranism didn’t spread far outside of Germany, as it was tied mainly to state authority, but
other reformers soon picked up Protestant ideas too. __________ _____________ had much in
common with Luther, but differed from him in that he believed Baptism and Communion were
simply ceremonies that were not necessary for salvation. John Calvin believed in the idea of
_________________, and left France where his ideas were not accepted to make Geneva a
__________________. In Germany, ______________ ______________ led the Anabaptist
church, which placed an emphasis on adult baptism.

​
English Reformation

●​ Catherine of Aragon
○​ Married Henry to form an alliance between Spain and England.
○​ Only able to give birth to a daughter. Henry senses that he will have to loose all
his power because she has not given birth to a son.
○​ Henry has a number of affairs, falls in love with Anne Boleyn.
○​ Seeks a divorce from Catherine

●​ Politics of Henry VIII

○​ Henry, at first, came out strong against the Lutheran Church
○​ Awarded “Defender of the Faith” in 1521 by the Catholic Church.
○​ Henry appoints Thomas Cromwell.
○​ Cromwell and Cranmer help Henry seek an annulment from Catherin, saying that
it was an unholy marriage because Catherine had formerly been married to
Henry’s older brother Arthur.
○​ The Pope said nope because Catherine was Charles V’s (HRE) Aunt.

●​ Act of Supremacy: 1534

○​ Says the English King is the protector and only Supreme Head of the Church of
England → allows Henry to grant himself a divorce. Marries Anne Boleyn, and
required all of his subjects + parliament to acknowledge Henry’s authority over
the religion.
○​ Henry starts seizing the Church’s wealth throughout England, and auctioned it to
his allies. The money that he takes in will allow him to further centralize his
government, build his standing army and navy, and sell land to the gentry.

●​ Henry’s successors
○​ Catherine of Aragon gives birth to Mary
 ■​ Mary hated her father for what he did to her mother
■​ She was sent out of England and brought up Catholic
○​ Anne Bolyn gives birth to Elizabeth
○​ Jane Seymore gives birth to a son: Edward VI

●​ Edward VI (ruled 1548-1553)

○​ Reigned for five years.
○​ Comes to power at age nine and was easily swayed by Henry’s advisors
○​ Thomas Cranmer hires a tutor named John Cheke, a devout Calvinist.
○​ Cheke highly influences Edward VI → makes some religious changes that are
very Calvinist in nature.
○​ Requires that all crucifixes and religious images (anything considered to be
idolatry) be moved out of churches.
○​ Requires all services to be conducted in English.
○​ He craved family and welcomed his sister, Mary, back into the court of England.
○​ Dies at age 15

●​ Mary Stuart
○​ Immediately imprisoned Thomas Cramner and Elizabeth I.
○​ Restored Catholicism in England.
○​ Took on the name “bloody Mary”
■​ Publicly executed Thomas Cranmer
■​ Executes thousands of P
○​ Repealed all of Edward’s VI Protestant reforms, as well as the Act of Supremacy
○​ Develops a stomach ailment, and her reign only lasts 5 years.

●​ Elizabeth I
○​ Coronated after five years in prison, and inherits a country on the precipice of
religious civil war.
○​ Develops a hybrid Catholic-Protestant faith: Anglican Church, of which she was
the head (although much power was diverted to
■​ Ran services in English
■​ Services were run in a very Catholic-mass fashion
■​ The Pope had no control over the Church.
○​ Elizabeth’s compromises helped avoid a war of religion

REVIEW: In 1534, the _________ _____ ________________ declared Henry VIII the Supreme
Head of the Church of England. This allowed him to divorce ________________ _____
______________ and seize land from the Catholic Church in order to centralize power.
Henry VIII was succeeded by ________________, who reigned for _____ years, during which
time he instituted several reformations in England. He required all crucifixes and religious
imagery to be removed from Churches, and ruled that sermons should be conducted in
_______________. When he died, ________________________ came to power. She imprisoned
Elizabeth and Thomas Cranmer, and restored Catholicism in England. ___________________
inherited the throne after Mary’s _____ year reign, and created the ________________ Church, a
Protestant-Catholic hybrid faith.

Treaty of Augsburg

●​ Treaty of Augsburg: 1555

○​ Schmalkaldic War: Charles V demanded that northern Protestant princes convert
to Catholicism → war erupts → HRE is divided
○​ Simultaneously, the Ottoman Empire is invading from the south while Charles is
dealing with Protestants in the North. Charles makes a secular decision: You can
choose whatever religion you want for your area, and in return you help me push
the Muslims back.

The Counter Reformation

Also known as the Catholic Reformation

●​ Pope Paul III: 1534-1549

○​ Realized that he needed to protect the Catholic Church by responding to the
reformation.
○​ Roman Inquisition: instituted to root out and punish heresy.
○​ Approves Ignatius Loyola and the Jesuit order
○​ Called for the first session of the Council of Trent

●​ The Jesuit Order

○​ Very strict religious order of priests
○​ Led by Ignatius Loyola, son of a nobleman. Was involved in a war between the
French and his region of Spain.
■​ Injured in war, and became very spiritual during his recovery.
■​ Spent a lot of time examining his sin and what makes him happy.
■​ Decided to get a formal education in order to pursue his spirituality.
○​ Loyola and his friends took an oath among each other to live a life of poverty,
chastity and obedience.
○​ They started helping the poor and sick throughout Rome, and became widely
recognized for their devotion.
 ○​ Paul III hears of this and invites the Jesuits to meet with him.
○​ The Jesuits began to grow and establish excellent schools across Europe. Anyone
could attend these schools, which embraced both medieval teachings and
humanistic learning and science.

●​ Council of Trent
○​ First two sessions were very reluctant to reform
○​ The Third Council of Trent 1559-1565 produced some very proactive changes.
○​ Those that reinforced Catholic ideas:
■​ The Bible was not the only authority, the clergy was an authority.
■​ The Seven Sacraments should be practiced because it was a tradition of
the Church.
■​ Priesthood should remain selebate.
■​ Catholic teachings should be strengthened
■​ Index of Prohibited Books. If you had any of these writings, you might
end up in a Roman Inquisition trial.
○​ Those that reformed Catholic ideas:
■​ Developed a new form of university classes in order to get a much better
trained priesthood.
■​ Eliminated absenteeism: Bishops forced to visit all their churches.
■​ Roman Missal: Calendar put out by the Vatican that says the message
should be consistent within all Catholic Churches throughout the entire
faith.

REVIEW: Pope ___________ was the first Counter Reformation Pope. He began the
__________ Inquisition, approved the ____________ __________ led by Ignatius Loyola, and
called for the first session of the ____________ ____ ___________. The Third session of the
Council of Trent instituted multiple reforms to the Catholic Church in response to the Protestant
Reformation.

Wars of Religion

●​ Charles V
○​ Charles V agreed that northern German princes would be able to pick their own
religion in the Treaty of Augsburg
○​ He was not very happy with this. Charles was the most powerful person in the
world at the time and Holy Roman Emperor. In allowing Protestant princes to
remain Protestant, he feels as though he has failed. He decides to step down.
○​ Charles gives Spain, the New World, and the Netherlands to his son, Philip II, and
the HRE to his brother, Ferdinand.
 ○​ The Habsburgs always supported one another.

●​ Philip II
○​ Spain was at its wealthiest during the reign of Philip II.
○​ Philip wants to re-catholicize Europe
○​ Wages a naval war against the Ottomans to secure greater economic wealth for
Catholic merchants in that region.
○​ Battle of Lepanto: Spain defeats Ottomans in Greece
■​ This success led Philip to believe he was invincible at sea.
○​ Philip asks Elizabeth to marry him and she says no. Philip considers this an act of
war.
○​ Philip is very worried about Protestantism in England and the Netherland, and
focuses on repressing Dutch protestantism. Dutch people were not happy with
this. Philip is like “sucks to suck,” and Dutch people put up a resistance.
○​ 1581: United Dutch Provinces pick a King to lead them in war (William of
Orange).
○​ Elizabeth starts sending much support to the Dutch resistance in order to drive out
the Spanish, making them less likely to invade England. Lots of bloody fighting.
○​ Southern part of the Netherlands is Catholic, but Northern Provinces are
Calvanist.
○​ Philip marched his troops up to Belgium, put his troops on ships across the
English channel.

●​ Elizabeth I & Spanish Armada: 1588

○​ Elizabeth begins preparing for war. Gets her military ready for war.
○​ Elizabeth puts on armor, gets on a horse, and gives a speech to inspire her people.
○​ Hires privateer (Sir Francis Drake) to fight against the Spanish.
○​ Ships are destroyed up to a year before the invasion of the Spanish armada.
○​ The English set their own ships on fire and sailed them into Spanish ships.
○​ Used smaller ships with side cannons to blow holes into larger ships.
○​ Chase Spanish Armada north. They were hit by not one, but TWO storms. Most
of the Spanish ships sink off the Western Coast of Ireland.
○​ Set a precedent: England will not be invaded, and Spanish will not be doing any
invading.

●​ French Wars of Religion 1562-1598

○​ Calvinism spreads outside of Geneva.
○​ In France, Calvinist protestants are called the Huguenots.
○​ Calvinists are a threat in Europe because they believe that monarchs should be a
theocracy. Monarchs don’t like this.
 ○​ There is a region of France called Navarre, which had become a Protestant
stronghold of the Huguenot faith. The Bourbon family had come to be seen as the
Huguenot leaders in France.
○​ THREE MAJOR PLAYERS: Bourbons, Valois (royal family), and Guise (radical
Catholic faction & Catholic Holy League).
○​ Henry II (Valois) & Catherine de Medici have 3 sons. Henry II dies and sons have
to take the throne as children, meaning Catherine does most of the ruling.
○​ The Guise family convinced Catherine that Huguenots were a threat to France.
○​ At the wedding between Margaret Valois and Henry of Navarre, all of the
Bourbon family and other Huguegot leadership were killed: Saint Bartholomew's
Day Massacre → people began killing Protestants throughout France.
Approximately 25,000 protestants were killed. Catherine de Medici is thought to
have orchestrated this.
○​ Henry of Navarre is able to escape by promising to convert to Catholicism. He
then converts back to Calvinism after violence has died down.
○​ Henry III was on the throne by 1574. Henry of Guise does not think Henry III is
Catholic enough, takes over and relegates him to Chief minister.
○​ Henry III assassinates Henry of Guise and then joins Henry of Navarre to rid Paris
of the Holy League.
○​ Monk kills Henry III and leaves Henry of Navarre to take the throne.
○​ Takes Paris and proclaims himself King of a majority Catholic country. To the
South and East are Spain and the HRE. Essentially, Henry is surrounded by
devout Catholic monarchs who want to wipe Protestants off the face of the planet.
○​ Henry of Navarre agrees to convert BACK to Catholicism to avoid civil war:
“Paris is worth a mass”
■​ Politic: state above religious concerns
○​ Huguenots believe that Henry is betraying them → Edict of Nantes. Granted
religious freedom to Huguenots to practice in certain areas: Religious pluralism.

●​ Thirty Years War

○​ Henry of Navarre is assassinated. His son, Louis XIII is too young to rule. He has
a regent: Cardinal Richelieu - Politic.
○​ Ferdinand II came to power in 1618
■​ Sent representatives up to Bohemia to tell them that they were going to be
Catholic.
■​ Defenestration of Prague: threw them out of a window → Bohemian
Phase 1618-1622. Fell 70 feet into a pile of poop and survived.
■​ Battle between Frederick I (Protestant forces) and Ferdinand (Catholic).
■​ Catholic powers were victorious and re-established Catholicism across
many places in HRE.
 ○​ Danish Phase: 1625-1629
■​ Northern German princes align behind Danish King Christian IV.
■​ Ferdinand II leads the Catholic league against Christian IV.
■​ Protestants have to agree to the Treaty of Restitution.
○​ Swedish Phase: 1630-1635
■​ Gustavus Adolphus from Sweden invades Northern Germany and reignites
the war for the side of the Protestants. Although he wanted to protect
Protestantism, he also wanted land in Northern Germany.
■​ Adolphus pushes Catholic forces back against Albrecht von Wallenstein.
He is then killed.
■​ Cardinal Richelieu comes to the aid of Sweden: Classic politic move,
worried more about HRE power than Catholicism.
○​ French Phase 1635-1648
■​ Richelieu leads charge against Habsburgs: Becomes a war about balance
of power. All future wars will be about this balance of power.
■​ Ferdinand II dies. Finally led to peace agreements.
○​ Thirty Years War crippled economy of the HRE.
○​ No winner. Rather HRE was the definite loser.
○​ Last war of religion

●​ Peace of Westphalia
○​ Reiterated Peace of Augsburg, let principalities choose their own religions, but
INCLUDED Calvinism.
○​ 300 Princes independent of Habsburg power.
○​ People in their own homes can practice their own faith: seeds of religious
freedom.
○​ Diplomacy begins to develop.
○​ France is a new major power in Europe.

REVIEW: Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V, abdicated after the Treaty of _______________,
giving Spain and the Netherlands to his son ____________, and the HRE to his brother
_________________. Spain was at its wealthiest under Philip II, and he felt as though he was
invincible after victory at the Battle of _____________ against the ______________ in Greece.
Philip was also concerned with the growth of Protestantism in the ______________________. In
1581, the United Dutch Provinces elect ________________ _____ _______________ to lead
them in war. This resistance is supported by __________________ of England. This led Philip II
to march up troops to the Southern part of the Netherlands (modern day Belgium) to launch the
Spanish ______________. Elizabeth hired a privateer known as _____ _____________
___________, who used dirty military tactics to deter the Spanish. They ultimately got caught in
a series of storms, establishing England as a new major global power.
The French Wars of religion began due to tensions between the ____________ family, who were
French Calvinists (or ________________), the __________ family, who were radical Catholics,
and _________ family (royals). At the wedding between Henry of Navarre (Henry IV) and
Margaret Valois, all of the Bourbon family and Huguenot leadership, save Henry, were
assassinated. This sent the city into a killing spree known as ________ ___________________
_______ _________________. _____________ assassinates Henry of Guise after he is relegated
to Chief Minister. Once Henry of Navarre eventually comes to power, he converts back to
Catholicism, claiming “_________________________________.” He then signed the
_________ of ___________ which granted _______________ _______________ in France.

The Thirty Years War began with the __________________ of ___________ when Holy Roman
Emperor ____________________ sent representatives to Bohemia to tell Northern Protestants
that they would be converting to Catholicism. King ________________ was elected in Bohemia.
During the Danish phase, Protestant forces aligned behind the King of Denmark,
__________________. The Protestants had lost these first two phases and Catholicism was
dominant throughout almost the entirety of the HRE. ______________ _____________ from
Sweden reignited the Protestant cause, and pushes back the Catholic forces of ____________
______ ________________. Cardinal _________________ led France in joining Sweden to
support the Protestant cause.

The English Civil War

●​ CONTEXT: Medieval document– Magna Carta was forcibly signed. Established

principles of representative government. The King has to have a Parliament, and
Parliament must approve new taxes.

●​ Elizabeth I
○​ Had a very long and successful reign because she worked very well with
Parliament.
○​ Under Elizabeth I, Parliament solidified its power to control taxes. Monarchs
maintained control over foreign policy.
○​ Calvinists (Puritans) began developing in England. A large number of the gentry
and seats in Parliament were Puritans.
○​ Puritans wanted to ensure that power to tax stayed in their hands.

●​ James I
○​ Elizabeth dies and her cousin, James, comes to power.
○​ Believed in Divine Right.
○​ Did not want to share power with Parliament.
 ○​ Stuart kings (aka James) wanted Catholicism back in Europe.
○​ At the time, the King had to call the Parliament in order to get funding for things.
The King had the power to call and dismiss Parliament.

●​ Charles I
○​ Like his father, did not want to work with Parliament.
○​ Inherited the issues created by his father (Parliament did not like him).
○​ The House of Commons refused funding from Charles a number of times.
○​ Parliament produces a document called the Petition of Right, signed by Charles I.
■​ In return for funding, Parliament could not be imprisoned without due
cause.
■​ Parliament must approve taxation.
■​ Couldn’t quarter troops in private homes.
■​ No martial law during peacetime.
○​ Later, Charles does not follow these measures.
○​ There was a medieval tax to protect the coastal cities. This tax was also applied to
the inland counties. These taxes went to building the navy/army. When Charles
runs out of money and does not want to call Parliament, he introduces these taxes
without calling Parliament into session.
○​ MEANWHILE, he is dealing with tensions in Ireland and France.
○​ Charles is forced to call Parliament into session for three weeks. They demand
greater protections for Parliament before they will agree to providing funds for his
wars.
○​ Later, due to utter desperation, Parliament is called again. They pass what is
known as the Triennial Act– Parliament has to be called at least three times a year.
Additionally, Parliament cannot be adjourned without Parliament’s consent.
○​ Charles I tries to imprison five members of Parliament →Division leads to
English civil war.

●​ English civil war: 1642-1649

○​ The House of Lords supports the King and House of Commons supports
Parliament
○​ The Parliamentary army was also supported heavily by Puritans.
○​ Oliver Cromwell is the main general of the Parliamentary Army (and a Puritan).
○​ Charles I is captured at the Battle of Naseby → Parliament comes to power and
dismisses the House of Lords.
○​ Cromwell becomes the leader of the government. Some members of Parliament
are considering maintaining the monarchy, and the Puritans purge these
moderates. RUMP PARLIAMENT.
○​ Rump Parliament voted to behead Charles I: Regicide.
REVIEW: Parliament was very discontented with Charles, for he did not follow any of the
agreements outlined in the _________________ of _______________. Charles was ultimately
forced to call Parliament back into session due to the situation in _________________. When
Charles attempts to imprison five members of Parliament and the English Civil War is ignited,
_______________ _________________ becomes the leader of the Parliamentary Army. After
Charles I is captured at the Battle of _________________, Cromwell dismisses the house of
Lords and purges moderates in Parliament. This leads to the creation of a ___________
parliament. Ultimately, they make the decision to behead Charles I. This is known as
_____________, or the killing of a King.

The Scientific Revolution 1543 – 1687

●​ CONTEXT: Causes of the Scientific Revolution

○​ Scholasticism → Renaissance humanism (Grecco-Roman ideas reconciled with
Christianity).
○​ Age of exploration → new understandings of the world.
○​ Renaissance → Questioning of authority
○​ Printing press: ideas are able to spread quickly

●​ Copernicus
○​ Catholic Priest: conducted scientific experiments in order to glorify god
○​ Naked eye astronomer
○​ Based all of his ideas on LOGIC and CALCULATIONS.
○​ Wrote On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres in 1543. Argued that the Sun
was the center of the universe (Helio-centricity).
■​ Opposed Geo-centricity. The Church did not like this.

●​ Galileo (Born 1564)

○​ Several decades after Copernicus
○​ Created his own telescope in order to observe and study the planets -
OBSERVATION
■​ Observed that the other planets were similar to Earth in their behavior.
■​ The Church, once again, did not like this.
○​ Proved helio-centricity with his telescopes.
○​ Galileo ends up in a Roman Inquisition → Recants everything so that he does not
burn at the stake and agrees to go on house arrest for the rest of his life.
○​ Printing press means that his writings are not going to disappear.

●​ Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564)

 ○​ Able to identify the workings of the human skeletal and muscular system
○​ Based knowledge on OBSERVATION from carving up bodies.
○​ Father of anatomy.

●​ William Harvey (Born 1578)

○​ Challenged “humorism.”
■​ Throughout the middle ages, there was an idea that you had to keep your
humors in check: yellow bile, black bile, flem, and mucus.
○​ William Harvey was the first to describe the circulatory system.
○​ Did not understand germ theory, but began to point medicine in a new direction.
○​ Chemical imbalances

●​ Francis Bacon (Born 1561)

○​ Encouraged scientists to experiment and then draw conclusions → INDUCTIVE
REASONING.
■​ Specific → general (bottom to top).
■​ Observe patterns → create theories

●​ Descartes (Born 1596)

○​ Everything should be doubted until proven through reason → DEDUCTIVE
REASONING.
■​ General → specific
■​ Existing theory → hypothesis → collect and analyze data → Yes/No

REVIEW: ________________ published On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres in 1543.

The work promoted a ________________ view of the universe. None of his thinking was based
on observation, but rather logic and reasoning. Several decades later, ______________
constructed a telescope and confirmed Copernicus’ ideas. _____________ ____________,
known as the “Father of Anatomy” was able to identify many workings of the inner muscular
and skeletal system by cutting up dead bodies and observing them. Later, _______________
________________ challenged the theory of ________________ by becoming the first to
describe the circulator system. ______________ and _______________ are known as the
“Fathers of the ______________ _______________.”

Change and Continuity in Daily Life 1450-1648

●​ Women - Primarily continuity

○​ Throughout the Renaissance:
 ■​ Primarily expected to be obedient to their father/husband.
■​ SOME wealthy women were involved in humanist endeavors. This did not
apply to most women or even most people.
○​ Throughout the Protestant Reformation.
■​ Literacy rate among women begins to rise (only in protestant areas). More
than just wealthy women.
■​ Traditional gender roles were still very much pronounced, however the
Price Revolution meant that wealthy women were frequently involved in
the running of the businesses for their husbands who were wealthy
artisans.

●​ Leisure and Recreation

○​ Every village had a small Church, and people went to services every evening.
○​ Festivals in villages celebrated various Saints and local traditions. Opportunity to
meet potential marital partners.
○​ Development of sports (fencing/jousting/falconry).
■​ Commoners are usually not involved in these sports because it requires so
much money and time to be involved.
■​ For peasants, people indulged in soccer, hokey, and communal dances.
These sports were only played during the slow time in the agricultural
cycle.

●​ Economy -CHANGE
○​ Advent of modern banking along with wealth from the new world transformed the
economies of Europe.
○​ New banking families (Medici, Fugger, Bank of Amsterdam).
■​ Commoners who were able to gain wealth.
■​ Gentry were able to hold seats in Parliament.

●​ Population & Consumerism -CHANGE

○​ Population growth + new wealth creates demand for new goods.
○​ By the end of the 16th century, the population had risen up to pre-plague levels.
○​ New food products bring an end to famine
○​ Population growth → enclosure movement → unemployment → (some)
migration to cities
Absolutism and Constitutionalism 1650-1789

Beginnings of Absolutism

●​ In the wake of the Thirty Years War…

○​ The power of the Church declined even further after the introduction of the Peace
of Westphalia, which granted religious autonomy to Northern German princes.
○​ The instability and decline in population that followed the wars of religion also
created the perfect climate for rulers to completely centralize control.

●​ Characteristics of Absolutism
○​ King has all power over their subjects
○​ There is no constitution of legal restriction on the monarch’s power (could never
happen in Europe).
○​ Power comes from the overarching belief in the Divine Right of Kings.
○​ Mercantilism!!! -Became a GOVERNMENT policy
○​ Highly trained professional standing army and navy
○​ Bureaucracy

●​ Henry IV
○​ Converts to Catholicism to bring his country to peace and later grants the Edict of
Nantes for the same reason.
○​ Begins to take steps in order to centralize control.
■​ Develop bureaucracies rather than nobles to control different aspects of
government (robe nobles/gentry rather than sword nobles).
■​ Embraced mercantilism. Ensured exports were high and imports were low.

●​ Louis XIII and Cardinal Richelieu

○​ Led the French in the 30 Years War (helping the Protestants).
○​ Continued to allow Robe Nobles to maintain significant positions of power.
○​ Started many wealthy companies by creating monopolies of wealthy merchants
and the government takes a cut of the profits.
○​ Outlaws warfare between nobles by destroying castles.
○​ Supported the rights of Protestants.
○​ Created an intendant system: put a new governing official in the countryside to
enforce laws in the way that the government wants them to be enforced (takes
power away from nobles).
○​ Louis XIII - first absolute monarch. Cardinal Richelieu set up most of the systems
that were still in place during the reign of Louis XIII.
 ○​ Louis XIII spent a lot of time out in the woods at a hunting lodge he called
Versailles.

REVIEW: Absolutism began to emerge in the wake of the _______________ __________

__________, due to the instability of the time period. The economic system used by absolutist
rulers was ____________________. ____________ _____ came to power in France after the
French Wars of Religion. He was succeeded by his son, Louis XIII. Louis was too young to take
the throne when his father died, and had a regent named ___________________
___________________. This regent limited the power of the nobility by forming a bureaucracy
of ____________ nobles (gentry), creating a professional standing army, and crating a system of
_______________, which put new governing officials of the King in the countryside to enforce
laws in the way that the government wants them to be enforced.

Louis XIV 1638 - 1715

●​ Origins
○​ Inherits the throne at the age of 5 when his father, Louis XIII, died.
○​ Cardinal Mazarin serves as a regent.
○​ Fronde rebellion: nobility tried to rise up against the monarch, as he was only a
child and could be easily overthrown.
■​ Nobles were angry about their lack of economic power under Louis XIII.
■​ Pivotal time in the young King’s life. He was taught not to trust the
nobility.
■​ Louis XIV flees to his father’s hunting chateau, Versailles.
■​ Rebellion ultimately quashed.
○​ Louis appoints wealthy, middle class merchants to government positions and cuts
out the nobility.
■​ Had Versaille built into a massive palace in the French baroque style.
Essentially a playground for the wealthy nobility.
■​ Nobility were entertained, fed, and exempt from taxes.
■​ “Fat, happy, and high at Versailles”

●​ Jean Baptise Colbert - strengthening of the economy

○​ MERCANTILISM
○​ Chief Minister of Finance in France under Louis XIV
○​ Imposed tariffs on imported goods (increase exports, decrease imports).
○​ Wanted to increase the supply of gold and silver in Versailles. Thought this wealth
should be hoarded in France and should not be out in the economy.
○​ Limited the power of the nobility to engage in any domestic tariffs/
○​ TLDR: Increase domestic production and exports as much as possible.
 ●​ Religion
○​ Believed in “One King, One Law, One Faith”
■​ Catholicism = unity
○​ About 10% of France is Calvinist. Louis did not like this.
○​ 1685 Edict of Fontainebleau: revoked Edict of Nantes, closed Protestant
Churches, Protestants were told “Either convert or leave BUT if you leave you
also have to give us 10% of your wealth.” → hundreds of thousands of Huguenots
flee France.
■​ Causes great economic devastation

REVIEW: Louis XIV also inherited the throne as a child, and had a regent named
______________ _______________. During Louis’s childhood, an uprising of the nobility who
were discontented with their lack of economic power, known as the _____________ rebellion,
instilled a sense of distrust in the nobility. During the Fronde rebellion, Louis fled to
______________, which was later used as a means to appease the nobility while giving them
little stake in the government.

Louis’s Minister of Finance ___________ ______________ ____________ wanted to increase

_____________ and decrease ______________, as well as horde gold and silver at Versailles.

Louis revoked the Edict of Nantes in 1685 with the __________ ____ __________________,
which closed Protestant Churches, and forced Protestants to leave France if they didn’t convert to
Catholicism. Mass migration of Huguenots out of France caused great _______________
devastation.

Foreign Policy of Louis XIV

●​ CONTEXT: Peace of Westphalia leaves Hapsburgs and the Holy Roman Empire much
weaker → power balance shift. Louis XIV looks to seize power during this power
balance shift.

●​ Dutch War: 1672-1678

○​ The Dutch Republic/United Provinces (modern day Netherlands) was an
economic powerhouse.
○​ Mercantilist thinking would mean that Louis XIV would have much reason to
wage war on the Dutch Republic (weakening Dutch economy would make French
economy stronger).
○​ William of Orange leads the Dutch to victory against the French.
 ●​ 9 Years War / War of the League of Augsburg: 1688-1697
○​ Alsace-Lorraine has flip-flopped between France and Germany throughout history
and Louis wants it.
○​ Louis goes to war with the Hapsburgs, but the English and the Dutch come to the
aid of the Hapsburgs to check the power of Louis XIV.

●​ War of Spanish Succession: 1701-1714

○​ Charles II of Spain dies without and heir, and leaves Spain and the New World to
Louis XIV grandson, Philip of Anjou
○​ MEANWHILE: HRE/Austrian King, Leopold I, claims the Spanish throne for his
son.
○​ England, the United Provinces, and Prussia come to the aid of Leopold I in order
to maintain a balance of power.
○​ Louis was able to fend off aggressors on all sides.
○​ Settled with the Treaty of Utrecht.
■​ Philip of Anjou takes the Spanish throne BUT Spain and France cannot be
joined up or united, they must remain separate.
■​ France acquires Alsace-Lorrain.
■​ England seizes portions of French territory in the Americas (Canada) and
part of France’s slave trade.
■​ Gibraltar goes to England.
○​ The Duke of Brandenburg (Frederick I of the Hohenzollern) is named King of
Prussia –Leopold I says thanks for the help by making him King of Prussia.

REVIEW: Louis XIV waged war against the ____________________ because he wanted to
harness the country’s wealth. _____________ ______ _____________ led his country to victory
against the French.

The _____ ____________ _______________ between France and Austria over the territory of
_________________________ ended with the defeat of Louis XIV. The ______________ and
________________ came to the aid of Austria against Louis’s forces.

The ___________ ______ __________________ _________________, which was fought over

the Spanish heir after Charles II died, with both Louis’s grandson, Philip of Anjou, and Leopold
I’s son laying claim to the throne. _____________, the _______________ ________________
and _____________________ came to the aid of Leopold I. The war ended with the Treaty of
_______________, which gave the throne to _______________________, but prohibited France
and Spain from ever uniting. Leopold I thanked the Duke of Brandenburg, _________________,
by naming him King of ___________________.
Leopold I and Austria 1658 - 1705

●​ CONTEXT: Throughout history, Austria has enemies on both sides: Protestants in the
North and Ottomans in the South. Leopold ultimately decides not to engage with
Protestantism but he DOES have an enemy in France.

●​ Modernization & Centralization

○​ Does not try to weaken the nobility, but rather cooperates with them.
■​ Uses the nobility for advice and council.
■​ Very different from what happened in France under the Bourbons.
○​ Seeks the advice of foreigners: Prince Eugene of Savoy is entrusted with the
Austrian military.
■​ Eugene of Savoy is French but wasn’t allowed to be in the French military,
and pledges his allegiance to Austria.
■​ Amazing military mind, able to deter Ottoman and French forces. Leopold
gained a lot of Ottoman land due to the leadership of Prince Eugene of
Savoy.
■​ Prince Frederick of Brandenberg lent his military to Leopold during the
Spanish War of Succession → Leopold names Frederick I King of Prussia.

Prussian Absolutism

●​ Frederick William I 1713-1740

○​ Extreme militarism: “Where some states have an army, the Prussian army has a
state.”
○​ Modernized agriculture, and stored food when plentiful so that it could be saved
for his military and people during times of famine and poor harvest.
○​ Never started a war: “the pen is mightier than the sword”
○​ Insisted on strict discipline for all citizens -very militaristic.
○​ Embraced religious tolerance.
○​ Nobles had to attend military academy and be an officer in the military
○​ First form of public education: Everyone was instructed in reading, writing, and
basic math. This included instruction that promoted national pride.

●​ Frederick the Great (Frederick II) 1740-1786

○​ Modernized Prussian economy
■​ Created tariffs to ensure that goods were bought primarily within Prussia
and that imports were limited –Mercantilism.
■​ New forms of taxation bring in revenue → infrastructure.
○​ Infrastructure
 ■​ Created roads and bridges that kept the economy moving.
■​ Created the bank of Berlin to keep the economy moving.
○​ Religious toleration
■​ Deist: believed in god but was not aligned with any particular religion.
○​ Begins developing a bureaucracy
○​ Agriculture
■​ Forced Prussians to plant potatoes in order to feed the country during
times of low agricultural output.

Russian Absolutism

●​ Context
○​ The Russian Orthodox Church is the most prominent religion throughout Russia.
○​ The Russian language uses a separate alphabet from other European languages.
○​ Russia does not have any significant warm water ports on either the
Mediterranean or the Baltic Sea.

●​ Peter the Great

○​ Very fascinated with Western Europe.
○​ As a young man, Peter went on a journey West and saw the economic and military
systems of Europe.
○​ Peter realized that Russia lagged behind the rest of Europe. He learns about the
theory of mercantilism, and believes that Russia must Westernize in order to have
a formidable presence in the European theater of power.
○​ Curtailing the nobility –Boyars
■​ Boyars had to send their sons to Western Europe to be educated.
 ■​ Creates a bureaucracy that is composed of agencies staffed by a committee
of 11 Boyars, ensuring that no one person could become too powerful.
■​ Forced nobility to shave their beards.
■​ Stopped women in Russia from wearing veils.
○​ Weakening the Patriarch of the Russian Orthodox Church
■​ Patriarch did not want to Westernize
■​ Peter eliminated the Patriarch and replaced him with a committee of 11
bishops.
○​ Modernizing Russia
■​ Encouraged foreigners from Western Europe to come to Russia.
■​ A number of Western Europeans came to Russia and created education
institutions.
■​ Patrick Leopold Gordon began to modernize what had been a very feudal
army.

●​ The Great Northern War 1700-1721

○​ Swedish King Charles XII has started creating a Swedish Empire. A lot of smaller
countries want to check his power.
○​ Russia entered into the Great Northern War in order to check Sweden’s power and
procure a warm water port in the Baltic sea: St. Petersburg.
■​ Allowed Russia to play a part in the mercantilist economy of Europe.

REVIEW: ________________ of Austria centralized control by __________________ with the

nobility. He also sought the advice of foreigners, and entrusted _______________ ______
______________ with his military. After the ______________ _________ of ______________,
Leopold expressed his thanks to the Duke of _______________ for loaning him troops by
naming _____________ _______________ _______ King of ______________.

Under Frederick William I, the Prussian state revolved entirely around the
__________________, although he never started a war. He also modernized
____________________, to ensure that the Prussian population would not go hungry in times of
famine. Under ________________ ______ ________________, the Prussian state prioritized
modernization, and tariffs were allocated towards ______________________ development
(roads, bridges, etc.). He also forced Prussians to plant ________________, which would feed
the country in times of famine. Both Prussian monarchs embraced _____________ toleration.

______________ _____ _____________ of Russia was very concerned with Westernization. He

forced the ______________, or Russian nobility, to educate their sons in Western Europe, shave
their ___________, and forced noble women to stop wearing ___________. He also weakened
the __________________ of the Russian Orthodox Church by replacing him with a committee
of _______ bishops. _______________ ________________ ______________, a soldier from
Austria, became a Russian general and began modernizing what had been a very ________ army.
In the early eighteenth century, Peter entered the ____________ _________________ ________
against ______________ to procure a warm water port on the Baltic sea: _____
__________________.

Alternatives to Absolutism

●​ United Dutch Provinces

○​ Originally eleven different principalities and part of the HRE.
○​ Charles V gave the Netherlands to his son, Philip II so that he could protect
against influence from Britain.
○​ The Netherlands named William of Orange their King, although he existed
primarily for military purposes to unite the provinces against Philip II. They set
up a system that maintained local control and limited the power of the King to
influence the governance of local provinces.
○​ The Netherlands ultimately declares independence as the United Dutch Provinces.
○​ There are a lot of Calvinists in the Dutch Provinces, so too much power is never
rested in the hands of William of Orange.
○​ Checks the power of Louis XIV on several occasions → allows them to create an
empire by sea (MERCANTILISM).
○​ Set up a political model that never allowed the King to have too much power.
○​ Calvinists in the Netherlands wanted local control of governance (strongly resist
monarchy and especially absolute monarchy).
○​ Provinces were governed by regents.
○​ King is the head of the States General. Each province sent a representative to the
States General to plan out government with the King – called a Stadtholder.
Primarily managed foreign affairs and defense.
○​ There weren’t monopolies in the Netherlands, and thus the middle class could
remain strong. Prices of goods and services remained low, while standard of
living went up.
○​ The United Dutch Provinces had the highest standard of living in all of Europe.
○​ In the Netherlands, wealthy middle class citizens were known as Burghers.
○​ Amsterdam was the Manhattan of the Netherlands → rose to the peak of
prosperity and completely took over Portuguese wealth.

●​ Sweden
○​ Gustavus Adolphus fought on the side of the Provinces during the 30 Years War
and died.
 ○​ The Great Northern War saw Norway, Denmark, Poland and Russia team up
against Sweden (Peter the Great wanted a warm water port.
○​ Charles XII (absolutist king) dies in the Great Northern War and has no heir. His
sister announces that she is taking the throne.
○​ For a period of time during the Great Northern War, Charles XII was held captive
in Turkey. During this time, the nobility took control of the government.
○​ When his sister came to power, she was forced to sign a constitution that limited
the power of the monarch and created a system of shared power between the
nobility and the monarch → development of a Swedish parliament made up of
nobles (Riksdag).

●​ Poland
○​ Country furthest away from absolutism in Europe. POLAR OPPOSITE of
absolutism.
○​ Nobility were fiercely independent.
○​ A king was elected from a series of nobles for the sole purpose of uniting for
military purposes.
■​ King could not collect taxes without the unanimous authority of every
single noble in Poland.
■​ King could not form a bureaucracy unless the nobles unanimously
approved of it.
○​ Because there was not a strong central power in Poland, it was ultimately invaded
and partitioned in the latter part of the 18th century.

REVIEW: Provinces in the United Dutch Provinces were governed by ___________, while the
power of the King was greatly limited. The King headed the ___________ ___________, a body
composed of _________________, or representatives from each of the 11 provinces, which met
to discuss foreign policy and defense. The limited central government allowed the Dutch
economy to flourish, and it had the highest _____________ ____ ______________ in all of
Europe. In the Netherlands, wealthy middle class citizens were known as ________________.

________________ ______ died in the Great Northern War, and while being held captive in
____________, nobles were able to take over the government. When his sister came to power,
she was forced to sign a _________________ that limited the power of the monarch and set up a
parliament of nobles known as the _______________.

In Poland, the King was elected from a series of ___________, and served only to unite the
nation for ____________ purposes.

The Interregnum and Oliver Cromwell

●​ CONTEXT: English civil war → rise of Oliver Cromwell and the beheading of Charles I
→ Parliament purges moderates → rump parliament

●​ Interregnum (time without king)

○​ Commonwealth period: 1649 - 1652
■​ Oliver Cromwell is still leading the Puritan military.
■​ Rebellions in response to the beheading of the king in England.
■​ Pockets of Catholics in England were not tolerated at all.
■​ Ireland was a Catholic ethnic group. Cromwell aimed to wipe out
Catholics and brutally put down rebellions in Ireland → 40% of Irish
killed off (genocide).
■​ The Commonwealth did not quite work (conflict between Cromwell and
Parliament over governance) → the military took over and wrote a
Constitution (Instrument of Government), making Oliver Cromwell the
head of a new Parliament.
○​ Protectorate 1653-1658
■​ Martial law (military keeps order).
■​ Instrument of Government is ignored
■​ Cromwell goes by the title of Lord Protector
■​ Council of States is dismissed
■​ Disbanded Parliament (echoing the ways of James and Charles I).
■​ Tried to bring about a perfect society (theocracy).
■​ Outlawed dancing and theater (major cultural element of England).
■​ Gambling and card playing is outlawed.
■​ Sporting events were outlawed.
■​ Censored the press.
○​ When Cromwell died, his son, Richard Cromwell came to power. This did not
work out so well (Dicky was not about that life) and he brought Parliament back.

●​ Difference between an absolutist monarchy and a dictator

○​ Characteristics of a dictator:
■​ One leader
■​ Absence of individual freedom
■​ Totalitarian state: Government controls all aspects of society
■​ Demonization of some particular group of people
■​ Dictator wants to bring about a perfect society
■​ DOES NOT INHERIT THE THRONE
REVIEW: The __________________ refers to the period in which England was without a King.
The period from 1649-1652 is known as the ________________ period, when _____________
_________________ led the Puritan military. ____________________ in England and Ireland
were not tolerated at all, and around 40% of ___________ citizens were killed off by the Puritan
military. When Cromwell decided that he could no longer cooperate with the Rump Parliament,
he dissolved the body and wrote the _________________ ______ ___________, which gave
Cromwell the title of ______________ ____________________. This period of the Interregnum
was known as the ___________________, when the country was ruled by ____________ law
and theater, dancing, sporting events, and gambling was outlawed. When Olvier died, his son
_______________ Cromwell came to power, and eventually reinstated Parliament.

Glorious Revolution

●​ CONTEXT:
○​ Richard Cromwell’s rule did not work out, England brought back Parliament.
○​ Charles I had several sons. Those sons go to Holland and live there throughout the
Interregnum.

●​ Charles II
○​ 1558 Act of Uniformity: outlawed non-conformists (Catholics and Puritans) to
worship publicly, teach their faith, or attend English universities. Brought back
the Church of England → Puritans left (fled to the Americas).
○​ Restored Parliament in 1661 - Cavalier Parliament (Royalists).
○​ Unlike his father in that he knew how to work with Parliament.
○​ Wipes away Puritan society: brought back theaters, pubs, etc.
○​ Realized that he could not repeat his father’s mistakes.
○​ Very popular among the people.
○​ BUT Charles had no heir, which would mean that the throne would pass to his
CATHOLIC brother → leads to the development of the Whigs and the Tories.

●​ Parliament splits
○​ The Tories wanted to support Charles II because he was such a big improvement
from previous rulers.
○​ The Whigs realized that he was the son of Charles I and had some Catholic
tendencies but MOST IMPORTANTLY they did not like his brother.
○​ The Whigs and the Tories begin to work together to limit the power of the
monarch in order to ensure that, if power were to be passed over to James, his
power would be limited:
 ■​ 1661 - Test Act: Made it so that no positions could be filled in the
Bureaucracy by a person who has not taken Holy Communion in the
Anglican Church (ensured an entirely Anglican government).
■​ Habeas Corpus Act: Charles I and James I liked to imprison people
arbitrarily for speaking out against the monarchy. This act allowed any
imprisoned person to obtain a writ of Habeas Corpus to be reviewed by a
jury (couldn’t imprison people for no reason).

●​ James II
○​ Only ruled for three years
○​ Introduced Catholics into the high command of the navy and the army, violating
the test act.
○​ Kept a standing army outside of London to intimidate people.
○​ Surrounded himself with Catholic advisors and did a number of things to attack
the Anglican Church.
○​ Passed a law that gave him the power to suspend the Acts of Parliament.
○​ When James II has a son, it looks like England is on its way to having another
Catholic monarchy.

●​ Glorious Revolution 1688

○​ Parliament encourages James II’s daughter (Mary, raised protestant and married to
a Dutch King William III of Orange) to assume the throne of England.
○​ They first have to agree to a document that will limit their power, known as the
English Bill of Rights.
■​ King could not suspend the acts of parliament
■​ King was subject to the laws of England
■​ King must be Protestant
■​ No King could take the throne without the approval of Parliament.
■​ No taxes levied or standard army maintained during peacetime without
Parliament’s consent
■​ Freedom of speech: Parliamentarians are granted freedom of speech.
○​ William and Mary agree and bring their military over to England.
○​ James II flees → “Bloodless Revolution”
○​ England becomes a state where the Parliament is sovereign, not the king.

REVIEW: ___________ _____ was restored to the throne of England after ____________
____________ resigned. In 1558, he passed the ________ _____ __________________, which
outlawed public practice of Catholicism and Protestantism. In 1661, he restored the
_______________ Parliament composed of ________________. The King was very popular
among the people, but had no ___________. Parliament ultimately split into two factions: the
_________, who were hesitant to support Charles’s rule because he had no heir and they did not
like his Catholic brother, and the ___________, who supported Charles I because he was such a
big improvement from previous rulers. Parliament worked to create measures that would limit
the power of James II if he came to power. In 1661, Parliament passed the __________ ______,
which would ensure an entirely Anglican Parliament, and in 1667 the _____________
____________ Act, which would end arbitrary imprisonment.

James II comes to power for ______ years, during which time he reinstated Catholicism and
violated multiple acts of Parliament. Parliament encourages James II’s Protestant daughter,
__________, and her husband _______________ ______ _________________ to sign a
document known as the ____________ _______ _____ _____________ and assume the throne
of England. When they arrive in Britain with their military, James II flees immediately. The
Glorious Revolution, therefore, is also known as the ___________________ Revolution.

Baroque Art (late 1500s - 1700s)

●​ Overview
○​ Came about during the wars of religion
○​ Protestantism has taken root in Northern Europe. There were different types of
Baroque art coming from these regions.
○​ Center of art moves from Rome to Paris.
■​ Wealth during the reign of Louis XIV → development of art.
○​ DRAMA - not subtle in any way.

●​ Italy
○​ Counter reformation art
○​ Very elaborate, detailed, and dramatic. Glorified the Catholic Church.
○​ Rome had been a hub of art during the Renaissance.
○​ Attempts at a revival of Catholic unity in Europe are reflected in Italian art.
○​ Gian Lorenzo Bernini: Ecstasy of Saint Teresa
■​ Sculptural interpretation of Saint Teresa’s diary. She felt an overwhelming
ecstasy from God, like an arrow piercing her heart.
■​ Highlights very devoted Catholics.

●​ Spain
○​ Spanish Baroque art has a great emphasis on the power of monarchs.
○​ Captured both Catholic and secular themes.
○​ Diego Velázquez: Las Meninas
 ■​ Lighting is very dramatic.
■​ Not Catholic in nature, it is secular in nature.
■​ Honors the power of the monarch, but also honors himself.

●​ France
○​ Baroque art highlights absolute monarchs (particularly Louis XIV).
○​ Focused on the power of monarchs.
○​ Versailles: Began in 1669
■​ Hall of mirrors: long hall with mirrors on one wall and windows/glass on
the other
■​ Emphasized the grandeur of Louis XIV (he was painted on the ceiling).
■​ Made use of light -dramatism.

●​ Dutch
○​ The Dutch were protestant and had a large middle class (booming economy).
○​ Dutch Baroque artists painted art that highlighted the middle class because the
middle class had money.
○​ There was an avoidance of religious art. There was a large population of
Calvinists who wanted to avoid any form of idolatry.
○​ Johannes Vermeer: Girl With the Pearl Earring
■​ Anonymous girl with a pearl earring → shows that she had wealth.
■​ Use of lighting: dark background contrasts with light.
■​ Showed that the Dutch had a thriving economy with a strong middle class.
■​ Highlights the Dutch economy.

REVIEW: Baroque art was centered around ________________. In Italy, Baroque art developed
in reaction to the _________________ _____________________. Italian artists like
________________ used their art to glorify the __________________ ______________.
Spanish Baroque art often captured both ____________________ and ________________
themes. Spanish artists like _____________ ___________________ glorified the power of
__________________. Baroque art in France glorified the power of _______________. An
example of Baroque architecture is the ______________ _______ _______________ in
Versailles, which emphasized the grandeur of Louis XIV. Dutch Baroque art highlighted the
___________ ____________. An example of a Dutch Baroque artist is ________________
__________________, who painted “Girl With the Pearl Earring.”
Scientific, Philosophical, and Political
Developments - 18th century

Roots of the Enlightenment

●​ CONTEXT Renaissance (shift from religious worldview to secular worldview) →

Scientific Revolution (understanding based on observation) → ideas of the Scientific
Revolution are applied to society in the Enlightenment.
○​ Society based on reason
○​ Development of Deism (idea that God is more of a cosmic force that created that
universe but does not intervene in the universe - clockmaker).

●​ Isaac Newton
○​ 1687: Wrote Principia, which argued that the universe was governed by universal
laws. Defines “natural laws.”
○​ If there are laws of nature that govern the universe, might there be natural laws
that govern society?

●​ France
○​ Embrace of science in France meant that it allowed for the development of the
Enlightenment.
○​ France was a lot more intellectually liberal than the rest of Europe

●​ Overarching Ideas of the Enlightenment

○​ General distrust of tradition and organized religion
○​ Society can improve as risks are taken and new things are tried
○​ Humanity is inherently good.
○​ Life on Earth can be good. Enjoyment of life is not just reserved for heaven.
○​ Humans should work to make for a good life and a good society.
○​ Renaissance was for few, Enlightenment was for everybody.

REVIEW: The perception of God as a “clockmaker” like entity who does not intervene in the
universe is known as ___________. In 1687, Newton wrote _____________, which spoke of
scientific laws that governed the universe. Similarly, the Enlightenment speculated that there
might be natural laws which governed _________________.

The Enlightenment and Social Contract Theory

 ●​ CONTEXT:
○​ In the past, absolute power of monarchs was based in the belief of Divine Right
theory.
○​ Europe witnessed the beheading of Charles I and nothing exploded.—> New
philosophy: Social Contract Theory

●​ Thomas Hobbes
○​ First social contract theorist
○​ Tutor of Charles I’s sons and saw the beheading of Charles I.
○​ Experienced English civil war and dictatorship of Oliver Cromwell
○​ Believed people were evil in nature and couldn’t be trusted to govern.
○​ Rejected Divine Right Theory, but thought poorly of human nature and argued
that government exists because the people allow it to exist.
○​ People give up their freedom in favor of civil organization.
○​ Advocated for absolutism.

●​ John Locke
○​ Wrote The Second Treatises on Government
○​ Witnessed the Glorious Revolution
○​ Believed that people are inherently good, and that people can together create a
government to protect natural rights.
■​ Rights which exist in the state of nature: life, liberty, and property.
○​ If a government does not protect the natural rights of the people, they should
revolt and create a new government.

●​ Jean Jacques Rousseau

○​ Born in Geneva and moved to France
○​ Agreed with Locke and Hobbes about Social Contract Theory
○​ Thought that people were inherently good and that civilization made people
corrupt.
○​ Thought that revolution was too bloody, and advocated for democracy.
○​ General will of the people should be the basis of government.

REVIEW: _______________ ____________ was the first social contract theorist. He

experienced the ________________ _____________ ___________ and came to believe that man
was inherently evil and couldn’t be trusted to govern. He rejected _______________
___________ ______________, and instead argued that the government exists because the
people allow it to exist. Unlike many other social contract theorists, however, Hobbes advocated
for ________________.
John Locke witnessed the _______________ _______________, and believed that humans were
inherently good. He wrote _______ _________________ ______________ ________
________________, in which he spoke of “natural rights.”

Jean Jacques Rousseau, born in ________________ said that ___________________ made

people corrupt. He advocated for __________________ to reflect the ______________ _______
of the people.

Enlightenment Philosophers (beyond the social contract theory)

●​ Rousseau (1712-1778)
○​ He wrote Emile, which said that education should nurture the natural curiosity of
the child.
○​ Thought that women should not be educated the same as men, and that they were
naturally inferior.

●​ Voltaire (1694-1778)
○​ Satirist, constantly exiled from France because his work commented on powerful
people.
○​ Champion of tolerance and deism.
○​ Thought that organized religion and suppression of free speech was the basis of
intolerance.
○​ “Crush the infamous thing” – intolerance & religious fanaticism

●​ Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755)

○​ Wrote The Spirit of the Laws, which advocated for separation of powers
(#threebranches)
○​ Saw weaknesses of the government in absolutist France

●​ Beccaria - Italy (1738-1794)

○​ Wrote Crime and Punishment
■​ Laws should exist to create order rather than avenge crimes.
■​ “It is better to prevent crimes than it is to punish crimes.”
○​ Called for an end to torture.
○​ Called for an end to arbitrary and cruel punishments.

●​ Adam Smith (1723-1790)

○​ Traveled throughout Europe and looked at different economic systems
○​ Saw that France was incredibly wealthy but the people were incredibly
impoverished
 ○​ Saw that England was not as wealthy, but the people had a much higher standard
of living.
○​ Said that governments should interfere minimally with the economy.
○​ Wrote The Wealth of Nations - invisible hand

●​ Mary Wollestonecraft (1759-1797)

○​ Major advocate of women’s rights
○​ Wrote A Vindication on the Rights of Women
○​ Called for a social order that was founded on reason to protect the rights of
women
○​ Argued that if women were given equal rights, society would be improved.

REVIEW: ___________ wrote ______________, which advocated for childhood education

which would nurture the child’s natural curiosity. He also thought, however, that _____________
should not be educated. _______________ was a satirist who championed religious tolerance
and ___________. He ended much of his writing with the phrase, “__________ the
______________ thing,” which referred to the Church. ____________ __________ wrote the
_______________ _____ _____________, which advocated for limited government interference
in the economy. Mary Wollestonecraft wrote ____ ______________ ______ ______
__________ _____ ___________.

How the Enlightenment is Popularized

●​ Denis Diderot
○​ Architect of Encyclopedia
■​ A whole cycle of knowledge that was known at the time.
■​ Hired experts (scientists, famous writers, liberal priests etc.) who wanted
to educate the public.
■​ First Encyclopedia was banned because it brought up topics that were
controversial at the time.
■​ Put on the Index of Prohibited Books.
○​ With time, the price of the Encyclopedia goes down. Greater degrees of
knowledge → greater degrees of change.
○​ Sales of Encyclopedia spread all throughout Europe as well as the United States.
○​ Encyclopedia was very effective in popularizing the Enlightenment throughout
Europe.

●​ French salons
 ○​ Meeting places, first used by wealthy women, where Enlightenment ideas were
discussed (women weren’t allowed into Universities, salons were a place of
education).
○​ Essentially 18th century book club/debate club.
○​ Madame Geoffrin: well known salon host.
■​ Known to be a great promoter of Enlightenment ideas.

●​ Coffee houses​
○​ Coffee became immensely popular in 18th century England.
○​ Not as exclusive as salons (a commoner could pay a penny for a cup of coffee).
○​ Coffee was considered an intellectual drink because it did not have the same
effect as alcohol.

REVIEW: The sale of ____________ _____________’s Encyclopedia was effective in spreading

Enlightenment ideas all throughout Europe. ___________, such as those run by Madame
___________ were effective in promoting the Enlightenment among wealthy middle-classes.
________________ were not as exclusive as salons, and further promoted Enlightenment ideas
among commoners.

Enlightened Absolutism

●​ It is: An attempt to embrace Enlightenment ideals while holding on to absolute

government and Divine Right theory.
○​ Centralization of power and uniformity of law
○​ Development of a professional standing army
○​ Promotion of religious toleration
○​ Aimed at strengthening the state
○​ Also called Enlightened Despotism

●​ Prussia - Frederick the Great (son of Frederick William I).

○​ Great admirer of the philosophes and Enlightenment ideals.
○​ Voltaire lived with Frederick the Great in his Prussian court when he was exiled.
○​ Emphasis on the economy.
○​ Outlawed torture except in cases of treason.
○​ Brought about religious freedom in Prussia (Deist).
○​ BUT:
■​ He implemented no changes to the social hierarchy
■​ Economy was highly centralized and mercantilist in nature
■​ Military sill dominated Prussia
●​ Austria - Maria Theresa (Great grand daughter of Leopold I, ruled 1740-1780)
○​ Her father, Charles VI agreed to a pragmatic sanction which allowed his daughter,
Maria Teresa, to take the throne at the age of 23.
○​ Frederick the Great of Prussia wanted to seize Austrian lands and dethrone Maria
Theresa: War of Austrian Succession.
■​ The Austrian military was strong enough to take on Prussia’s military, and
Maria Theresa is able to hold onto the throne, but does have to give up
Silesia.
○​ Maria Theresa reduces burden on peasants in order to ensure that she has a
healthy pool of recruits to join the military with the Robot Patent of 1771.

●​ Austria - Joseph II (ruled 1780 - 1790)

○​ Son of Maria Theresa
○​ Said that he had authority over the Church.
○​ Implemented the Edict of Toleration which ensured freedom of religion for all
non-Catholics in Austrian lands.
○​ Outlawed the robot and eliminated serfdom (Serfdom Patent 1781).
○​ These policies were so radical, many Austrians did not trust him.
○​ He became so paranoid that he wiped away all of his reforms and created a secret
police to spy on the Austrian people and ensure that there were no revolutionary
movements conspiring to overthrow him.

●​ Catherine the Great

○​ Married to Peter the Great’s grandson, who is ultimately killed in a coup against
the Russian Tzar.
○​ Pen pal to Voltaire, and made herself out to be very Enlightened.
○​ Created branches of government, but they didn’t have any real power.
○​ Pugachev rebellion
■​ Occurs in the region that is now Ukraine
■​ Led by Yemelyan Pugachev
■​ Wanted to bring about an end to high taxation and allow peasants to own
land.
■​ Catherine sends her military to violently crush this rebellion and publicly
humiliates Pugachev’s dead body.

●​ Seven Years War 1754-1763

○​ Austria wants Silesia back.
○​ Maria Theresa marries her daughter, Marie Antoinette into the French monarchy
(Louis XVI).
○​ France and Austria unite to take on Prussia, while Prussia unites with England.
 ○​ Does not bring about any change in Europe.
○​ ULTIMATELY: War of Austrian Succession → Seven Years War → French and
Indian War → American Revolution → French Revolution

●​ Partition of Poland
○​ 1772-1795: Catherine the Great, Frederick the Great, and Joseph II all make
secret plans to, over time, take portions of Poland for their respective states.
○​ 1772: Prussia and Russia invade and take large portions of Poland.
○​ 1790: Prussia and Russia take Polish Lithuania.
○​ 1795: Revolts in what is left of Poland → Russia, Prussia, and Austria take
Poland and divide it up amongst themselves.
○​ Very ANTI-Enlightenment, anti-social contract theory.

REVIEW: Frederick the Great of ______________ maintained a relationship with the

Enlightenment philosopher _________________. He outlawed _______________ and
implemented ______________ toleration, for he was a __________. ____________
______________ took the Austrian throne in 1740 due to a _________________ sanction issued
by her father. Frederick the Great saw this as an opportunity to seize Austrian lands and dethrone
Maria, beginning the War of ________________ ______________________. Maria is able to
hold onto the throne but has to give up ____________. Maria Theresa issued the _____________
_____________ of 1771 in order to reduce the burden on serfs and ensure that she had a healthy
pool of recruits for her army. Her son, _________________, later issued the _______________
_____ ____________________, which guaranteed religious freedom all non-Catholics on
Austrian lands. He eventually wiped away all of his reforms and created a __________
________ to ensure that there were no revolutionary movements conspiring to overthrow him.
_________________ _________ __________________ was a pen pal to Voltaire, and made
herself out to be very Enlightened. Under her reign, a peasant rebellion led by
________________ _______________ was violently crushed by the Russian military.

In 1754, Austria wanted ____________, the territory they had lost in the War of Austrian
succession. Austria united with ____________ to take on ______________, who then allied with
_____________.

In 1795, _________, ___________, and ____________ partitioned the state of ______________.

Economic Change, Capitalism, and Adam Smith (Mid 17th-18th Century Developments)

●​ England
○​ Role of a limited government played a large role
 ○​ England was a sea-faring country with ports around the world, and had the ability
to be an economic hub.
○​ Agriculture
■​ Columbian exchange brought new goods to Europe → population boom
■​ Scientific revolution → development of new technology
■​ Convertible husbandry: combined herding with crop farming (animals
fertilize soil to produce more crops, animals get better fed with more
abundant food).
■​ Movement away from the three field system → crop rotation.
○​ Population growth → more demand → greater degrees of opportunity to make
money WHICH YOU COULD DO IN ENGLAND COS THEY COULDN’T
CREATE MONOPOLIES.

●​ Agricultural Innovations
○​ Rising demand → innovative people seize on this high demand
○​ Jethro Tull
■​ Brought about a number of tools to increase agricultural production
■​ Horse drawn hoe: eliminated weeds and made soil more fertile.
■​ Seed drill: precise rather than random planting of seeds
■​ Effect of the scientific revolution

●​ Putting-Out System / Cottage Industry

○​ Peasant families had free time during the winter months when there was no
harvesting to be done.
○​ Raw materials (often cloth) → unskilled peasant families would manufacture the
raw materials into a product and PUT IT OUT in front of their cottage → artisans
would take the product to be sold in markets.
○​ Allowed peasants to have some supplemental income during the winter.

●​ Adam Smith
○​ Witnessed these developments in Europe
○​ Wealth of Nations was a strong attack on mercantilist ideology.
○​ Adam Smith traveled to France and compared French society to the ways of
living in England and the Netherlands.
○​ Met physiocrats in France, who believed that governments should not intervene in
the economy.
○​ Said that the wealth of nations should be determined by how well the people were
living, not how much wealth the King had.

●​ Capitalist developments
 ○​ Bank of England is established
○​ Banks will develop methods of using private savings to create loans.
○​ Joint-stock companies flourished because people in England HAD MORE
MONEY (no mercantilism).
○​ England serves as a market for finished goods and comes to control large portions
of India, Asia, and the Middle East.

REVIEW: Embrace of the Scientific Revolution in England led to the development of new
agricultural practices like __________________ _________________, which combined herding
with crop farming. This was accompanied by a movement away from the __________
__________ system and towards ____________ ________________. Other agricultural
innovations introduced by __________ __________, like the __________ drill, and the Horse
Drawn ________.

The ____________ ________ system allowed peasants to earn some supplemental income in the
winter months.

The 18th century also saw the development of ___________ - __________ ________________,
which allowed middle-class citizens to make joint investments and led to a flourishing economy.
Conflict, Crisis, and Reaction in the Late 18th
Century
Causes of the French Revolution

●​ Long-term Causes
○​ Enlightenment and social-contract theory
■​ Enlightenment ideas embraced in salons and coffeehouses
■​ Encyclopedia becomes popular among the middle class
○​ American Revolution
■​ France allied with the US to overthrow the British.
■​ French soldiers fought alongside US soldiers.
■​ Higher rates of literacy meant that revolutionary ideas from America could
spread among
○​ Economy
■​ Mercantilism was failing.
■​ Louis XVI was heavily indebted from the wars of Louis XIV and Louis
XV → taxation on commoners.
■​ Nobles were exempted from paying taxes.
○​ Class conflict
■​ Clergy made up about 1% of the population and controlled 10% of the
land.
■​ Nobles/aristocracy (both Sword and Robe nobles) made up about 30% of
the land but made up about 2% of the population.

●​ Short-term cause (spark)

○​ Famine of 1787
■​ Horrible harvests due to bad weather → massive food shortages
○​ Estates General - May 1789
■​ Medieval body composed of the First, Second, and Third Estates.
■​ The Perlement did not want Louis XVI to impose taxes on them.
■​ Louis XVI knew he needed to raise taxes, but realized that the
Enlightenment were too much a part of society to simply impose these
taxes without the consent of the people → calls the Estates-General.
■​ TRADITIONALLY: First Estate (clergy) was given 1 vote, Second Estate
(nobility) was given 1 vote, and the Third Estate (commoners) were given
1 vote.
■​ When the meeting got called in May of 1789, members of the Third Estate
decided they wanted to air some grievances and believed they should vote
 by HEAD rather than BRANCH → ultimately locked out of the meeting
place at Versailles.
■​ Third Estate + some members of the First and Second Estate (National
Assembly) → tennis court at Versailles and took the Tennis Court Oath:
We will not leave until we draft a new Constitution.
■​ Louis XVI agreed.

REVIEW: The “spark” that caused the French revolution was the __________ of ______. Louis
XVI called the ___________ ___________, and insisted on voting by __________ rather than
__________. This led the Third Estate to form a new ______________ _______________.
When they were locked out of the their meeting place, they relocated to a nearby building where
they took the _____________ ___________ _______.

Moderate Phase

●​ Rising tensions
○​ Word of what is happening at Versailles spreads to Paris (printing press,
newspapers).
○​ Rumors and fear start swirling that Louis was gathering troops to crush the
Assembly.
○​ Louis had just dismissed France’s popular Finance Minister Jacques Necker, who
had been trying to make reforms himself.
○​ The Great Fear: Massive peasant riot throughout France, where peasants rise up
against their feudal lords → brings about great degrees of instability.
○​ The National Assembly announced the creation of a “bourgeois militia" (aka the
National Guard). Immediately, many troops from the French military defected
over to the National Guard.
○​ The people of France (san-culottes) believe that they need to arm themselves, and
storm the Bastille, a Paris armory.
■​ Governor de Launey attempted to hold them off, but Louis did not do
much to help him.
■​ De Launey was ultimately executed and the Bastille fell.
○​ The Bastille was symbolic of monarchical power.

●​ August 4 Decrees
○​ National Assembly abolished feudalism
○​ All Frenchmen were subject to the same laws
○​ Everybody was taxed equally
○​ Anybody was allowed to be involved in the government.
 ○​ IN REALITY: Serfs went from having to pay feudal dues to paying rent.

●​ Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen - August 26

○​ The National Assembly spent the summer of 1789 trying to write a Constitution,
and ultimately didn't come up with anything.
○​ At the end of the summer, members of the National Assembly have to return
○​ The Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen is a promise to the French public
that a Constitution will be drafted.
○​ The document reflected ideals of Enlightenment philosophers
○​ Later, Olympe de Gouges wrote the Declaration on the Rights of Women and the
Female Citizen.

●​ Women’s March to Versailles 1789

○​ Bread shortages and famine became so extreme in the Winter of 1789
○​ Women of Paris march to Versailles demanding the grain that the monarchs were
hoarding.
○​ Killed several guards and put their heads on pikes.
○​ Louis is forced to accept the Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen.
○​ Monarchs are forcibly relocated to Paris so that the National Assembly can keep a
close eye on them.

●​ Civil Constitution of the Clergy 1790

○​ Made the Catholic Church a branch of the new government that did not yet exist.
○​ Demanded that all French clergy would swear allegiance to the state over the
Pope.
○​ Eliminated the “tithe” (tax peasants were supposed to pay to the Church).
○​ A lot of devout Catholics did not like this → created a basis of anti-revolutionary
sentiment.

●​ Flight to Varennes
○​ Louis XIV and Marie Antoinette are not happy with the fact that they have no
power and attempt to flee Austria.
○​ They are captured before crossing the border into safe territory, and are brought
back to Paris → increasing tensions→ royal family is put on house arrest
○​ The royals lost the trust of the National Assembly
○​ Declaration of Pillnitz: Austria and Prussia swear allegiance to Louis & restore
French monarchy.

●​ Constitution of 1791
 ○​ The National Assembly speculates that Louis is plotting with Austria against
France. NA votes to suspend the monarchy and draft a new Constitution.
○​ Creates three branches of government, but the legislative branch is far more
powerful than the executive branch (Louis XVI).
○​ Louis had the power to veto, but his veto only suspended a law from going into
effect for four years. It would eventually go into effect.
○​ Legislature was elected for LIFE (sorry Rousseau).
○​ Limited voting power to people who could afford to pay taxes (middle class).
○​ Louis XIV forcibly ratifies this constitution

●​ War: 1792
○​ French aristocrats found their power threatened by the revolution, and began
fleeing France to find refuge in other parts of Europe (Émigrés) → surrounding
nations began to fear that revolutionary ideas would take hold in their own
countries.
○​ France preemptively declared war on Austria
○​ Prussia allied with Austria → Duke of Brunswick says that he will level France if
anything happened to the King.

REVIEW: Rumors started swirling in Paris about a plot to overthrow the National Assembly.
This fear only heightened when Louis dismissed popular finance minister ___________
____________. Meanwhile, a phenomenon known as the ____________ ____________
occurred throughout rural areas, where peasants rose up against their feudal lords, bringing about
great degrees of instability. The people thought that they needed to arm themselves, and the
National Assembly announced the creation of a ______________ ____________. A radical
revolutionary body in France known as the __________________ stormed the Bastille on July
14, 1789. ______________ ____ ____________ attempted to hold them off, but was ultimately
killed.

On ______________ _____, the National assembly issued a series of decrees that abolished
feudalism, established equal taxation, and ensured that everyone was subject to the same laws.
However, serfs simply went from having to pay ____________ _______ to paying _______.

In response to the Declaration on the Rights of Man and Citizen, ______________ ______
__________ wrote the Declaration on the Rights of Women and the Female Citizen. The
__________ __________________ of the ___________ made the Church a branch of the new
government.

After Louis and Marie were capture in their flight to ___________, Austria and Prussia issued
the __________________ ______ _______________, swearing to restore the French Monarchy.
In 1791, the Assembly voted to suspend the monarchy and draft a new _______________.
Surrounding nations began to fear that revolutionary ideas would take hold in their own countries
and wanted to appease _______________, aristocrats who fled France. France preemptively
declared war on Austria in _________.

Radical Phase

●​ Jean-Paul Marat (1743-1793)

○​ Confined to a bathtub due to skin condition.
○​ Wrote Friend of the People which advocated for the violent eradication of anyone
suspected of opposing the Revolution.

●​ September Massacres
○​ Fear began to spread that Austria could free the aristocrats and they would enact
their vengeance on the people.
○​ Fearing those they had already imprisoned, mobs descended on Paris’ prisons.
○​ Aristocrats, priests, and others were tried and executed on the spot.

●​ National Convention
○​ The National Assembly had been divided into the Jacobins (radicals) and the
Girondins.
○​ 1792, the National Assembly voted to dissolve itself and create a more permanent
parliament called the National Convention.
○​ Jacobins are able to seize control of the Convention and implement a more radical
set of policies.
○​ Reordered time, saying that year 1 was no longer the year of Christ’s birth but
rather 1792 (“Era of Liberty”)
○​ De-christianization
○​ Documents discovered that point to Louis XVI conspiring with the Austrian
military
○​ A trial was held for Louis XVI in which he was found guilty of treason.
○​ The National Convention votes in favor of his execution.
○​ 1793: Louis is beheaded, later so is Marie Antoinette

●​ War Front
○​ France was initially able to push the enemy back. → more countries joined the
coalition with Prussia and Austria.
○​ The National Convention responded with mass conscription: any man aged 18-25
was required to serve in the army.
 ○​ George Danton made impassioned speeches to encourage people to join the armed
forces.
○​ → counterrevolutionary movements erupted throughout France: Vendee was the
most infamous of these.
■​ Throughout 1793, revolutionary forces clashed with the forces of the
Catholic and royal army.
○​ Revolts in the provinces combined with a declining economy and an intensifying
fear among radicals for the safety of the Revolution (thanks Marat) →
Robespierre called on the people to arm themselves.
○​ May 31st, 1793, moderates of the National Convention found themselves
surrounded by radical sans-culottes.

●​ Reign of Terror
○​ Maximillian de Robespierre establishes the Committee of Public Safety.
■​ 12 man dictatorship headed by Robespierre.
○​ Spies and secret police watched people closely.
○​ Over 40,000 people were put to death using the Guillotine if they were suspected
of dissent. This could include complaining about anything from bread prices to
using old ways of language.
○​ Danton was executed for suggesting Robespierre try to limit the number of
executions and end the war with Austria.

●​ Charlotte Corday
○​ Shocked with the radicalization and violence of the Revolution
○​ Charlotte blamed Marat for this. She visited him, claiming she had a list of
dissenters.
○​ Charlotte killed Marat and was executed.

●​ Great Terror 1794

○​ Executions reached an unprecedented level
○​ Even those closest to Robespierre found their way to the Guillotine if they dare
oppose his ideas.
○​ Robespierre began alienating himself from the rest of the Committee.
○​ He created the Cult of the Supreme Being, along with a new festival of the
Supreme being.
○​ Many began questioning the sanity of Robespierre, and he was completely
alienated from the rest of the National Convention
○​ Robespierre was sentenced to the Guillotine in 1794.
REVIEW: ___________-___________ ___________ wrote a newspaper entitled ____________
of the _____________, which advocated for the violent eradication of anyone suspected of
opposing the Revolution. Fearing those that had already been imprisoned, violent mobs
descended on Paris Prisons in what is known as the ________________ ________________.
With the establishment of the National Convention, the calendar was reordered, and 1792 was
named the beginning of the _______ ______ _____________.

The National Convention appointed the _________________ of ______________ ___________

headed by _____________________ __________________. The Committee established what
came to be known as the ___________ of Terror. _________________ ____________ was
shocked with the radicalization and violence of the Revolution. She blamed ________ for this
and ultimately visited his house to kill him.

When Prussian allied with Austria in the war against France, the National Convention responded
with __________ _________________, requiring any man aged __________ to serve in the
army. ______________ ______________ made impassioned speeches to encourage people to
join the armed forces. Revolts in the provinces combined with a declining economy and an
intensifying fear among radicals for the safety of the Revolution led to Robespierre call upon the
sans-culottes to arm themselves, eliminating the National Convention and establishing a
_______________ _______________.

The _____________ ______________ began in 1794, when executions reached an

unprecedented level. Robespierre created the __________ of the __________________
____________, alienating himself from the rest of the National Convention and eventually
leading to his demise.

Conservative Phase 1794-1799

●​ Thermidorian Reaction
○​ More moderate political group took control of the Convention.
○​ Radicals who had fueled the terror became the target of suppression.
○​ 1795: Thermidorians drafted a new Constitution and created a government called
the Directory (5 man committee).
○​ France under the directory saw a lot of instability.
○​ Royalists saw this as an opportunity to strike. Napoleon Bonaparte put down the
rebellion and became a General.
○​ Napoleon won battle after battle in Northern Italy and completely knocked
Austria out of the war.
○​ The new government was not very popular, but after returning from war,
Napoleon was very popular.
 ○​ 1799: Napoleon staged a coup, dissolved the government, and created a new
constitution that made Napoleon a dictator.

REVIEW: The Conservative Phase, also known as the __________________

__________________ came about when a more moderate political group took control of the
Convention. They drafted a new Constitution and created a government called the
______________. Under this government, France saw much instability, allowing war veteran
Napoleon Bonaparte to seize power in a coup d’etat.

Napoleon’s Rise to Power

●​ Coup d'etat
○​ Napoleon arrives in Paris amidst widespread instability
○​ He is a popular, well-known war hero, and is able to rally the support of the
people to overthrow the Directory in 1799.
○​ 1802: Napoleon proclaims himself the First Console and appoints a Senate.
○​ 1804: Napoleon names himself Emperor of France.
○​ Napoleon planned to implement numerous popular reforms. He asked the people
of France if they approved of the rule of Napoleon, and the people of France
overwhelmingly approved.

●​ Monetary reforms
○​ Creates a bank of France in order to regulate currency and protect that currency
against inflation
○​ Put in a system of tariffs and loans in order to keep certain industries and
infrastructure in place and keep the economy strong.
○​ Improved infrastructure greatly throughout France. Roads were built → more
employment for French people.
○​ Used funds from the French government to create food subsidies and feed the
French population.

●​ Religious reforms
○​ Concordat of 1801: allowed the pope to have control over the French clergy and
restored the original clergy.
■​ Napoleon wanted to get the Church on his side.
■​ Catholicism was declared the religion of the majority of Frenchmen.
■​ Eventually denounced by the Pope due to Napoleon’s religious toleration
→ Napoleon arrested Pope Pius.
■​ Made the French population happy by allowing for freedom of religion
whilst acknowledging Catholicism in France.
 ●​ Meritocracy
○​ French revolutionary ideal that embraces equality. People should hold power
based on their merit.
○​ Lycee system: Students would take a test, and if they passed they earned a seat in
a classroom where they would be trained for positions in government.
■​ People could get an education based on their talent.
■​ Ultimately led to the French University system.
○​ French legion of honor: ANY French citizen could be recognized for doing
something great.
■​ People could be recognized for achievements in science, medicine, art,
military, etc.

●​ Napoleonic Code 1802

○​ Napoleon's legal experts looked at all the various laws throughout France, and
consolidated them into one law code that embraced French revolutionary ideas.
■​ Equality before the law
■​ Freedom of religion
■​ Ending of aristocratic privileges
■​ Embraced many of the ideals that were represented in the Declaration of
Rights of Man and Citizen.
○​ Step backwards from women’s rights
■​ Women were not allowed to buy, sell, or inherit property without the
consent of their husbands.
■​ Women were no longer able to seek a divorce.
○​ Napoleonic Code was installed in every place that Napoleon conquered →
liberated serfs throughout Europe (initially very much supported by common
people).

REVIEW: Napoleon instituted several reforms such as the ____________________ of 1801,

which allowed the pope to have control over the clergy

Napoleon’s Dictatorial Nature

●​ Haitian Independence
○​ 1792: Haiti started revolting against French rule
■​ Led by Toussaint Louverture
■​ Louverture develops a constitution that grants citizenship equally to all
Haitians and creates a functioning government on the slave islands of
Haiti.
 ○​ Napoleon’s troops recapture Haiti and imprison Toussaint Louverture.
○​ Haiti ultimately gained independence in 1804

●​ Censorship
○​ The press in France was censored
○​ Freedom of speech was limited
○​ Political opposition was outlawed
○​ Enforced by a secret police: many who spoke out against the government were
imprisoned and often put to death.
○​ Many saw this loss of liberties as necessary to ensure stability (very Hobbesian
view).

Napoleon and Europe

●​ Battle of Austerlitz 1805

○​ Napoleon’s troops defeated allied forces of Austria, Prussia, and Russia.
○​ Forced Austria’s Francis I to cede Venetia to the French kingdom.
○​ First of Napoleon’s major victories.

●​ Battle of Trafalgar 1805

○​ Loses a major battle to Lord Horatio Nelson, effectively destroys Napoleon’s
navy.
○​ England stands independent of Napoleon and remains strong throughout the time
period → Continental system.

●​ Continental system 1806

○​ Tried to starve England into submission - cuts off trade with Continental Europe.
○​ Created an embargo against England: put in place laws that any ships that go to
England and then come into continental Europe will be seized.
○​ England responds by doing the same thing.
○​ Both Portugal and Russia did not comply with the Continental system.

●​ Peninsular War 1808

○​ Portugal did not comply with the continental system.
○​ Napoleon asks to go through Spain in order to invade Portugal.
○​ Napoleon invades Spain, sending 100,000 troops to occupy the capital city of
Madrid.
○​ May 3, The French military begins committing large numbers of executions of
Spaniards.
 ■​ Depicted in the painting “Tres de Mayo”
○​ → Begins a major Spanish resistance to Napoleon’s rule.
■​ Guerilla warfare employed by Spanish citizenry made it difficult to know
who was the enemy.
■​ The British see this as an opportunity, and begin sending weapons to the
Spaniards.
■​ Over about five years, the Spanish were able to push Napoleon and the
French troops out of Spain.

●​ Invasion of Russia 1812

○​ Russians avoid any form of direct contact with the French military.
○​ The Russian military burns crops and moves their herds Eastward, bringing
Napoleon's forces into a part of Russia that is very hard to survive during winter.
○​ As Napoleon reached Moscow in mid-September, he found that the city had been
completely burned to the ground.
○​ General Winter meant that Napoleon's troops suffered some losses.
○​ Russian military strikes and the French army suffer major casualties.
○​ French troops regrouped in Germany, where they suffered a decisive defeat at the
Battle of Leipzig→ Napoleon abdicated.
○​ Napoleon agreed to step down in 1814 under pressure from allied forces of
Europe. He tries to name his son King, but Europe says “no.”

●​ Fall of Napoleon
○​ Exiled to an island in the Mediterranean called Elba, where he will receive an
annual income of 2 million Franc per year.
○​ England, Austria, Russia, and Prussia install Louis XVIII on the throne of France.

●​ War of the Seventh Coalition/Hundred Days

○​ 1815: Napoleon lands on the shores of modern France and launches a comeback.
○​ Britain, Austria, Russia, Prussia, and Sweden declared war on France.
○​ Napoleon is brought to his downfall at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815 and exiled
to Saint Helena.

Congress of Vienna

●​ Objectives
○​ Bring France’s borders back to pre-1789 levels.
■​ Many small principalities and countries joined together to surround
France.
■​ One of these principalities is Piedmont-Savoy (Northern Italy).
 ■​ Switzerland and the German Confederation are created on the French
Eastern Border.
■​ The Netherlands and the Austrian Netherlands are United together.
○​ Restore as many of the old monarchies as possible: Legitimacy - only legitimate
royal families should be on the thrones of Europe.
■​ France: Louis XVIII.
■​ Netherlands: House of Orange → becomes more powerful
■​ Piedmont-Sardinia: House of Savoy is elevated into a monarchical role.
■​ Austria - House of Hapsburg (Ferdinand).
○​ Maintain a balance of power throughout Europe
○​ Make France pay.
■​ France was going to be occupied by Britain, Austria, and Prussia while
they paid off over $700,000,000 Francs → puts France in another
economic crisis.
■​ British, Austrian, and Prussian presence ensures that the French cannot
rise up again in another revolution.
○​ Diplomacy establishes long lasting peace until the outbreak of WWI.

●​ Key players:
○​ Klemens Von Metternich
■​ Host of the Congress.
○​ Britain
○​ Russia - Tzar Alexander I
■​ Given almost all of modern day Poland, and the
○​ Prussia - King Frederick William III
■​ Gains a small part of Poland as well as many German states in the
Confederation (300 principalities is whittled down to 30 principalities, of
which Prussia is one major state).
○​ France - Talleyrand

Industrialization and Its Effects

The Industrial Revolution

●​ Why England Industrialized first

○​ Agricultural Revolution → massive population growth → greater demand for
food and goods.
 ○​ Enclosure movement → many peasants unemployed → massive rural to urban
migration.
○​ England had an abundance of coal and iron.
○​ Canal system in England allows for easy transportation of goods.
○​ Constitutional monarchy in England ensured political stability.
○​ Parliament had an interest in promoting the economy, and created an environment
that fostered ingenuity.
○​ Britain had banks that allowed for entrepreneurship.

●​ Significant inventions
○​ James Watt: Steam engine
■​ Served as a method to pump water out of the mines → later becomes a
steam tractor, then a steam ship, and eventually the locomotive.
■​ Allows transportation to become incredibly more efficient.
■​ The railroad industry expanded and allowed for efficiency in
transportation like never before.
■​ Improvements in communications: postal communications can move
faster, development of the telegraph.
○​ Water Frame
■​ Developed in the late 1700s by Richard Arkwright
■​ Contracted labor in one location
■​ Used for textile production and had to be located near a source of water.
■​ Textile production grew exponentially in the early 19th century.

●​ Class divisions
○​ No longer will there be a major difference between the “nobility” and the
upper-middle classes.
○​ Middle class
■​ Growing slowly.
■​ Made up of educated professionals
■​ Began to have more leisure time during this time period → development
of parks, theaters, opera houses, sporting events, and the bicycle.
■​ Growth of mass marketing in newspapers. Middle class people often
purchased things through catalogs.
○​ Working class
■​ Factory workers in the cities
■​ The term “peasants” only referred to agricultural workers.
■​ Incredibly tedious work, often engaged in by entire families.
■​ Wages were barely livable.
 ■​ Incredibly long work days, highly crowded working conditions with no
environmental regulations

Industrialization on the Continent

●​ Crystal Palace exhibit

○​ Massive exhibit of British engineering and ingenuity.
○​ One of Britain’s first ever buildings made of glass (not stone).
○​ Created in order to flaunt British innovation and encourage foreign nations to buy
British products.
○​ Encouraged other European countries to begin the process of industrialization.

●​ German Confederation
○​ Congress of Vienna redrawing borders → German confederation created of 30+
independent German states loosely tied together so that they could check France’s
power.
○​ There is a lot of iron and coal in Germany.
○​ Frederick the Great had started the Bank of Berlin and encouraged people to take
out loans.
○​ HOWEVER: the German Confederation was disunited.
○​ Friedrich List: Economist and proponent of German nationalism. Said that, if
Germany was to become strong, they needed to be economically strong. Proposed
the creation of the Zollverein.
■​ Early form of a customs union: bloc of free trade with common external
tariff.
■​ Agreement among the 30 principalities of the German Confederation. List
wanted states to work together in order to strengthen the economies of the
German States.
■​ Encourage free trade within the German Confederation and impose tariffs
on foreign products from states like England.
■​ List was also a major proponent of the German railway system
○​ Zollverein allows Germany to industrialize quickly and EVENTUALLY overtake
Britain (later).
○​ 1876: Germany develops the internal combustion engine
○​ 1879: Germany develops the electric train.

●​ Eastern Europe: Austria, Hungary, Poland, Russia etc.

○​ Eastern Europe is very slow to industrialize.
○​ Mercantilist ideologies died incredibly slowly in Eastern Europe because the
land-owning nobility was very conservative and resistant to change.
 ○​ Congress of Vienna restored old systems of governance in Eastern Europe, while
many Western European countries held onto the Napoleonic code.

Life in the Industrial Cities

●​ Environmental problems brought about by industrialization

○​ Major source of power in the first half of the 19th century was steam power.
○​ Coal was the easiest resource to burn → creates an incredible amount of pollution
in the air, water streams, and plant life.
○​ Soot would coat everything everywhere.
○​ Industrial manufacturing creates a great amount of industrial waste, which would
be disposed of in rivers and waterways, contaminating drinking water → created
numerous health

●​ Overcrowding
○​ Cities were not prepared to deal with the influx of population.
○​ Manchester and London are prime examples of cities that were not prepared to
deal with all these people. Cities saw problems with:
■​ Housing (living spaces were incredibly crowded).
■​ Crime
■​ Prostitution on streets
■​ Public drunkenness
■​ Sewage and freshwater: already contaminated with sewage, but more so
with industrial waste.
○​ Led to the development of police to deal with crime.
○​ Led to spread diseases.
■​ Tight quarters and confined working spaces meant
■​ Lifespan in cities decreases DRAMATICALLY (30-33 years).
■​ Agricultural workers generally lived around 10 years longer than in cities.
○​ Created a need for government action to develop health regulations and
infrastructure.

Liberalism as a Response to Industrialization

●​ Characteristics of liberalism in the 19th century:
○​ Born out of the Enlightenment and the French Revolution
○​ Belief in checks and balances, anti-absolutism, representative government
○​ Freedom of speech and freedom of the press
○​ Middle-class male suffrage
○​ Originally there was a fear around universal male suffrage
○​ Embraced ideas of Adam Smith and the “invisible hand”
 ○​ Now called “classical liberalism.”

●​ Thomas Malthus
○​ He was a theorist who believed that population growth was getting out of hand,
and that it would eventually outpace food supply → lead to more poverty and a
low standard of living.
○​ Said that war and famine acted as population control, but now that there was less
war and famine, population growth could not be controlled.
○​ Said that the poor should stop having children in order to control the population.

●​ David Ricardo
○​ “Iron Law of Wages”
○​ Said that if you don’t have anything to sell in an economy, you sell your labor.
When the population is high, wages are low. When the population is low, wages
end up being higher.
○​ Higher wages → more births → more population.
○​ Justifying keeping wages low (very popular idea among the industrial middle
class because it allowed them to keep profits high.

Utilitarianism

●​ Jeremy Benthom
○​ Believed that the government had a role to play in the economy.
○​ Articulated the idea of utilitarianism.
○​ An invisible hand → completely unjust society.
○​ Believed in the greatest good for the greatest number of people.
○​ Said that distribution of wealth had become wildly unequal.
○​ Wanted democracy with greater degrees of suffrage.

●​ John Stuart Mill

○​ Wrote On Liberty which embraces ideas of freedom of speech.
○​ Talked about “tyranny of the majority”
○​ Advocate of women’s suffrage because he believed it would promote the greatest
good for the greatest number of people.

REVIEW: Theorists like ________________ ____________________, who theorized that

population growth was going to outpace food supply, and _________________
__________________, who believed in the ___________ law of ______________, argued that
the poor should have less children and that wages should be kept low.
_______________, which is the idea that society should aim to promote the greatest good for the
greatest number of people, was supported by Philosophers like _________________
________________ and ______________ ______________ _____________,

Socialism as a Reaction to the Industrial Revolution

●​ Characteristics
○​ Believed in more equal wealth distribution → there would not be a lower class
that would want to revolt.
○​ Wanted to create a system that valued social well-being over profits.

●​ Charles Forier 1772-1837

○​ Utopian socialist.
○​ Philosopher and witness to the French Revolution
○​ Saw economic competition as the source of evil because it caused people to
become greedy.
○​ Wanted to create a society where people lived in harmony and for the common
good.
○​ Advocate of women’s rights.
○​ Tried to create “utopian” communities based on these values (one in France and
one in the United States) → ultimately a failure.

●​ Henry de Saint-Simon 1760-1825

○​ Utopian socialist & Christian socialist
○​ Witnessed the French Revolution (renounced his nobility).
○​ Called for a society based on Christian teachings.
○​ Did not see industrialization as inherently evil, but that it needed to be controlled
with government planning.
○​ Believed society overall should work together with industry to provide the best
possible solutions for poverty.
○​ His communities were also a failure.

●​ Robert Owen
○​ Bought a number of cotton mills in Scotland.
○​ Created communities in a rural setting that had both farmland and industry.
○​ Paid employees fair wages, ensured leisure time for families, and put children in
schools rather than factories → created much more productive workers later on.
○​ Initially incredibly successful, but they ultimately fell apart.
○​ These ideas were later adopted by governments.
 ●​ Flora Tristen 1804-1844
○​ Feminist .
○​ Had an abusive husband and decided to divorce him, but had to give up her
children.
○​ She produced an ideology that called for better treatment of women under the law.
○​ Sought for French women to be legally emancipated from her husband.
○​ Believed that the working class could not be lifted out of poverty until women
were given the right to vote.
○​ Promoted the idea that all working class people should unite together in a workers
union to demand greater protections to the working class women and children.
○​ Considered to have a more realistic and logical approach than the utopian
socialists.

●​ Karl Marx 1771-1858

○​ Wrote the Communist Manifesto with Friedrich Engels.
○​ Talked about how the working class was abused by the industrial middle class.
○​ Said that the proletariat would eventually become fed up with the unfair system of
capitalism, and rise up against the bourgeoisie to seize the means of production
and create a classless society without private ownership.

REVIEW: While some utopian socialists like ______________ _______________ saw

industrialization and economic competition as the source of all evil, others like
_______________ _____ ___________________ thought that industrialization just needed to be
controlled by government planning.

Initial Responses to Working Class Demands for Change

●​ Peterloo Massacre: took place in a field (St. Peters field) outside of Manchester in 1818
○​ All workers in Manchester gathered in a field to protest the lack of representation
in Parliament (Parliament was set up to represent people in the countryside).
○​ Corn Laws: prevented imports of agricultural products from outside of England
→ raises food prices.
○​ Causes a lot of concern among the government, they think
○​ Calvary is sent in to make the crown leave, fifteen people are killed and hundreds
more injured → causes parliament to enact the 6 Acts.

●​ Six Acts 1819

○​ Conservative backlash to the working class demanding change.
○​ Seditious meetings acts: people couldn’t meet to discuss creating change.
○​ Blasphemous and seditious libels acts: working class people couldn’t
 ○​ → working class advocating for more change.

●​ Combination Acts 1799

○​ Outlawed labor unions, which were initially seen as dangerous and seditious.
○​ 1824: working class puts pressure on Parliament to repeal the Combination Acts.

Early Reform Movements

●​ Reform Bill of 1832

○​ Industrial working class were experiencing a very poor standard of living and had
no representation.
○​ While the working class did not have the ability to bring about this change,
factory owners and merchants in the cities started demanding representation in
Parliament.
○​ Meant to reform the lack of urban representation in cities.
○​ Only increased the number of voters in England by about 1% (wealthy middle
class, factory owners).

●​ Chartists: 1838
○​ Led by man named William Lovet
○​ Advocated for universal manhood suffrage, annual general elections, and secret
ballots.
○​ Wanted Parliamentarians to be paid.
○​ All of these demands were rejected by Parliament in 1838, but would later come
to be accepted.

●​ Anti-Corn Laws League

○​ Corn Laws: laws put in place in 1815 by parliament that placed high tariffs on
imported grains → benefitted large landowners because it raised the price of food
(especially bread).
○​ Wanted to expose English trade and agriculture to foreign competition.
○​ Becomes incredibly effective by 1846, when Corn Laws are abolished.
Disraeli and Gladstone

Disraeli is the conservative party leader and Gladstone is the liberal party leader.

●​ 1866: As Prime Minister, Gladstone introduced a Reform Bill to Parliament in order to

increase the number of voters.
●​ Reform Bill of 1867: Disraeli is picked to be Prime Minister, reintroduces the same bill
→ encourages working class people to vote for the Conservative Party because they
controlled the reform process. Increased the population of voters by 7% (men in cities).
●​ Reform bill of 1884: Extended the Right to Vote to people in the countryside.
19th Century Perspectives and Political
Developments
Early 19th Century -Isms

●​ Liberalism
○​ Supported Enlightenment ideals.
○​ Wanted to maintain the right to private property.
○​ Committed to the ideas of Adam Smith.
○​ Major proponents of religious freedom.
○​ Primarily middle class: well educated, property owners, wanted to make money
without government education.
○​ Wanted to make change with a legal, legislative process.

●​ Conservatism
○​ After the French Revolution and the Napoleonic wars, there was a widespread
fear among Europeans regarding instability, and many wanted to hold onto
tradition.
○​ Royal families and the landed nobility (people who had most of the power) were
the biggest advocates of conservatism.
○​ Prince Klemens von Metternich of Austria.
■​ From the time of Napoleon’s downfall until the Revolutions of 1848,
Metternich was a major conservative power in Europe.
○​ Edmond Burke
■​ English Parliamentarian.
■​ Said that good government could not be based on reason alone.
■​ Belief in the state and faith in the Church was necessary for good
governance.
■​ Argued that too much liberalism would lead to instability.

●​ Nationalism
○​ Rise in nationalism spread by Napoleonic wars in reaction to French expansion.
○​ Opposed by Klemens von Metternich and conservatives who wanted to maintain
legitimate monarchs and peaceful international relations.

Romanticism

●​ Characteristics
○​ Reaction to the Enlightenment, the French Revolution, and Industrialization.
 ○​ Embraced emotion over reason.
○​ Saw the Medieval period of Europe as a simpler, more pure time.
○​ Embraced nature, nationalism and revolution.
○​ Emphasized the dangers of science.

●​ “Tres de Mayo” - Fransisco Goya

○​ Spaniards fired upon by Napoleon’s forces during the French occupation of Spain.
○​ Emphasis on emotion.
○​ Man standing in a crucifix position: nationalism.

●​ “Slavers Throwing Overboard the Dead and Dying” - JMW Turner

○​ Emotion & irrationality.
○​ Blurred oil painting → lack of reason.
○​ Slavery outlawed in England in 1833, but some still engaged in it.
○​ Brought to public attention the horrors of slavery.

●​ Eugene Delacroix
○​ Embodies nationalism (“Lady Liberty”)
○​ Emphasis on the common people

●​ Beethoven - 9th Symphony

○​ Embraced a range of emotion
○​ Very popular among the middle class
○​ Serves as an example of romanticism in music.

●​ Mary Shelley
○​ Wrote Frankenstein
○​ Talks about the dangers of science going too far.
○​ Explores ideas of love, death, and nature.

●​ The Brothers Grimm

○​ Recorded as many peasant and local folktales to capture the essence of what it
means to be a German.
○​ Seen as a form of nationalism because these stories were unique to the German
people.

The Concert of Europe

●​ Introduction of liberalism
 ○​ The French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars introduced liberal and
nationalistic ideas to the European population.
○​ The monarchs of Europe did not like nationalism because they wanted loyalty to
the monarchy, and nationalism calls for loyalty to the people over the monarchy.
○​ The Concert of Europe was intended to crush nationalist uprisings.

●​ German Confederation
○​ Many young Germans had been advocating for a united Germany.
○​ Metternich calls all the major German states into a meeting, and they agree to
suppress nationalistic tensions.
○​ A series of decrees known as the Karlsbad Decrees were issued:
■​ Student associations were made illegal.
■​ University professors were overseen by curators to ensure that liberal
ideas were not being taught.
■​ Newspapers were censored to eliminate any kind liberal or nationalistic
messaging.
■​ Secret police units were formed to infiltrate and eliminate any kind of
liberal of nationalistic group.
■​ Example of how Metternich suppressed freedom of thought in Austria.

●​ Carbonari insurrections (1820s)

○​ Secret society who wanted to bring about constitutions and more representative
government.
○​ Austria controlled large portions of Italy at the time.
○​ Piedmont-Sardinia
■​ New country established in order to be a buffer between France and Italy.
■​ New Parliament begins forming an assembly and forces the King to
accept.
■​ Russia, Prussia, and Austria put down the insurrection.
○​ Kingdom of Naples
■​ Bourbon king named Ferdinand VII
■​ Dealing with an incredibly nationalistic population
■​ Ferdinand VII imposes heavy censorship on liberal ideology in Spain →
eventually led to revolts.
■​ With permission from the Concert of Europe, France sent troops to put
down the rebellion in

●​ Decembrist Revolt 1825

○​ Tzar Alexander I dies in 1825
 ○​ A group of military officers saw this as an opportunity, and rebelled in order to
create a constitutionalist monarchy.
○​ Tzar Nicholas I ruthlessly put down this revolt of military officers, and from that
point forward, Tzar Nicholas I pushed Russia to greater degrees of conservatism.

Revolutions of 1830

●​ CONTEXT: Monarchies of Europe ignoring liberalism and nationalism → boils over into
revolutions in the 1830s.

●​ Greek War of Independence

○​ Greece has been under the control of the Ottoman Empire.
○​ Beginning around 1814, we begin to see the Greeks rise up against the Ottoman
Empire.
○​ The Concert of Europe was supposed to oppose nationalism BUT Russia had been
dealing with the Ottomans for centuries and wanted to seize this opportunity to
weaken them.
○​ Britain, France, and Russia send their navies to the Greek peninsula to destroy the
Ottoman navy.
○​ 1830: Greece declares its independence, and Greek independence is recognized
by Europe with the Treaty of London.

●​ French Revolution of 1830

○​ King Louis XVIII kept the Napoleonic code in place and allowed for a
representative government.
○​ Embraced democracy in a very slight manner (only wealthiest could vote) in order
to appease the French people.
○​ Old nobles (émigrés) were returning to France and wanted to see the old system
put back in place (ultra-royalists).
○​ Louis XVIII’s son, Charles X came to power in 1824.
○​ Charles X worked to limit the right to vote, put the clergy back in charge of
education, closed the Lycees, and wanted to use tax money to pay the nobles for
their loss of land during the French revolution.
○​ Charles attacked the constitution of 1814 and completely ignored liberalism and
nationalism in his country.
○​ The 1830 election brought a liberal majority into the legislature → Charles X
dissolved the legislature, imposed strict censorship on newspapers, and created
new voting laws that would ensure a conservative victory.
○​ → REVOLUTION → Charles X flees → Charles’ cousin (Louis Philippe I) takes
the throne.
 ○​ Louis Philippe takes on a very liberal agenda: “Ruled by the will of the people,
not by the will of God.”
○​ Louis abolished censorship, replaced the Bourbon flag with the three-striped
French flag.
○​ Both the Concert of Europe and the French people allow him to take the throne
because he is both a liberal monarch and he

●​ Belgian Revolution
○​ Concert of Europe is distracted by what is going on in France.
○​ After the reign of Napoleon, the Austrian Netherlands (Belgium) was joined
together with the Netherlands, but did not consider themselves Dutch.
■​ The Dutch spoke Dutch, they were primarily Protestant, and had a
sea-faring economy.
■​ Belgians spoke French, they were Catholic, and had a primarily
agricultural economy.
○​ Belgians rose up against the Dutch because they did not want to be ruled by an
entity that was considered foreign.
○​ The Concert of Europe agreed to allow the Belgians to have a King, but not a
Belgian King.
○​ King Leopold I, cousin of Prussian Hohenzollern and married to an English
princess, takes the throne in Belgium.

Revolutions of 1848

●​ Long term causes

○​ Industrialization
○​ Population growth: economic turmoil
○​ Ideological changes: liberalism, nationalism, conservatism.
○​ Repressive measures used by monarchies and governments.
●​ Short term causes
○​ Major agricultural crisis (poor harvests)
○​ Irish potato famine
○​ Price of food skyrockets
○​ ENGLAND: lowers tariffs on food, and enacts reforms (Anti-Corn Laws League
effective in 1846, Reform Act of 1832, Combination Acts made labor unions legal
in 1824).
○​ A number of financial crises throughout the 1840s. Markets for manufactured
goods were weak —> employment rises to 40% in France

●​ France
 ○​ Louis Philippe is hesitant to expand voting rights to the working class
○​ Festival celebrating George Washington’s birthday in Paris is shut down →
revolts.
○​ Louis Philippe abdicated→ provisional government, socialists establish control.
○​ Louis Blanc opened up national workshops paid for with tax dollars
○​ Workshops are ultimately a failure → workers riot
○​ Conservative backlash → new constitution

Italian Unification

●​ Cavour became PM of Piedmont region, strong leader who Italy looked to in order to
push through unification.