1.

5 – Solving Quadratic Equations

Linear equations are first-degree equations like 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 = 0. Quadratic equations are second-degree equations like
𝑎𝑥 ' + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0.

There are four different methods for solving quadratic equations:

• Factoring
• Extracting Square Roots
• Completing the Square
• Quadratic Formula
Each of these methods is helpful depending on what type of quadratic equation needed to be solved.

Method 1 - Factoring

Example 1: Solve the quadratic equation by factoring.

A. 𝑥 ' + 5𝑥 = 24 B. 3𝑥 ' − 12𝑥 = 0

Method 2 – Extracting Square Roots

If a quadratic equation is of the form (𝑥 ± 𝑎)' = 𝑐, extracting the square roots method is easiest.

Example 2: Solve the quadratic equation by extracting the square roots. Display the solution as an exact value.

A. 𝑥 ' = 24 B. 2(𝑥 + 5)' = 40

27
Method 3 – Completing the Square
If a quadratic equation cannot be factored or is not in the form (𝑥 ± 𝑎)' = 𝑐, either use the completing the square
method or use the quadratic formula method to solve.

Although most students prefer to use the quadratic formula, you are required to learn this method because
completing the square is the foundation skill for studying conics in chapter 11 (circles, ellipses, parabolas, and
hyperbolas).

Example 3: Solve the quadratic equation by extracting the square roots. Display the solution as an exact value.

A. 𝑥 ' − 8𝑥 + 13 = 0 B. 3𝑥 ' − 6𝑥 − 1 = 0

Method 4 – Quadratic Formula2a

56±768 59:;
The roots of the quadratic equation 𝑎𝑥 ' + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 are 𝑥 = .
':

Example 4: Solve the quadratic equation by using the quadratic formula. Display the solution as an exact value.

A. 𝑥 ' − 8𝑥 + 13 = 0 B. 3𝑥 ' − 6𝑥 − 1 = 0

28
The Discriminate of the Quadratic Formula2a
In the next lecture, we will study the complex number system in which the square roots of negative numbers do exist.
56±768 59:;
The quanity, 𝑏 ' − 4𝑎𝑐, that appears under the square root in the quadratic formula, 𝑥 = , is called the
':
discriminant. The discriminat tells us the number and type of solutions.
• If 𝑏 ' − 4𝑎𝑐 > 0, then the equation has two distinct real solutions (example: 𝑥 = 2, 6).
• If 𝑏 ' − 4𝑎𝑐 = 0, then the equation has one real solution (example: 𝑥 = 2, 2 ⇔ 𝑥 = 2).
• If 𝑏 ' − 4𝑎𝑐 < 0, then the quadratic equation has no real solutions (but will have two distinct complex roots).

Example 5: Use the discriminat of the quadratic formula to determine the number of real solutions each equation
has.

@
A. 𝑥 ' + 4𝑥 − 1 = 0 B. 𝑥 ' − 2𝑥 = −4
A

29
30
1.6 – Complex Numbers

When solving quadratic equations in the previous lecture, we did not solve any that had complex solutions. For
instance,
𝑥 ' + 25 = 0
𝑥 ' = −25
7𝑥 ' = ±√−25
A number like √−25 is not a real number since there are no two numbers that multiply to −25. To make it possible
to solve all quadratic equations, mathematicians invented an expanded number system called the complex
number system. They first defined the new number
𝑖 = √−1
'
This means that 𝑖 = −1. A complex number is than a number of the form 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖, where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are real numbers.

Remember when working with complex numbers to simplify all square roots having negative radicands before
performing any operations like adding or multiplication: always do the 𝑖-part first.

Example 1: Write the complex number in standard form.

A. √−36 + 5 B. 3𝑖 − 4𝑖 '

Adding and Subtracting Complex Numbers

To add complex numbers, add the real parts together and add the imaginary parts by combining like terms.

Example 2: Perform the addition or subtraction and write the result in standard form.

A. (3 + 5𝑖) + (4 − 2𝑖) B. (3 + 5𝑖) − (4 − 2𝑖)

31
Multiplying Complex Numbers
When multiplying square roots with negative radicand, it is important to simplify all square roots before
performing any operations like adding or multiplication. Again, always do the 𝑖-part first.

Example 3: Perform the operation and display the result in standard form.
'
A. √−2 ∙ √−10 B. E√−50F

Multiply complex numbers like binomials using FOILing and/or the distribution property.

Example 4: Perform the operation and display the result in standard form.

A. (3 + 5𝑖)(6 − 2𝑖) B. (1 + 3𝑖)' − 4𝑖(2 + 7𝑖)

32
Example 6: Perform the operation and display the result in standard form.
AHIJ K5AJ
A. B.
@5'J 9J

Solving Quadratic Equations with Complex Solutions

When multiplying square roots with negative radicand, it is important to simplify all square roots before
performing any operations like adding or multiplication. Again, always do the 𝑖-part first.

Example 7: Solve each equation.

A. 𝑥 ' + 4𝑥 + 5 = 0 B. 4𝑥 ' − 24𝑥 + 37 = 0

33
34
1.5 – Solving Polynomial Equations

To solve a polynomial equation having a degree of 3, 4, 5, or higher,

• First: Factor out the GCF if possible.
• Second: If the polynomial has four terms, try factoring by grouping.
• Third: If the polynomial is a binomial of the form 𝑎𝑥 A ± 𝑏 = 0 where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are perfect cubes (like 1, 8, or 27),
try the sum or difference of cubes.
• Fourth: If the polynomial is of the form 𝑎𝑊 ' + 𝑏𝑊 + 𝑐 = 0, where 𝑊 is an algebraic expression, try quadratic
type.

Solving by Factoring Out the GCF Solving by Factoring by Grouping

Example 1: Solve the equation. Example 2: Solve the equation.

A. 16𝑥 A − 64𝑥 = 0 A. 2𝑦 A − 6𝑦 ' + 2𝑦 − 6 = 0

Solving by Using the Sum and Difference of Cubes

𝐴A + 𝐵 A = (𝐴 + 𝐵)(𝐴' − 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵 ' )
𝐴A − 𝐵 A = (𝐴 − 𝐵)(𝐴' + 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵 ' )

Example 3: Solve the equation.

A. 𝑥 A = 27 B. 3𝑥 A + 24 = 0

35
Solving by Quadratic Type
If a polynomial is of the form 𝑎𝑊 ' + 𝑏𝑊 + 𝑐 = 0, where 𝑊 is an algebraic expression, try quadratic type.

Example 4: Solve the equation.

A. 𝑥 9 − 2𝑥 ' − 8 = 0 B. 2𝑥 9 + 8𝑥 ' − 10 = 0

C. 𝑥 9 − 25 = 0

36
1.5 – Solving Radical, Rational Exponential, & Absolute Value Equations

Solving Radical Equations

When solving a rational equation, we had to be especially careful to check the answer for extraneous solutions.
There was a short cut to this process: we could determine the equation’s excluded values before solving, and if an
answer was one of those excluded values, it would not be included in the answer (since it was an extranouse
solution).

There is no such sort cut when solving radical equations. Therefore, we need to substitute each solution into the
orginal equation to check for extraneous solution.

When a radical equation involves just one radical,

• isolate the radical term on one side of the equal sign,
• square both sides of the equation,
• solve the equation using the various methods outlined in section 1.5,
• always, always check the solution in the original equation to determine any extraneous solutions.

Example 1: Solve the equation.

A. √3𝑥 − 1 + 4 = 12 B. 2𝑥 = 1 − √2 − 𝑥

When a radical equation involves just two radical,

• seperate the radical terms so that one radical is on the left side of the equal sign and the other radical is on the
right side of the equation,
• square both sides of the equation,
• isolate the remaining radical term on one side of the equal sign,
• square both sides of the equation for a second time,
• solve the equation using the various methods outlined in section 1.5,
• always, always check the solution in the original equation to determine any extraneous solutions.

37
Example 2: Solve the equation.

A. √3𝑥 + 1 − √𝑥 + 1 = 2

Solving Rational Exponential Equations

Think quadratic type when solving rational exponents equations. Check for extraneous solutions when the index
of the radical is even; no need to check for extraneous solutions when the index of the radical is odd.

Example 3: Solve the equation.

A. 𝑥 '/A − 2𝑥@/A − 3 = 0 B. 𝑥@/A + 𝑥@/Q − 2 = 0

38
Solving Absolute Value Equations
When solving an absoluter value equation,
• isolate the absolute value term,
• transform the absolute value equation into an equation devoid of the absolute value symbol using the following
property
• solve both equations (no need to check for etraneous solutions).

Example 4: Solve the equation.

A. |2𝑥 − 5| = 3 B. 3|4𝑥 + 1| + 9 = 6

39
40
1.8 – Solving Polynomial Inequalities

We have been multiplying equations by their LCD, factoring polynomials, solving compound inequalities, and
displaying solutions in interval notation in chapter 1. You might think these are random skills that have no
connection. Ha! In solving polynomial inequalities in this lecture and rational inequalities in the next, you will see
these skills come together.

Example 1 Solve the polynomial inequality: 𝑥 ' − 𝑥 < 6.

Step 1 Create a zero on the right side of the inequality. The inequality should look like 𝑎𝑥 ' + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 < 0.

Step 2 Temporarily replace the inequality sign with an equal sign and solve the equation 𝑎𝑥 ' + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0. These
solutions are called its key numbers.

Step 3 Graph these key numbers on a number line, drawing in dotted vertical lines through these critical numbers
to divide the number line into test intervals.

Step 4 Choose one representative x-value in each test interval and evaluate the polynomial at that value.
• If the value of the polynomial is negative, the polynomial will have negative values for every x-value in that
test interval; draw in small negative signs over the number line in this interval.
• If the value of the polynomial is positive, the polynomial will have positive values for every x-value in that
test interval; draw in small positive signs over the number line in this interval.

Step 5 Choose the key numbers’ x-values and evaluate the polynomial at that value.
• If the value of the polynomial is zero, write the number 0 over the number line at that x-value.
• If the value of the polynomial is undefined, write the symbol 𝐗 over the number line at that x-value.

Step 6 Write the solution set in interval notation, selecting the interval(s) that satisfy the given inequalities.

41
This procedure works for polynomial when factoring out the GCF.
Example 2 Solve the polynomial inequality 4𝑥 A ≥ 12𝑥 ' .

Example 3 Using the same world famous sign graph, solve the following inequalities.

A. 4𝑥 A − 12𝑥 ' ≥ 0 B. 4𝑥 A − 12𝑥 ' > 0 C. 4𝑥 A − 12𝑥 ' < 0 D. 4𝑥 A − 12𝑥 ' ≤ 0

Example 4 Find the domain for each expression.

A. √9 − 𝑥 ' B. √𝑥 ' − 2𝑥 − 8 .

42
1.8 – Solving Rational Inequalities

Solving rational inequalities is very similar to solving polynomial inequalities. The only difference is dealing with
the key number in the denominator.

AXHA
Example 1 Solve the inequality: < 0.
'XH9

Step 1 Create a zero on the right side of the inequality, simplifying the left side to a single fraction.

Step 2 Temporarily replace the inequality sign with an equal sign. Find the key numbers of both the numerator
and the denominator.

Step 3 Graph these key numbers on a number line, drawing in dotted vertical lines through these critical numbers
to divide the number line into test intervals.

Step 4 Choose one representative x-value in each test interval and evaluate the polynomial at that value.
• If the value of the polynomial is negative, the polynomial will have negative values for every x-value in that
test interval; draw in small negative signs over the number line in this interval.
• If the value of the polynomial is positive, the polynomial will have positive values for every x-value in that
test interval; draw in small positive signs over the number line in this interval.

Step 5 Choose the key numbers’ x-values and evaluate the polynomial at that value.
• If the value of the polynomial is zero, write the number 0 over the number line at that x-value.
• If the value of the polynomial is undefined, write the symbol 𝐗 over the number line at that x-value.

Step 6 Write the solution set in interval notation, selecting the interval(s) that satisfy the given inequalities.

43
 @ @
Example 2 Solve the inequality: ≥ XHA .
X

Warning! Do not cross-multiply to solve these types of inequalities. Although it is very tempting, you do not
know if the solution interval will create negative values for the x-expressions, and multiplying by a negative
reverses the direction of the inequality. If you do cross multiply, you will find that you consistently only get half
the solution correct.

X
Example 3 Find the domain of YX 859.

44
1.9 – Graphing Equations Using a Formula

The Coordinate Plane

The coordinate plane was developed centuries ago and refined by the French mathematician René Descartes. In
his honor, the system is sometimes called the Cartesian coordinate system. The coordinate plane can be used
not only to plot points but much more importantly to graph equations like lines, circles, logarithms, and cosine
waves. These equations describe the algebraic relationship between two different variables (usually). In the
coordinate plane we can draw graphs of these algebraic equations that allow us to ‘see’ the relationship between
the two variables and to help us create and interpret algebraic concepts.

• The coordinate plane consists of a horizontal axis number line and a vertical axis number line that intersect at
right angles.
• The horizontal axis in the coordinate plane is usually called the 𝒙-axis
while the vertical axis is usually called the 𝒚-axis.
• The point at which the two axes intersect is called the origin.
• The intersecting 𝑥- and 𝑦-axes divide the coordinate plane into four
sections. These four sections are called quadrants. Quadrants are
named using the Roman numerals I, II, III, and IV. The numbering begins
in the top right quadrant and moves counter clockwise. Never use the
Hindu–Arabic numerals 1, 2, 3, and 4.
• Locations on the coordinate plane are described as ordered pairs. An
ordered pair tells you the location of a point by relating the point’s
location along the 𝑥-axis (the first value of the ordered pair) and along
the 𝑦-axis (the second value of the ordered pair).
• In an ordered pair, such as (𝑥, 𝑦), the first value is called the 𝑥-coordinate and the second value is the 𝑦-
coordinate. Note that the 𝑥-coordinate is listed before the 𝑦-coordinate. Since the origin has an 𝑥-coordinate of
0 and a 𝑦-coordinate of 0, its ordered pair is written (0, 0).

Graphing Equations in Two Variables

The graph of an equation in 𝑥 and 𝑦 is the set of all points (𝑥, 𝑦) in the coordinate plane that satisfy the equation.
There are generally two different ways to sketch the graph of equations:
• use a known formula, or
• point plotting by construction a table of values.

Graphing Using a Formula

Using a known formula to sketch the graph of an equation is usually the easier way. Below are two formulae that
we already know.

Lines: The standard form of a line is 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏, where 𝑚 represents its slope and 𝑏 its y-intercept.
Circles: The standard form of a circle is (𝑥 − ℎ)' + (𝑦 − 𝑘)' = 𝑟 ' , where (ℎ, 𝑘) represents its center and 𝑟 its
radius.

You are required to scale both the x- and y-axes where necessary, sketch a neat graph, and provide accurate points
on the coordinate plane, especially the locations where the graph exits the coordinate plane.

45
Example 1: Sketch the graph of each equation.
A
A. 𝑦 = 9 𝑥 − 2 B. 3𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 7

@ ' @ '
C. (𝑥 − 3)' + (𝑦 + 4)' = 16 D. `𝑥 + 'a + `𝑦 − 'a = 1

46
Finding the Equation of a Circle
When asked to write the equation a circle, use the following coordinate geometry formulae.
Distance Formula: The distance from (𝑥@ , 𝑦@ ) and (𝑥' , 𝑦' ) is 𝑑 = 7(𝑥' − 𝑥@ )' + (𝑦' − 𝑦@)' .
Xd HX8 ed He8
Mid-Point Formula: The midpoint of the line segment from (𝑥@ , 𝑦@ ) to (𝑥' , 𝑦') is 𝑀 = ` '
, '
a

Example 2: Determine the standard form of the equation of the specified circle.

A. Center: (0, −5); solution point: (2, 1) B. Endpoints of a diameter: (1,8) and (5, −6)

C. Show that the equation 𝑥 ' + 𝑦 ' + 2𝑥 − 6𝑦 + 7 = 0 represents a circle by rewriting it into standard form.

47
48
1.9 – Graphing Equations Using Intercepts, Symmetry, and Point Plotting

When we are not able to sketch the graph of an equation using a formula, we instead use point plotting together
with the graph’s intercepts and symmetery.

The Intercepts of a Graph

The 𝑥-coordinates of the points where a graph intercepts the 𝑥-axis is called the 𝒙-intercept of the graph and are
obtained by setting 𝑦 = 0 in the equation of the graph and solving for 𝑥.

The 𝑦-coordinates of the points where a graph intercepts the 𝑦-axis is called the 𝒚-intercept of the graph and are
obtained by setting 𝑥 = 0 in the equation of the graph and solving for 𝑦.

Example 1: Find the 𝑥- and 𝑦-intercepts of the graph of the equation. Write the results as a coordinate (𝑥, 𝑦).

A. 𝑥 = 𝑦 A − 2𝑦

Symmetry in a Graph
Symmetry is when the sketch of a graph looks identical to its original sketch after being flipped or rotated.
Symmetry is thus a mirror image.

Line or Reflected Symmetry: A line of symmetry divides the sketch of the graph into two identical parts. The
line can be vertical or horizontal. The letters A, M and U has vertical symmetry
while B and K have horizontal symmetry.

Point Symmetry: When the sketch of the graph is rotated 180° it looks identical to its original
sketch. The letter S has point symmetry.

Symmetry is useful in graphing an equation since it helps you visualize the graphs of equations. It says that if we
know what one portion of a graph is suppose to look like, then we will also know what the remaining, symmetric
portion of the graph will look like as well. It therefore helps us to plot the points of an equation faster.

The three types of symmetry we need to recognize are 𝑥-axis symmetry, 𝑦-axis symmetry, and origin symmetry.
(See the diagram on the next page.)

In chapter 1 you will be required on some problems to show the algebraic check for symmetry with respect to both
axes and the origin, while on other problems you can do the check in your head. Read the directions of each
problem: if the algebraic check is required the directions will state so; if the algebraic check is not required the
directions will just state to determine symmetry with no additional instructions. After chapter 1, you will not be
required to algebraically check.

49
Example 2: Algebraically check for symmetry with respect to both axes and the origin.

A. 𝑦 = 𝑥 ' − 6𝑥 9 − 2 B. 𝑦 = 2𝑥 A − 𝑥 I

50
Example 3: First determine the intercepts and symmetry of each equation. Then use those characteristics
together with point plotting to sketch its graph.

A. 𝑥 = 𝑦 ' − 1

B. 𝑦 = 2𝑥 A − 8𝑥

51
52
1.10 – Equations of Lines

In this section we will find equations for straight lines in a coordinate plane.

Slope of a Line
The slope of a line measures its ‘steepness’ with a number and its direction with a positive or negative sign
(momentarily setting aside horizontal and vertical lines).

The slope of a line is determined depending on what we are given (e.g. equation, graph, or points), Below is a list
of the various methods for finding the slope of a line.
• Given an equation, put it into slope-intercept form: 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏. The slope is 𝑚.
fJgh
• Given a graph, count the rise over run: 𝑚 = .
fij
e 5e
• Given a line that passes through the two points (𝑥@ , 𝑦@) and (𝑥' , 𝑦' ): 𝑚 = X85Xd .
8 d
• If a line is parallel to another line, their slopes are the same: 𝑚@ = 𝑚' .
@
• If a line is perpendicular to another line, their slopes are opposite reciprocals: 𝑚@ 𝑚' = −1 or 𝑚@ = − .
k8

Various Forms of Linear Equations

In calculus you will be asked to display the equations of line in forms other than the slope-intercept form of 𝑦 =
𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏. Why, since slope-intercept tells you so much about the characteristics of a line? The reason is because the
slope-intercept form does tell you so much about the line. The multiple-choice section of the AP Calculus tests
wants to hide the slope and 𝑦-intercept information about a line! Sneaky them …

Form Role Equation

Point-Slope How to determine the equation given 𝑚 and (𝑥@ , 𝑦@ ). 𝑦 − 𝑦@ = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥@ )

Slope-Intercept How to display the equation. 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏

General How to display the equation. 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶 = 0

Note about general form:

• The values of 𝐴, 𝐵, and 𝐶 in general form are required to be integers (no fractions, no decimals).
• The value of 𝐴 is required to be a positive number. No exceptions.
• The order has to be 𝐴𝑥 first, 𝐵𝑦 second, and 𝐶 last. No exceptions.

53
Example 1: Write the equation of the vertical and horizontal lines passing through the point (4, −3).

Example 2: Write the equation of each line in (a) slope-intercept and (b) general form.
@
A. Passes through (1, −3) with slope − ' . B. Passes through (−1, 2) and (3, −4).

C. Passes through the point (5, 2) and is D. Passes through the point (0, 0) and is
parallel to the line 4x + 6y + 5 = 0. perpendicular to the line 4x + 6y + 5 = 0.

54