lb Forebrain (Prosencephalon)

The
forebrain consists of
1) (Olfactory Lobes
(Rhinencephalon)
The anterior part of the brain is formed by a pair of short club-shaped structures, the
These are concerned with the sense of smell.
2) Cerebrum (Telencephalon) olfactory lobes.
It is the It makes 80-85%
largest and most complex of allthe parts of human brain. which
A deep cleft divides the cerebrum longitudinally intotwo halves, are termed as weight
the
of the brain
cerebral hemispheres connected by a large bundle of myelinated nerve fibres called left and
right
Thecerebral cortex is Breatly folded. The upward folds, gyrl, alternate with the the corpus
which help in Increasing the surface area in cortex.
Avery deep and alongitudinal fissure, separates thetwo cerebral hemispheres. Each cerebral
downward callosum
grooves or sulei
the cerebrum is divided into four lobes, i.e. frontal, parietal, temporal and occipital lobes.
Carebrum Cenhn (o) hemisphere of

Mdoren

Hypothem
Pulery gland (Poné
Mndoran Medti -Splnel oord
ICerebelum
Kumen brin

Lobes of the Cerebrum

Cerebral lobes Areas Associated functions

Frontal lobe Promoter area Centre for involuntary movements of muscles
Motor area Controls voluntary movement of muscles
Broca's area Motor speech area
Parietal lobe Gustatory area Sense of taste, pain, pressure, temperature
Temporal lobe Auditory area Hearing
Olfactory area Sense of smell
Wernicke's area Understanding speech
Occipital lobe Visual area Sensation of light
In each cerebral hemisphere, there are three types of functional areas
(a) Sensory areas
(b) Motor areas
(c) Association areas
Deep within central hemisphere a collection of scattered grey matter with three
subcortical nuclei is present, which is
termed as basal ganglia.
It has three members, i.e. globus pallidus, putamen and caudate
nucleus. Together (putamen and caudate nucleus) Is
called as corpus striatum.
The basal ganglia helps to regulate initiation and termination of movements and
of skeleton.
also control subconcious movements
3) Diencephalon
It is the posteroventral part of forebrain. It encloses the third
ventricle which communicates with lateral ventricie
through a narrow opening called foramen of Monro.
Epithalamus is a thin membrane of non-nervous tissue. It is the posterior segment of the
pineal gland and habenular nuclei. Pineal gland secretes melatonin and diencephalon. It consists o
The cerebrum, wraps arounda structure called thalamus, which is a major habenular nuclei. is associated with oltactiol.
signalling. It is also connected with the limbic system. Hence, coordinating centre for sensory and mote
The hvpothalamus, that lies at the base of thalamus contains control
a
the emotion and memory.
urge for eating and drinking. It also contains several groups of number of centres. which control body temperatu
hypothalamic hormones. neurosecretorv cells, which secrete hormones Caie

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 MIdbral(Mesencephalon)
thalamus, hypothalamus of the forebrain and pons of the hindbrain. Acanal called
between the
he
midbraln
isslocated through the midbraln.
lequeductpasses rounded swellings (lobes)called corpora
ofthe midbrain mainly consists of two pairs (i.e. four) of
carebrl
dorsal
portion
he
Controls the movement of head in
collcult,receives impulses from optic nerves. The lower colliculi
qUsdtrlgemna,
of stimul,
ho
uoper r pair
auditory longitudinal nerve fibres called crura cerebri connect cerebrum. Cerebellum and spinal
sOonseto bandsofanterior
of
thlck
[Link] also forms RAS network which controls
muscle tone.
A Anctionas relay
pir

Llndlbraln(Rhombencephalon)
ord

brain. The hindbrain consists of

posteriorregion ofthe the brain and spinal
ttthe axis of brain and considered as a link between the upper portion of
PonsVaroll presentat
the
ts is medulla oblongata. It helps in the regulation of breathing movements.
dthrough the
second|largest part of the human brain
(means little cerebrum). Internally, the mammalian
grey matter), while
Cerebellumis the profuse ramifications of white matter into the
containsthe tree of life or arbor vitae (a
cerebellum sulci.
whole surface contains gyri and It control respiration,
externally,the
It is the posterior part of the brain that continues with the spinal cord.
obblongata
Medulla gastric secretions. plexus. Midbrain and hindbrain
ardiovascular refiexes and with overlying pia mater to form posterior choroid
iis associated
Theroofof medulla
o stem.
fornthebrain
SpinalCord TRANSVERSE SECTION OF SPINAL CORD

the CNS, running mid

DESCENOvG TRACTs

tformsthe posterior part of the vertebral column, In

ASCENDING TRACTS

of
Anrsally in the neural canal
Fosoios graclts

cord is about 42-45 cm long and 2.0 Fasciouus Cnetus

an adult, the spinal

broad.
to2.5cm two types of nervous sono

The spinal cord is formed of matter.

matter and white Lteral
tissue, i.e. grey
surrounded by white matter.
The grey matter is
Ventrolateral

divisible into two divisions.

AniaAs Latura rcunp

The spinal nerve tracts are

Ventral
spnoceebelar
impulses towards
ascending tract (conducting sensory motor Spinctectal
etospa

(conducting
brain) and descending tract Ventra sNanctanvc
impulses from brain).
(PNS)
I. Peripheral Nervous System
the body associated with the CNS. These are afferent
nerves or sensory nerves
nerves of
" The PNS comprises of all the
and efferent nerves or motor nerves. nerves transmit regulatory impulses
transmit impulses from tissues/organs to the CNS and the efferent
Afferentnerves
tissues.
from the CNS to the concerned peripheral
of both afferent and efferent fibres.
Mixed nervesconduct the function into two main types
the peripheral nerves are classified terminating in brain. There are 12 pairs
Depending on the connection to the CNS nerves arising from brain and
Cranial Nerves The cranial nerves are
tabulated below
of cranial nerves, which are
distribution and functions
Different cranial nerves their origin, Functions
Distribution
Origin
Numbers Cranial nerves Type
Smell
Olfactory lobe or bulb Nose
Olfactory Sensory
Retina of eye Sight
Optic Sensory Optic lobe on midbrain
Movements of eyeball
Floor of midbrain Four eyeball
Oculomotor Motor (extraocular muscles) iris, lens and eyelids

Floor of midbrain Superior oblique Rotation of eyeball

Trochlear Motor
muscle
(pathetic)
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 Distribution

Numbers Cranlal nerves Type

Pons
Origin
Functions
Trigeminal
Ophthalmic
Mixed
Sensory
Snout
Upper jaw
Lower jaw
Forehead,side,scalofp,
eyelid,
teeth,
up e
Maxillary
Sensory
nose and
Mandibular Mixed
Movemnent
and jaw of to ngue
chewing. muscles fot
Motor Pons
External rectus
Rotation of eyeball
Abducens

VI Facial
Mixed Pons Palate tongue and
taste bud Lower jaw,
Taste Facial expression
Palatine
neck and pinna Hyoid
chewing and
Chorda tympani movenent of neck
Hyomandibular
Pons
Internal ear Hearing and
Auditory (acoustic) Sensory
equilibrium
Mixed
Side of medulla Tongue, pharynx, Taste, touch and
Glossopharyngeal salivary glands movements
oblongata
(swallowing) of
pharynx.
Side of medulla
Mixed Larynx, Muscles of Vocal cords, lungs
X Vagus oblongata
Anterior laryngeal larynx Heart Lungs, respiratory reflexes,
Recurrent laryngeal oesophagus, stomach, peristaltic movements.
Cardiac depressor ileum, etc. speech, swallowing
Pneumogastric secretion of gastric
glands and inhibition of
heartbeat.

Medulla Neck Muscles of pharynx,

X Spinal accessory Motor larynx, neck and
oblongata shoulder movements.

Neck and tongue Movements of tongue.

Motor Medulla
XII Hypoglossal
oblongata
pairs of
to the parts of body below the head. There are 31
(ii) Spinal nerves originate inthe spinal cord and extend emerging from vertebral column enter the column and
after
spinal nerves in mammals. These spinal nerves
immediately divide into three mixed branches
muscles of the back.
Ramus dorsalis It is a short dorsal branch innervating skin or
branch innervating skin or muscles of ventral and lateral sides of the
Ramus ventralis It is longest ventral
body. sympathetic ganglion or C
Ramus communicans It is short branch that communicates spinal cord with
Description of spinal nerves
vertebral column
Group Number of pairs Region of origin from
Cervical 8 pairs (C- C¡) Neck

Thoracic 12 pairs (T, -T12) Thorax

Lumbar 5 pairs (L-Ls) Abdomen

Sacral 5 pairs (S, - S,) Pelvis

Coccygeal 1pairs (Co,) Coccyx

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 Roflens
Action and Reflex Arc
actlonIsthe involuntary functioning or movement of any organ or 0art of the bodyin response to peripneta
stimulation. The reflex pathway consists of at least one afferent neuon
tret6otor) and one efferent neuron
telector).
pathway taken by nerve impulsesin a reflex action is called
nervous reflex arc, e.g. knee-jerk reffex
The
of Reflex Action
ypes over the actlons.
bassof control
the
I yon
Cranlal
reflexes
brain
Carrled outby
slowaction response
watering of mouth on sight or smell of good food
OSoinal
reflexes
spinal cord
Carriedout through is required So
Urgency for response these are quick acting
e.g. withdrawal ofleg while stepping on something hot or pointed
prevlous experiences
on Unconditionalreflexes These do not require any previous experience e.g. sneezing, coughing, yawning,
Based
)
hiccuping.
Conditionalreflexes These actions are based on previous experience, e.g..swimming, dancing, cycling, etc.
to the number of synapses involved
AccordingSimple monosynaptic It involves only sensory and motor neurons, e.g. knee jerk reflex.
9)
swimming,
Complexpolysynaptic refexes It involves sensory internervous and motor or neurons, e.g. cycling,
etc.

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

IL. which automatically regulates the activities of smooth
discovered by Langley. It is the another type of nervous system
ANS muscles andIglands. It comprises of following two divisions
muscles, cardiac
System
[Link] generation (the fight and flight or fright response). It is formed of 22 pairs of
rocnonds tothe arousal and energy
either side of the vertebral column.
nnathetic ganglion linearly arranged on two sympathetic cords, running on post-ganglionic
are small, fibres are long and
ieconnected with CNS by spinal nerve fibre. Pre-ganglionic fibres(thoracolumbar).
nerves
adrengic, pre-ganglionic fibres come out along with spinal
eftect on most organs of the body except in the digestive and excretory organs.
thas excitatory and stimulating

2. Parasympathetic NervousSysten
X) nerves, sacral (l1, i) and spinal (IV) nerves.
.tconsists of the branches from the cranial (, VII, IX,
the effector organs. The pre-ganglionic nerves are long
. t consists of ganglia which are very close or within the wall of
and post-ganglionic nerves are short.
neurotransmitter as well as inhibitor of visceral organs.
These system release acetylcholine which act as a system. It brings back to normal, all activities
"Parasympathetic nervous system is antagonisticto sympathetic nervous
which are stimulated by the sympathetic system.
Comparison between sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system
Parasympathetic
Characteristics Sympathetic
Acetylcholine and sympathetic Acetylcholine only
Secretion
Decrease
Increase
Blood pressure
Dilate
Blood vessel to skin Constrict
Constrict
Pupil Dilate
Decrease
Increase
Heartbeat
Constrict
Relax
Urinary bladder
Increase
Decrease
Digestive gland
Increase
Gut peristalsis Decrease

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 Sensory Receptors
These are some speclalsed structures in the body to recelve the various stimuli from the
environment.
The most complex sensoryreceptor consists of numerous sense cells, sensory neurons and
external or internal
structures, e.g. eye (sensory organ for vislon), the ear (sensory organ for hearing) and associated daccessory
1. Eyes skin(touch, temperature)
These are located in the sockets of the skull called orbits.
The three layers of eyeballare
Sclera external layer of dense connective tlssue.
Cornea is the anterior portlon of this layer.
Choroid middle layer, contalning blood.
Ciliary body is the anterior thick portlon of chorold and it continues forward as pigmented
(visible coloured portion of eye). opaque
Lens is a transparent crystalline structure which is held in place by ligaments attached to ciliary body
Pupil is an aperture surrounded by iris in front of lens.
structure, iris
Retina is the innermost layer of eye. It contain three layers of neural cell namely ganglion
photoreceptor cells. It consists photoreceptor cells, i.e. rods and cones. cells, bipolar cells
Rods contain rhodopsin or visual
and
purple protein containing a derivative of vitamin-A. It
provide
(scotopic) vision.
Cones respond to red, green and blue light. It provide daylight (photopic) and colour twilight
light is produced when allcones are stimulated equally. vision. Sensation of
Blind spot Optic nerves and retinal blood vessel enter the eyeball through this white
cells. region. lt do not contain
Macula lutea Found at the posterior pole of eyes lateral to the blind
central pit, fovea. The latter contains densely packed cones only and spot. This yellowish pigmented spot contain > photoreceptor
is the point of greatest visual acuity (resoli tiest
Aqueous chamber is the fluid-filled space between lens and cornea, while vitreous chamber is
and retina. present betweon

Generation of Image
Light rays from outside retina Focus on retina Light induces dissociation of
retinal pigment, opsin

Nerve impulse transmitted to Stimulation of rod and cone cells

bipolar nerve cells and generation of nerve impulse Structure of opsin changes

Nerve impulse transmitted to Nerve impulse in the axons of

ganglion cells ganglion cells converge and Nerve impulse is transmitted
leave via the optic nerve by optic nerve to brain

Perception of image by the brain cells

2. Ear (in the visual area of cerebrum)
It performs very important function of hearing and maintenance of the
body. Ear is divided intothree major sectiorns,
which are as follows
External Ear
It consists of the pinna and external auditory meatus (canal). The pinna
inwards through the external auditory meatus leading up to the tympaniccollects
the sound waves and channel uie
Middle Ear membrane (the eardrum).
It contains tympanic cavity, which communicates with the
It contains three ossicles called malleus, incus and stapes, pharynx
by a
passagelike
which are attached called Eustachian
a chain tube. the efficiency of
and increase
transmission of sound waves to the inner ear.
Inner Ear
It also called labyrinth, which consists of two parts the
bony and
The space between the membranous and bony labyrinth is filled membranous labyrinths.
bya waterv fuid. perilymph and endolymp
The membranous labyrinth is divided into cochlea (main
hearing organ) and vestibular apparatus.
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 constitute cochlea, the Reissner's and
nembranes Hety
organ of
membrane. The Cortl is a sensory ridge
hesilar basilar membrane, which contains hair Artry
dontheasauditory receptors. Above the rows of
bcated
act
whlch
a thin elastic membrane called tectorial
Meles
cells, c cells is
hair
the
membrane. composed of three semicircular
Vestibular
apparatus,
consists of the saccule and
the otolith organ,
and
nals
utricle. apparatus has no role in hearing, but is
Vestibular gravity and movements.
nfuencedby swollen and is called ampulla with a Tmosnc
base canals is
eof called crista ampularis. Lobuke Caty
The |
projectingridge Middle tar
sacculeand utricle contains a projecting ridge called Spare
The
macula.
and macula are the specificreceptors of the
Thecristaapparatus, which are responsible for the
vestibular
maintenance of balance of body and posture.

Mechanisnm of Hearing Vibrations transmitted

External Ear Ear drum vibrates to ear ossicles and then
Sound waves
to oval window
Sound is recognised

Impulse transferred to The fluid of cochlea generate

auditory cortex of brain waves in the lymph.

Nerve impulse generated in Bending of hair cells press Basilar membrane ripples
afferent neurons against tectorial membrane

Disorders of Nervous System

These are disorders or diseases of the central and peripheral nervous system. These are broadly of two types as follows

LPsychologicalDisorders
Commonly called mental disorders are a wide range of conditions that affect the mood, thinking and behaviour.
These affect multiple areas of life and create distress for the person suffering from it.
For example, intellectual disability formerly known as mental retardation), autism spectrum disorder, bipolar disorder,
depression, anxiety disorder, ADHD Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder) and stress related disorders.

2 Neurological Disorders
These involve malfunction or damage of the nervous system, i.e. brain, spinal cord and nerves. For example,
Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS), etc.
Parkinson's Disease lit occurs due to degeneration of dopamine producing neurons in the CNS. Its symptoms develop
AltYOver the years. Symptoms include tremors, stiffness, difficulty in walking, balance and coordination.
SDisease lt is a form of dementia (memory loss). Its incidence increases with the age, showing the loss of
Cognitive functioning, thinking, remembering, reasoning and behavioral abilities to such an extent that it interferes
Withthe persons daily life and
activities.
Chenical Coordination
The cells and organisms Communicate with each other through chemical signals. These are broadly of four types as follows
1|2) Autocrines cells release secretion to stimulate itself.
3| Paracrriinnees cellscells release
Endoc release secretion to stimulate neighbouring cells.
secretion to stimulate distant cells.

ch4ePmhiecarlomocoordi
nes havenation called
Higher animals organs release
secretions to stimulate other organism.
complex body organisation. due to this in addition to nervouS systemn there occurs another system for
endocrine system
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