Week 2 – Topic Overview

Personality & Perceptions

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 1.1 Personality
Personality comes from the Latin word “persona”, that is “mask”. It refers as the sum total of
ways an individual reacts and interacts with others.

 “Personality refers to the distinctive and relatively enduring way of thinking, feeling, and
acting for a particular individual.
 The inner psychological characteristics that both determine and reflect how a person
responds to his or hers environment.
 The nature of personality reflects individual differences and it is consistent and
enduring and change of behaviour.
 Relatively stable and distinctive patterns of behaviour that characterize an individual’s
behaviour.
 It is unique, relatively consistent pattern of thinking, feeling and behaving.
 It refers to Preferences-for how handle situations, what is the sense of humour, or your
expectations of others” (Hiriyappa, 2008).

1.2 Personality Traits

Personality traits are “enduring characteristics that describe an individual’s behaviour”
(Robbins, 2003).

Fundamental assumptions of trait theories:

 “Traits distinguish one personality from another.

 Individuals can be described in terms of construction of traits like as affiliation,
achievement, anxiety, aggression and dependency.
 Traits can be quantifiable and do not defy measurements.
 Traits and amounts of each trait that a person has is assumed to be fairly stable, and
the difference in personality and behaviour between two individuals is assumed to be
the result of differences in the amount of traits that each person has” (Hiriyappa, 2008).

1.2.1 The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

The MBTI is 100 question personality test that measures individuals’ feelings in specific
situations. According to individuals’ responses they are classified (extroverted or introverted ,
sensing or intuitive, thinking or feeling, and perceiving or judging) and the combined into 16
personality types.

1.2.2 The Big Five Model

Research supports that five dimensions are responsible for human personality differences.
Research has found that there is a connection between the personality dimensions and job
performance (Barrick & Mount, 1991).

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 1. Extroversion: A person’s comfort level with relationships. It mainly describes someone
who is sociable and assertive. In contrast, introverts tend to be reserved, timid and
quiet.
2. Agreeableness: A person’s tendency to agree with others. It describes someone who
is good-natured, cooperative and trusting. People who score low on the agreeableness
dimension tend to be cold and antagonistic.
3. Conscientiousness: Measure of reliability. People who score high on the
conscientiousness dimension are responsible, organized, dependable and persistent.
People who score low are easily distracted, disorganised and unreliable.
4. Emotional stability: A person’s ability to withstand stress. People with positive scores
are calm, self-confident, and secure. People with low scores are nervous, anxious,
depressed and insecure.
5. Openness to experience: Range of interests and fascination with novelty. People who
score high are creative, sensitive and curious. People who score low are conventional
and find comfort in the familiar.

According to research studies (Barrick & Mount, 1991; Hurtz & Donovan, 2000; Hogan &
Holland, 2003) there is a relationship between Big Five personality dimensions and job
performance. Employees that score higher in conscientiousness develop higher levels of job
knowledge.

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 2.1 Locus of Control
People’s perception of the source of their destiny is called locus of control. People who
believe they can control their own destinies are labelled as internals, whereas people who
believe that what happens to them is controlled by luck are labelled as external. Research
has shown that individuals who are labelled as external are not as much satisfied with their
jobs are more likely to take absences on their jobs and be less involved in their jobs. On the
other hand, internals appear to have more motivation and be proactive.

2.2 Self-Esteem
Self-esteem refers to the individual’s degree of liking or disliking themselves. According to
Korman’s self-consistency theory (1970) individuals with high self-esteem tend to select their
job opportunities in accordance to their own self-interests thus ensuring high levels of job
satisfaction.

Furthermore, individuals with high self-esteem tend to be more risk takers in their job selection
and tend to choose unusual jobs than people with low self-esteem.

“The most generalizable finding on self-esteem is that low SEs are more susceptible to
external influence than are high SEs. Low SEs are dependent on the receipt of positive
evaluations from others. As a result, they are more likely to seek approval from others and
more prone to conform to the beliefs and behaviours of those they respect than are high SEs.
In managerial positions, low SEs will tend to be concerned with pleasing others and, therefore,
are less likely to take unpopular stands than are high SEs”.

2.3 Self-monitoring
“A personality trait that measures an individual’s ability to adjust his or her behaviour to
external, situational factors” (Robbins, 2003). Individuals with high self-monitoring tend to be
more adaptable in their adjustment of their behaviour to external situational factors.
Furthermore, they tend to demonstrate high sensitivity to external conditions and behave in
various ways in different conditions. In addition, individuals with high self-monitoring tend to
disguise themselves and adopt a different persona when in public. In contrast, individuals with
low self-monitoring tend to demonstrate their attributes and attitudes in the same manner in
any situation.

According to research (Kildfuff & Day, 1994) high self-monitor managers had higher chances
to change employers, move into different locations and obtained more promotions than the
low self-monitor managers. We may assume that high self-monitor managers are more
adjustable to their audience.

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 3.1 Learning
What is learning?

Learning is continuous. It can occur any time and in different occasions and environments.
“Learning is understood as the modification of behaviour through practice, training, or
experience”.

“First, learning involves change, although the change may be for good or bad from an organization’s point
of view. The change may not be evident until a situation arises in which the new behaviour can occur.
Learning is not always reflected in performance.

Second, not all changes reflect learning. To constitute learning, change should be relatively permanent.
Temporary changes may be only reflective and fail to represent any learning. This requirement, therefore,
rules out behavioural changes caused by fatigue or drugs.

Third, learning is reflected in behaviour. A change in an individual’s thought process or attitudes, not
accompanied by behaviour, is no learning. It should be further clarified that learning needs to result in
behaviour potentiality and not necessarily in the behaviour itself. The reason for this distinction lies in the
fact that an individual may learn but owing to lack of motivation, may not exhibit any changed behaviour.

Fourth, the change in behaviour should occur as a result of experience, practice, or training. This implies
that behaviour caused from disease, or physical damages does not constitute learning.

Fifth, the practice or experience must be reinforced in order for learning to occur. If reinforcement does
not accompany the practice or experience, the behaviour will eventually disappear.

The last, though not implied in any standard definition of learning that, contrary to popular belief, learning
is not confined to one’s schooling. Learning occurs throughout one’s life”.

(Aswathappa, 2009,.145)

3.2 Theories of learning

Classical Conditioning

The founder of classical conditioning was the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov. Pavlov was
interested in digestion, while experimenting with the amount of secreted saliva in dogs he
discovered a phenomenon that labelled as “psychic reflexes”. When Pavlov presented a dog
with food, the dog will secrete salivation. Over time he noticed that his dogs will secrete
salivation before the presence of food just by the presence of their handler.

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 Then Pavlov proceeded with linking the presence of the meat with a ringing bell. After some
repeats he noticed that dogs would salivate just by the sound of a ringing bell even if food was
not offered. Therefore, the dogs had learned to respond to the bell sound.

In Pavlov’s experiment, the meat is considered to be an unconditional stimulus and the dog’s
salivation is the unconditional response. The bell was a neutral stimulus until the dog
associated it with food therefore became a conditioned stimulus which in turn resulted in the
conditioned response.

In classical conditioning, learning involves associating a conditioned stimulus with an

unconditioned stimulus in order to produce a conditioned response.

Figure 1 Pavlov’s classical conditioning from

[Link]
conditioning/

 Neutral stimulus: does not produce any particular reaction

 Unconditioned stimulus: creates a reaction without previous learning
 Conditioned stimulus: its effect depends from the association with an unconditioned
stimulus
 Unconditioned response: does not require learning
 Conditioned response: caused by a conditioned stimulus

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 Operant Conditioning

B.F. Skinner is considered to be the father of operant conditioning. According to Skinner

(1948) classical conditioning was too simplistic to account for complex human behaviour thus
in order to understand behaviour we need to observe the causes of an action and its
consequences. Furthermore, Skinner believed that people learn to associate stimulus and
response without a conscious awareness of it thus he did not acknowledge feelings, thoughts,
and other mind states as causes of behaviour.

Skinner supported that having positive consequences following specific behaviours would
result in increase of behaviour. According to Skinner, if you positively reinforce an individual
then he/she will be more likely to engage in desirable behaviours. In addition, in order for a
reward to be most effective it needs to follow directly after the desired response.

Skinner’s Box

3.3 Methods of Shaping Behaviour

There are four ways to shape behaviour: Positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement,
punishment and extinction.

 Positive reinforcement: following a response with something pleasant. For example,

a boss that appraises an employee for doing a good job.
 Negative reinforcement: following a response by the termination or withdrawal of
something unpleasant. For example, at meeting when a manager asks for questions
and everyone is looking at their notes in order to avoid responding. This is considered

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 negative reinforcement because people have learned that by doing that they avoid the
responding.
 Punishment: causing an unpleasant condition in an effort to eliminate an undesirable
behaviour. For example, a manager suspends an employee that came to work drunk.
 Extinction: eliminating any reinforcement that is maintaining behaviour. For example,
a professor that wishes to discourage his students from participating in class he can do
that by ignoring the students that raise their hands.

3.3.1 Punishment
According to Skinner, “Punishment is still the most common techniques of behaviour control in
today’s life when a child misbehaves, he is spanked. If a person does not behave as the
society or low wants him to behave, he is punished by arrest and jail”.

How can managers make Punishment effective?

 Praise in public, punish in private.

 Develop alternative desired behaviour.
 Balance the use of pleasant and unpleasant events.
 Use “positive discipline” that is altering behaviour through reasoning and personal
responsibility.

How can managers use Punishment effectively?

 Not reward all employees at the same time.

 Let employers know what they are doing wrong.
 Not punish employees in front of others. Recurrence of
undesirable Employee
Behaviour
Potential Negative Effects of Punishment
Undesirable Emotional
Reaction

Short-term Aggressive, Disruptive

Decrease in Behaviour
Undesirable
Punishment Frequency of
Antecedent Employee
by Manager Undesirable
Behaviour
Employee
Behaviour Apathetic, non-creative
Performance

Which tends to
reinforce Fear of Manager

High Turnover and

Absenteeism

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 3.3.2 Schedules of reinforcement

Continuous reinforcement

“A continuous reinforcement schedule reinforces the desired behaviour each and every time it
is demonstrated”. For instance, a manager compliments an employee who systematically
arrives at work late when she/he comes on time.

Intermittent reinforcement

Desirable behaviour is not reinforced at every instance, but reinforcement is given often
enough to make the behaviour worth repeating.

Fixed interval schedule

“When rewards are spaced at uniform time intervals, the reinforcement schedule is of the fixed
interval type. The critical variable is time, and it is held constant”. For example, when you
receive your pay check on a predetermined time basis you are being rewarded on a fixed
interval schedule.

Variable interval schedule

Rewards are offered after a fixed or constant number of responses.

Fixed ratio schedule

Rewards are initiated after a fixed or constant number of responses.

Variable ratio schedule

The reward varies relative to the behaviour of the individual.

4. Social Learning
Individuals can learn through observation and direct experience. Social learning can be
viewed as an extension of operant conditioning although, it assumes that behaviour derives
from consequences. Furthermore, social learning supports the existence of observational
learning as well as the importance of perception in learning.

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 4.1 Social Learning Theory
 “It refers to learning that viewed as knowledge acquisition through the mental
processing of information.
 Individuals learn voluntary behaviours by observing the behaviour/consequences of
others, cognitively processing that information, and then imitating, or not repeating, that
behaviour.
 It is also called as Social Learning Theory.
 In this theory, we not only learn through direct experience, but also by observing and
imitating others (through modelling).
 It is not simple, automatic, requires attention and sometimes motivation.
 The term ‘learning theory’ is often associated with the behavioural view.
 The focus of the behavioural approach is on how the environment impacts overt
behaviour.
 All we have learned so far came from watching our models like parents, teachers,
peers, superiors, motion pictures and television. So that, in this theory, learning through
observation and direct experience has been called social learning theory.
 Social learning integrates the cognitive and operant approaches to learning.
 It recognizes that learning does not take place only because of environmental stimuli
like as classical and operant conditioning or individual determinism like cognitive
approach but it is relating with all these views” (Hiriyappa, 2008).

4.2 Social Learning Processes

1. Attentional processes: Learning from a model by noticing and recognizing its critical
features.
2. Retention process: “A model’s influence will depend on how well the individual
remembers the model’s action after the model is no longer readily available”.
3. Motor reproduction process: After a person has seen a new behaviour by observing the
model he/she converts it into action.
4. Reinforcement processes: Individuals are motivated after positive incentives or rewards
are provided.

4.3.1 Dimensions of Social Learning Theory

1. Symbols: Cognitive models that serve to guide their behaviour.
2. Forethought: Anticipate, plan and guide their behaviour and actions.
3. Vicariously: Observing the behaviour of others and the real or imagined consequences
of those behaviours.
4. Self-control: Assuming personal responsibility to learn new behaviour even though
there is no external pressure to do so.
5. Self-efficacy: Influencing learning and behaviour.

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 4.3.2 Self-efficacy
Self-efficacy is the individual’s confidence in their ability to perform a specific task in a
specific situation.

 Varies by people and tasks.

 Strongly influences learning by enhancing goal setting, effort, and persistence
toward success.
 Managers can and should influence subordinate’s self-efficacy levels.

HIGH

 Set goals
Self-efficacy at work  Preserve/practice
 Creatively solve
problems
 Visualize success
 Learn from failure
‘I know I can do the
Part Accomplishments job and have
outstanding quality’.

Performance of Others Self-efficacy

‘I don’t think I can do

the job on time and LOW
have outstanding
Emotional State quality’.
 Avoid difficult
tasks, thinking of
excuses for failing
 Develop low
aspirations
 Quit
 Blame setbacks on
lack of ability or

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 How Managers can Apply Social Learning Theory in an Organization:

 “Identify behaviours that lead to improved performance

 Select an appropriate model
 Make sure that employees have requisite skills
 Create a positive learning situation
 Provide positive consequences for successful performance (e.g. reinforcement)
 Develop organizational support for new behaviours (e.g. maintain proper contingencies
of reinforcement)”.

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 5. Perception
Perception is the process where individuals can gather, interpret and respond to sensory
information. Information can be gathered by our five basic senses such as: Sight, Touch,
Smell, Hearing and Taste.

According to Robbins (2003) perception is “a process by which individuals organize and

interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment.”

What is perception?

 “The process of interpreting the message of our senses to provide order and meaning
to the environment.
 The process by which people select, organize, interpret, and respond to information
from the world around them.
 Perception (consciously and unconsciously) involves searching for, obtaining, and
processing information in the mind in an attempt to make sense of the world.
 Selection and organization often account for differences in interpretation/perception
between individuals observing the same stimuli.
 A process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in
order to give meaning to their environment.
 People’s behaviour is based on their perception of what reality is, not on reality itself.
 The world as it is perceived is the world that is behaviourally important”.

5.1 Basic factors that influence perception

Predispositions

Specific pattern reactions to a given stimulus. These conditioned reactions derive from past
experiences and prejudices and have a significant role in perceptual selectivity since they
influence the characteristics perceived by others.

First Impressions

Expected individuals’ tendencies to evaluate others solemnly on the basis of their perceived
first impressions. Usually first impressions are not based on sufficient information thus it does
not reflect the true characteristics of people.

Past Experiences

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 5.1.2 Factors that influence perception
There are three man factors that influence the perceptual process:

o Characteristics of the Perceiver

o Characteristics of the Perceived (target)
o Characteristics of the Situation

Characteristics of the Perceiver:

Needs and Motives

Characteristics of the Self-concept

Perceiver
Ethics, Values and Culture

Past Experience

Current Emotional State

Characteristics of the Perceived:

 Physical characteristics such as: appearance, facial expressions, age and gender.
 Personality traits.
 Behaviour.
 Communication style.

Characteristics of the situation:

 Physical location.
 Social and organizational settings.
 Time.

5.2 Attribution Theory

The attribution process deals with deciding whether an observed behaviour is caused by
internal or external factors.

Internal factors: Person’s ability or motivation.

External factors: Environment, other people, luck.

For example: When an employee has not attended a planned meeting. We can decide
whether his absence is due to internal reasons (lack of motivation) or external (traffic).

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 There are three determining factors that help us decide whether an action was internally or
externally caused:

1. Consistency: Refers to how often a person displays a similar behaviour over time.
2. Distinctiveness: Refers to how a person displays behaviour in different settings.
3. Consensus: Refers to how a person displays behaviour in similar situations.

External

Consistency
Internal

Internal
Individual behaviour Distinctiveness

External

External

Consensus
Internal

5.2.1 Attributions’ Errors and Biases

Fundamental attribution error: Underestimation of the influence of external factors and
overestimation of the influence of internal factors when judging others’ behaviour. For
example, a manager believes that the huge drop of sales in his product is caused by his
subordinates’ laziness instead of the competitor’s new successful product.

Self-serving bias: Tendency of individuals to attribute their own success to internal factors
while blaming external factors for failures.

5.2.2 Perceptual Errors

Selective Perception: based on how people selectively interpret what they see on the basis
of their interests, background, experience, and attitudes. People receive enormous amounts
of information every day and as a result we divide this information into smaller components.
The way we do that is by selecting information based on our interests, background,
experience and attitudes. This might explain for example why a boss is paying more attention
to one individual.

Halo Effect: when people draw a general impression about an individual on the basis of a
specific characteristic.

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 Contrast Effects: an individual’s evaluation is affected by comparisons with the recent
encounters of other individuals.

Projection: attributing your own characteristics to other people. Individuals tend to project
their own characteristics to other people than to the characteristics other people possess or
demonstrate. This error tends to produce judging errors to managers whereas they might not
account individual differences to individuals.

Stereotyping: judging an individual based on the perception of the group to which he/she
belongs. We tend to rely on generalizations because they help us make inferences in a faster
way but that does not imply that our generalizations are correct.

Common stereotypes:

 Nationality
 Occupation
 Age
 Physical attributes
 Education
 Social status
 Politics

5.2.3 Perception effects in organizations

Interviews: Employment interviews are vital for the hiring process in organizations.
Perceptual biases are constant during interviews especially when different interviewers reach
into different conclusions for the same candidates. Interviewers tend to draw early
impressions about candidates and end up being inconsistent.

“Studies indicate that most interviewers’ decisions change very little after the first four or five
minutes of the interview. As a result, information elicited early in the interview carries greater
weight than does information elicited later, and a ‘good applicant’ is probably characterized
more by the absence of unfavourable characteristics then by the presence of favourable
characteristics”.

Performance Evaluation: Research has indicated that performance appraisal is dependent

on perception (Boachie-Mensah & Seidu, 2012). “An employee’s future is closely tied to his or
her appraisal-promotions, pay raises, and continuation of employment are among the most
obvious outcomes. The performance appraisal represents an assessment of an employee’s
work”. Appraisal even though is considered as objective in terms of job evaluation is
subjective. “Subjective measures are easier to implement, they provide managers with greater
discretion, and many jobs do not readily lend themselves to objective measures. Subjective
measures are, by definition, judgmental. The evaluator forms a general impression of an
employee’s work. To the degree that managers use subjective measures in appraising
employees, what the evaluator perceives to be good or bad employee characteristics or
behaviors will significantly influence the outcome of the appraisal.

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 5.3 Workforce Diversity
Workforce diversity: The concept that organizations are becoming more heterogeneous in
terms of gender, race, ethnicity and inclusion of other diverse groups.

According to the Chartered Management Institute (2005),

“The concept of diversity encompasses any sort of difference between two or more
people. Differences might exist in terms or race, age, gender, disability, geographic
origin, family status, education, social background – in fact, anything that can affect
workplace relationships and achievement. The management of diversity involves the
implementation of strategies though which a network of varied individuals are knitted
together into a dynamic workforce”.

5.3.2 Dimensions of diversity

There are primary categories of diversity and secondary categories of diversity that both affect
organizational behavior (Hellriegel, Slocum & Woodman, 2001).

Primary categories: Genetic characteristics which the individual has little influence over
them. They influence an individual’s self-perception and socialization.

 Age
 Race
 Ethnicity
 Gender
 Physical abilities and qualities
 Sexual orientation

Secondary categories: Learned characteristics that an individual obtains and adjusts in

his/her lifetime. The individual has more influence over them.

 Education  Parental status

 Religious beliefs  Personal style

 Income  Geographical location

 Work experience  Marital status

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 References

Kilduff, M., & Day, D. (1994). Do Chameleons Get Ahead? The Effects of Self-Monitoring on
Managerial Careers. The Academy of Management Journal, 37(4), 1047-1060. Retrieved from
[Link]

Robbins, S.P. & Judge, T.A. (2009). Organizational Behaviour. (13th ed.).New Jersey: Peason
Prentice Hall.

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