በጎንደርና አካባቢው ሀገር አቀፍ የ12ኛ ክፍል መልቀቂያ ፈተና

ለሚወስዱ ተማሪዎች ማጠናከሪያ የተዘጋጀ ሞዱል

(ከጎጎ ኢንጂኔሪንግጋር በመተባበር የተዘጋጀ)

ጎንደር የልማት እና የሰላምና ማኅበር (ጎልሰማ) በጎንደር እና አካባቢው ከጊዜ ወደ ጊዜ ሥር እየሰደደ የመጣውን የሰላም
እጦት እንዲሁም በአካባቢው ሰፍኖ የሚገኘውን ከፍተኛ ኢኮኖሚያዊ ችግር በመቅረፍ ረገድ መንግሥት የሚያደርገውን ጥረት
ለመደገፍ የተቋቋመ እና ከኢፌዴሪ የሲቪል ማኅበረሰብ ድርጅቶች ባለሥልጣን ዕውቅና የተሰጠው (የተመዘገበ) ማኅበር ነው፡
፡

ጎንደርና አካባቢው እምቅ የሆኑ በርካታ የተፈጥሮ ፀጋዎችንና ሰው ሠራሽ ሃብቶችን ባለቤት ቢሆንም እነዚህን እምቅ ሃብቶች
በጋራ አልምቶ በእጅጉ የወደቀውን ኑሮውን ለማሻሻል አልቻለም፡፡ ለዚህም ዋነኛው ምክንያት የማኅበረሰቡ የማኅበራዊና
የኢኮኖሚ ግንዛቤ እጥረት መሆኑን በማመን የጎንደር የሰላምና የዕድገት ማኅበር (ጎ-ሰ’ማ) አስፈላጊውን የዘርፉ ንቃት
ለመፍጠር እቅድ በመንደፍ እየተንቀሳሰቀ ይገኛል፡፡

ከማኅበረሰቡ አካላት መካከልም የዛሬው ትውልድ አካልና የነገ ሀገር ተረካቢ የሆኑት ተማሪዎች ላይ መሥራት፣ ለማኅበረሰቡ
ካላቸው ቅርበት አንፃር ከወዲሁ የማኅበረሰባቸውን ኑሮ ለማሻሻል ዓልመው እንዲሰሩና በዚህ ዙሪያ በንቃት እንዲሳተፉ
ማድረግ አጠቃላይ ሥራውን የተሳለጠና የሰመረ የሚያደርገው ይሆናል፡፡

በተለይም ከቅርብ ጊዜ ወዲህ የዩኒቨርሲቲ መግቢያ ፈተና እየወሰዱ ማለፍ ያልቻሉ ተማሪዎች ቁጥር እያሻቀበ መምጣቱ በዚህ
ደረጃ ያሉትን ተማሪዎች የተሻለ ለማዘጋጀት በሁሉም የጎንደር ዞኖች ሥር ባሉት ከ 66 በላይ ወረዳዎች ውስጥ በሚገኙና
የ12ኛ ክፍል መልቀቂያ ፈተናን በሚያስፈትኑ 145 ት/ት ቤቶች የሚሰራጩ በ9 የትምህርት ዓይነቶች የተዘጋጁ ሞጁሎች
በብቁ መምህራን እንዲዘጋጅ አድርጓል። በዚህ ለማኅበረሰባቸው የተሻለ ሃሳብና ራይዕ ያላቸው ዜጎች እንዲሆኑ በመሥራት
ለራሳቸውም ሆነ ለአካባቢው ማኅበረሰብ ሥራ ፈጣሪና ሩቅ አሳቢ፣ ኃላፊነት የሚሸከም ትውልድን ለመፍጠር ይሞክራል፡፡

ይህ ለታሪክ የትምህርት ዓይነት ፈተና ማዘጋጃ የተዘጋጀ ሞጁል በዚህ አግባብ የቀረበ ሲሆን በጎ-ሰ’ማ አስተባባሪነት ከላይ
ባሉት በጎ ፈቃደኛ ሙያተኞች የተሰናዳ ነው፡፡
SUPPLEMENTARY HISTORY MODULE
WITH DETAILED NOTES AND
QUESTIONS

Authors, Writers, and Editors

Adege Getahun MA in History and Heritage Management
Abebe Asfaw MA in History
Mohammed Nurhussien MA in History
Assefa Ageze MA in History and Heritage Management
Eyosias Tadesse MA in Historic Archeaology
Aragaw Tegegne MA in History

April 2023

Gondar, Ethiopia

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PART I
UNIT ONE
HISTORY AND THE HISTORIANS’CRAFT
1.1. The Meaning and Use of History
Meaning of History
o History is a branch of knowledge that deals with all that had been done by people live in past.
o It is the totality of the thought, sayings and deeds of people, who lived before us. Only a small part
of human past is recorded. Both recorded part and the part, which still waits to be recorded, are
called History. All things that have happened in past in life of individuals, countries or humanity as a
whole is History.
Importance of Studying History
History helps us to learn about what people did in the past. By learning about their deeds we try not to
repeat mistakes of the past. Since it enables us to understand past society, we will be able to increase our
understanding of present society and may forecast about future society.
1.2. Key Elements in the Study of History
1.2.1. Sources- No one can write history without sources. Primary and secondary are the two main
types of sources. Primary sources have direct relations to events they describe and come directly from
the period under study. They are nearer in time and place to the event. Monuments, inscriptions, coins,
diaries, memoirs, chronicle, documents of contracts and agreements and eyewitness accounts are
examples of primary sources. However, secondary sources donot have direct relation or nearness to the
event they describe. Mostly they are historical reconstructions. Examples include most history books,
novels, play. Oral data could be taken as both primary and secondary sources. Primary sources are more
reliable than secondary ones because they have immediacy to the event and are better sources. However,
critical evaluation of both sources is very important for establishing authenticity and for clear and deep
understanding of their meaning and essence, presentation of facts on paper.
1.2.2. Methods in Writing History
First, select a topic read different source of material understanding of the meaning of our
evidence based on interpreting historical evidence presentation of facts on paper based on evidence
in simple, readable and attractive ways.
1.2.3. Objectivity- It does not mean only identifying real or significant facts but also presenting what all
facts say without any bias for or against.
1.3. The Study of Ethiopian History

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A German Historian, Job Ludolf wrote the first Modern History of Ethiopia in 1684. After mid-19th C,
several Europeans took part in Ethiopian studies. Ethiopian writers also appeared at end of 19th [Link]
establishment of Institute of Ethiopian Studies (IES) in early 1960s at Haile Selassie I University
College changed pattern of Ethiopian studies, which until then focused only on northern part of Ethiopia.
1.3.1. Why Ethiopian studies focused only on the North until 1960s?
A. The north had been in contact with outside world since ancient times. Therefore, Arab, Greek, and
Roman writers had left important information for the study of its history.
B. The north has a written language that served to keep records and so, many chronicles of Christian
kings are available.
C. Since the Christian kingdom had maintained strong contact with Egyptian Coptic Church several
sources on it are available in Egyptian achieves.
D. Since the north’s archaeology is well studied, it provided an auxiliary source for the study of the
region’s history.
However, in the south, firstly, the available physical remains are not yet studied. Secondly, the south
also has no written language and so has not records of its past. Thus, compared to the north, in the south
there is lack of sources. Lastly, scholars have been reluctant to collect and use oral traditions as reliable
sources until 1960s.
1.3.2. Problems in the Study of Ethiopian History
A. Imbalance of Sources- Many historians were attracted to the north, where they could get a variety
of sources.
B. Lack of Comprehensiveness- Even in the northern part, which is relatively well studied, most
studies focused only on the political history. Although we have studies in economic histories, there are
none in social and cultural histories.
C. Lack of Objectivity-It is reflected in the chronicles of Christian kings and in many studies.
D. Some scholars lacked access to pertinent sources and sufficient knowledge on the political, social and
cultural realities of Ethiopia.
1.4. Periodization in History
History is studied based on Periodization. The starting point for periodization is 2 million B.P. From this
point to the present Human history is divided based on the following criteria.
1. The development of human behavior (savagery, barbarous and civilization)
2. Objects out of which early humans made instruments of labor (Stone Age, Bronze Age and Iron Age)

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3. Aspects of human economic life that passed (Hunting and Gathering, Farming, Animal Husbandry
and Age of Industry)
Generally, history of humanity is divided into Pre-history and History. The beginning of technique of
writing (6000 B.P) marked the boundary between Pre-history and History. Thus, all events that took
place prior to 6000 B.P are studied under Pre-history, while those events after 6000 B.P are studied
under History. Pre-historic Period coincided with the Stone Age.
The period of History began about 6000 B.P is further divided into 3 minor periods. There is no uniform
or fixed time gaps for the sub-divisions throughout the world. Every continent or country followed
Periodization that fits with its own civilization or state formation.
In European history ancient period covered from 1250 BC up to 5th century, Medieval from 5th-16th
centuries AD, while Modern dates from 16th C to the Present. African civilization was disrupted because
of their contact with Europeans since 15th C. This contact ended up in Colonization. Thus, Periodization
in African history is expressed in terms of Pre-Colonial, Colonial and Post-Colonial. Since Ethiopia is
the only African country in warding off European colonialism its periodization is classified as Ancient
(1000BC to 1270 AD), Medieval (1270 AD to 1855 AD) and Modern (since 1855 AD) Periods.
Unit Review Questions
Choose the Best Answer from the Given Alternatives
1. What does the discipline history study?
A. Future politics B. Contemporary cultures C. Past human actions D. Origin of hominids
2. Why do we study history?
A. To advance the interest of our nation at the expense of others
B. To better understand contemporary societies
C. To glorify the activities of our forefathers
D. To show how the past was not different from the present
3. Which of the following is an essential principle of historical methodology?
A. Giving primacy to secondary than primary sources
B. Disregarding all sources that have bias in them
C. Corroborating primary sources with secondary sources
D. Establishing the authenticity of historical documentation
4. Which of the following best describes limitation in Ethiopian historiography?
A. Most studies focus on political, economic, social and cultural histories of the country’s past.
B. Because of an imbalance of sources, many writers were attracted to the study of the northern parts
of the country.
C. The balance of sources in many parts of the country enabled scholars to present the facts of the
country.
D. Scholars’ sufficient knowledge on various aspects of the country led to the availability of reliable
historical sources.
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5. A turning point in the development of modern Ethiopian historical studies was:

A. the rise of Ethiopian historians such as AleqaTaye
B. the writing of Tele Tsadiq Mekurea
C. the establishment of Haile Selassie I University
D. the first modern history of Ethiopian written by Job Ludolf

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UNIT TWO
EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF HUMAN BEINGS
2.1. Theories on the Origin of Human Beings
There are two theories about the origin of human beings. The Creationist view explicate that human
beings were created by supernatural force (God) with all complete physical shape and structure. The
Scientific / Evolutionist view on the other hand believes that human beings developed from lower
beings through a gradual and natural processess of change. It was based on the works of Charles
Darwin’s work entitled “the origin of species by natural selection”
2.2. Human Evolution
Hominids: Hominids are member of scientific family made up of human beings and Pre-historic human
like creatures. Gorillas and Chimpanzees are the closest living relatives of humans. They are classified
as member of a different zoological family called Pongidae.
The First Humans
Earliest human species distinguished from apes by its small canine teeth and bipedalism. This earlist
human species was called Australopithcus (Australopith).The first known Australopith fossils were
discovered in South Africa. The seven Australopithecine fossils were Anamensis (in Kenya), Afarensis
(in Ethiopia) Bahrelghazali (in Central Africa; around Lake Chad), Aethiopicus (Lake Turkana, in
Kenya) Africanus (in South Africa), Boise (in East Africa) and Robustus (in South Africa). Aethiopicus,
Boisei and Robustus are known as Robust Australopithecines because of their heavier bones and larger
jaws.
Origin of Genus Homo: Australopithecus Afarensis may have been its ancestor. Its members had larger
brains and smaller jaws than Austalopiths. The 3 species belong to genes Homo are:
1. Homo Habilis (Handy Human)
The oldest human being lived in East and South Africa circa 2 million years ago. A partial habilis skull
was uncovered in Lower Omo Basin (Ethiopia). Other fossils are also discovered in Olduvai Gorge
(Tanzania), Sterkfontein (South Africa) and Lake Turkana (Northern Kenya). Homo habilis made the
first stone tools consisted of flakes and cores called Oldowan technology, named after Olduvai Gorge, a
place where the first tool was uncovered.
2. Homo Erectus (Upright Human)
Homo erectus originated in Africa and became the earliest species to migrate from Africa to Northen
Asia and Europe. They had slightly smaller brain and larger teeth than modern men have. They made
little tools called Acheulean, discovered at St. Acheul in France. Homo erectus was the first to master
the use of fire. Fossils of this species were uncovered in Lower Omo Basin, Melka-Kunture, Konso-
Gardula, Middle Awash and Gadeb (Ethiopia) and Indonesia, Germany and China.

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3. Homo Sapiens (Wise human). It is further classified into Archaic and Modern Homo sapiens.
A. Archaic Homo sapiens: They evolved from Homo erects and are considered as an intermediate
between Homo erectus and modern man. A partial cranium and other bones of archaic Homo sapiens
were uncovered at Bodo in Middle Awash. Other fossils and microlithic stone tools have been
discovered at different sites in Africa and Eurasia.
B. Modern Homo sapiens: They are automatically very similar to the living human being. Modern
human being have large brains, bipedal and walk erect, think and executed complicated idea, use
language, develop culture, invent tools and use effectively. A complete skull of modern human
discovered at Kibish (Lower Omo Basin). A lower jaw has been uncovered from the cave site of Porc
Epic near Dire Dawa. They lived everywhere by gathering and hunting.
2.3. Early Cultural Development
Stone Age: was a period of human technological development characterized by use of stone as the
principal raw material for tools. When Pre-Historic humans began to make stone tools, they became
distinct from the rest of animate world. It is divided into Paleolithic (Old Stone Age), Mesolithic
(Middle Stone Age) and Neolithic (New Stone Age). Each stage is characterized by different types of
tools or tool-manufacturing techniques.
During Old Stone Age people learned to make stone tools and weapons by chipping one stone against
another, discovered uses of fire, learned to live in caves, to make clothing of skins, and painted pictures
on walls of caves. Paleolithic (old stone) is subdivided into lower (earliest phase), middle and upper
(latter phase). During the Middle Stone Age people tamed dog, made first pottery from sun baked clay
and hollowed out logs to make crude boats. During the New Stone Age, people learned to make sharper
stone tools, to spin and weave, and to fire clay to make pots. They became food producers by
domesticating animals and growing plants from seed. When people began to farm, they settled down to
live in one place. They formed towns for protection, made laws, created governments, and developed
elaborate forms of religion.
1. Early Stone Age (Lower Paleolithic): Oldowan and Acheulean successive tool making industries
characterize it.
1.1. Oldowan stone tools: were the first stone tool made in Africa about 2.5 million years ago. The
tools and the technique are called Oldowan or Chopper-core or Pebble-tool Industry. It involved hitting
one palm-sized cobblestone against another or made by a technique called Direct Percussion Method.
This process created large, sharp-edged core tools capable of breaking bones and slicing meat or
vegetation and smaller flakes that could scrape hides and sharpen wooden sticks. Oldowan sites include
Gona, Afar and Omo (Ethiopia), Lokalalei and KobiFora (Kenya), Olduvi Gorge (Tanzania), Ain
Hanech (Algeria) and Sterkfontein and Swart Krans (South Africa). Oldowan tools are identified with
Homo habilis.

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1.2. Acheulean tools: refer to hand-axe industries dating from 1.5 million to 200,000 years ago (from
Homo erectus to early archaic Homo sapiens). These tools are called bi-faces (were flaked on both sides
in a regular pattern). They usually had sharp edges, a pointed end and were round at the top. Konso
Gardula, Gadeb and Melka Kunture are among the oldest sites in Ethiopia. These tools are associated
with Homo erectus.
2. Middle Stone Age (Middle Paleolithic): 200,000 to 30,000 years ago
During this period, Homo erectus evolved into Homo sapiens or modern human. Its archaeological sites
are often found in deposits of caves and rock shelters for they are easy to defend against predators and
provide warmth and shelter. In Africa (south of Sahara), hominids began to make a wider variety of
smaller tools based on flake technology. Some of these tools were hafted as spear points and knives.
Gademotta, Melka Kunture, Porc Epic and Kone in Ethiopia and Midhishi and Gud Gud in Somalia are
important sites of middle stone age.
3. Later Stone Age (Upper Paleolithic): from 40,000 until 10,000 years ago (Last Ice Age)
Here standardized blade industries appear and become more widespread than in previous times. Toward
the end of Upper Paleolithic, microliths (small, geometric-shaped blade segments) became increasingly
common in many areas. In Africa, these new tools are called Late Stone Age as in Europe they are
referred to as Upper Paleolithic. Humans began to use new tool-making techniques called Pressure-
flaking, which produced long and thin blades that performed different tasks. Generally, artifacts show
further reduction in size, fitted into handles, and used as Composite Tools in arrows and bows. They are
distinguished by microlithic blade technology.
The Neolithic Revolution
It was the period when food producing through domestication of plants and animals replaced hunting
and gathering. During this period, farming was introduced. This was followed by sedentary way of life.
Because of sedentary life, there emerged families and communities. Stone houses and other structures
were built for the community. This is how villages and little towns came into being. This was followed
by appearance of societies who were organized and divided into classes. This period also witnessed the
emergence of sacred places and traditional religions.

Neolithic human being invented better tools, hatchet and milestones to grind cereals. Pottery was also
made for food cooking and storage facilities. Surplus production of food led to population growth and
competition among communities over crop and grazing fields led to conflicts. It also led to
specialization in different crafts. In sum, the Neolithic revolution made human beings food producers
and community dwellers. The rise of agriculture began in Middle East. The first farmers lived in
Fertile Crescent Region (now Lebanon, parts of Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Syria and Turkey).
The Neolithic Revolution in the Ethiopian Region

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The presence of a ceramic tradition, polished stone tools, domestication of plants and animals, and
sedentary life are some of the character of Neolithic culture. The above Neolithic type of culture in
Northern Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa is attested at Gobedra rock shelter (3000BC) and Lalibela
Cave (500BC). Grinding and polished axes have also been found at Aqordat and Barentu in Eritrea.
These sites provide Neolithic material culture such as axes, ceramics, grinding stones, beads, stone
figures.
An archaeologist Dombrowski had excavated chickpeas and vegetables dated to 500 BC at Lalibela
Cave. Domesticated cattle dated to mid-2nd millennium BC has been found at Lake Basaka site. The
other fauna remains of dental fragments of a camel dated to 2500BC comes from Gobedra. Thus, the
practice of agricultural tradition in Northern Ethiopia was in existence between 3000 and [Link]
presence of diverse environment in Ethiopia and the Horn made the region homeland of many plant
species, which brought about cultivation of Enset, Teff, Noog, Finger Millet, Chat and Coffee.
Unit Review Questions
Choose the Best Answer from the Given Alternatives
1. Which one of the following is correct about Homo erectus?
A. It was the first hominid to develop the use of language.
B. It seems to have been the first hominid to make use of fire technology.
C. It was a species that originated in Asia and then spread to other continents.
D. It distinguished itself by making tools for the first time in hominid history
2. Which one of the following events shows the main features of the Neolithic revolution in Ethiopia and the
horn?
A. The discovery of fire was the major achievements
B. The begin of writing and recording of past events
C. The communities evidently started sedentary life.
D. The culture of Neolithic revolution is clearly known
3. What is the difference between members of the Genus Homo and the Australopithecus?
A. The latter had larger brains than the former C. The former had smaller jaws than the latter
B. The latter had smaller jaws than the former D. The former were bipedal and the latter were not
4. Australopithecus Africanus was mostly discovered in:
A. Olduvai Gorge, Kenya. C. Southern Africa
B. Hadar of the Middle Awash D. Tanzania
5. In which one of the following sites did archaeologists find evidence of early domestication of cattle in
Ethiopia?
A. Lalibela B. Omo Valley C Gobedra D. Melka Kunture
6. Acheulean tools are associated with:
A. Hominids B. Homo erectus C. Homo habilis D. Homo sapiens
7. The closest living relatives of humans are:
A. Homo Sapines and Hominids C. Homo sapiens and Homo habilis
B. Gorillas and Chimpanzees D. Pongidae and Hominids
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UNIT THREE
THE ANCIENT WORLD
3.1. The Emergence of States
Theories of the Emergence of States
Human societies did exist in some form of organization (family, clan and tribe) before the emergence of
state. However, the state was different from all earlier human organization in that it had definite
territorial area, large group of people and a government with coercive powers to make people obey.
The state is sovereign, which means it has legitimacy to exercises power internally and externally. The
agency that exercises power on behalf of the state is called government. The earliest states of the world
emerged around river valley. However, the process of state formation was almost certainly different in
different societies.
Theories for the emergence of ancient states probably resulted from factors like religion, war
leadership, control of trade routes and irrigation. As to the Theory of Oriental Despotism, in
civilizations where agriculture depended on large-scale irrigation from river water, a strong state power
emerged because despotic state power was needed to organize labor for irrigation and flood control
works. This theory probably sounds in Egypt and Mesopotamia.
The Nature of Early States
Ancient states had people with specialized skills and differentiation into classes. No state could come in
to existence without the development of agriculture. Ancient states were different in size, power, and
level of civilization. As to Divine Right Theory, Empire states are seen as institutions created by God
and Emperors are regarded as his representatives (agents) on earth. It asserts that the social order in
which the position of the individual is determined hierarchically based on birth, is God given and thus
immutable (unchangeable). Democracy on the other hand is a system of government set up by people in
which supreme power is vested in the people.
The ancient Greek city-state that exercised democracy for the first time has not opened for all members
of the city-state. The Greeks were divided into three social groups, namely citizens (those who did enjoy
political and economic rights), plebians (those who did not enjoy political and economic rights) and
slaves (who had no rights whatsoever). In ancient Rome, citizenships was limited for only small
privileged group of the Romans only. Women, however, were not considered as citizens. Therefore, in
ancient states rights of citizens were not respected.
3.2. Ancient World Civilizations
The Neolithic Revolution laid the basis for the emergence of ancient [Link] may be
river valley (riverine) developed around the river or Maritime, developed near sea based on trade.
1. AFRICA
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A. Ancient Egypt
Herodotus said that Egypt was “the gift of the Nile”, meaning that it could not have existed without the
annual flooding of Nile River because beyond the river Egypt is desert. Its political unity was made
possible by Nile. Egypt became a single united kingdom under King Menes (Narmer) who united
Upper Egypt (south of Cairo) and Lower Egypt (north of Cairo, including delta) around 3200 BC. It was
the oldest and greatest civilizations of the ancient World.
Egyptian History is divided into Old Kingdom (2686-2181 BC), Middle Kingdom (2040-1730 BC) and
New Kingdom (1550-1080BC). There were also first and second Intermediate Periods when central
authority broken down, followed by reunification. Nevertheless, after the New Kingdom, indigenous
rule ended due to the Persian invasion in 343 BC. In 332 BC, Alexander the Great of Macedonia
conquered Egypt from Persians. Macedonia-Greek rule continued until Egypt became part of Roman
Empire in 30 BC. After the Pharaohs, it did not have native rulers until 20th C.
The King in Egypt was all-powerful who was regarded as an incarnate god and after his death on earth;
he would be a god watching over the welfare of Egypt and its people. Since the period of the New
Kingdom, the king of Egypt was called Pharaohs meaning Great House.
While Memphis was the capital of Old Kingdom, Thebes was to the Middle and New Kingdoms.
Officials called Viziers helped the King. They acted as mayors, tax collectors and judges. Nomes were
provinces of Egypt. Each Nome was ruled by officials called Nomarch.
Most ordinary people were farmers who grew crops by irrigating the land. However, they handed over
much of their produce as tribute to kings or landlords. They also performed compulsory public labor
services or corvee labor and some of them were conscripted into the army of the Pharaohs.
Egyptian worshipped in different deities. They also believe in life after death, which led to the
construction of huge tombs for Kings and Queens called Pyramids. Three huge pyramids at Giza rank
as one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. The largest pyramid, at Giza was that of King
Khufu. The construction of pyramid reached its height in New Kingdom period. The great monuments
of Karnack and Abu Simbel date from this period.
Under King Thutmose III in 1400s BC, Egypt became great Empire and reached the height of its
power. He brought Palestine, Syria and Kush into Egyptian Empire. Ramses II was also one known
pharaohs of the time. The well-known voyage to Punt sent by Queen Hatshepsut had also taken place
in this same period.
Achievements of Egyptian Civilization
Egyptians made remarkable progress in government, religion, engineering and architecture (pyramid),
science including mathematics, writing system called Hieroglyphics (picture representing words). Early
Egyptian writings were about religion such as the Book of the Dead. They also used mummification to
preserve the dead body.

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B. Kush/Meroitic Kingdom
It was founded along the Nile River in what is now northeastern Sudan. Its founding date is unknown,
but it existed as early as 2000BC and lasted until 350 AD. It exported slaves, cattle, gold and ivory. In
1500s BC Kush was conquered by Egypt and Kushites adopted elements of Egyptian art, language and
religion. Later the Kushites conquered Egypt in 750 BC and five Kushite rulers successively ruled Egypt
as pharaohs of the 25th dynasty until 670 BC. Napata was capital of the combined territory of Egypt and
Kush. Kushite rule in Egypt ended when Assyrians attacked Egypt in 670 BC and sacked Thebes.
Assyrians also destroyed Napata. Thenafter the Kush rulers fled southwards to survive the attack. In 6th
C BC, it began to expand to the southern direction and established a capital at Meroe (north of
Khartoum). This period marked the glorious period in the civilization of Kush. The civilization of the
period is referred to as Merotic Civilization.
Freed from Egyptian influence at Meroe, the Kushites found iron ore and hard wood and had a well-
developed iron industry and made iron tools and weapons. They conquered a large territory and
monopolized the trade of the Horn of Africa, which made it prosperous. They exported items like ivory,
slaves, rare skins, ostrich feathers, ebony and gold. Meroe reached the height of its power from mid-3rd
C BC to1st C AD, during which its people developed new styles in art, architecture, used their own
language, invented system of writing and worshipped their own gods. In mid-4th C AD, King Ezana of
Axum invaded Meroe and his army sacked and burned it and thereby brought the end of the Ancient
Kingdom of Kush.
C. Carthage
It was founded by Phoenician seamen as a trade and shipping outpost in North Africa, near city of
Tunis at about 814 B.C. When the Romans wanted to take Sicily, Carthage fought the Punic wars with
Rome. During Third Punic War (149-146), Romans defeated Carthage and its territory became part of
the Roman Empire.
D. Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe was founded by Shona people. The name Zimbabwe means stone house. During 1400s, the
Karanga people established the Mwenemutapa. The Karanga traded ivory, gold, and copper for
porcelain China and cloth and beads from India and Indonesia. The Rozwi, southern Karanga group
founded the Changamire Empire. The Rozwi built the city’s largest structures. The Changamire
Empire was in turn defeated by the Nguni people.
2. ASIA
A. Mesopotamia
At about 2500 BC, a civilization of City-states emerged in southern Mesopotamia, in the area called
Sumeria between Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. A city- state was a city plus the surrounding region

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that was not subject to any form of higher state. Ur, Uruk, Largash, Nipur, Umma, Babylon were
some of the city-states.
Mesopotamia means Land between Rivers i.e. Tigris and Euphrates. There is no evidence that the
Sumerians were indigenous or not. Rulers were absolute kings called Lugals, who ruled as
representatives of the chief-god of the city-states (Marduk). Unlike Egypt, there were no great
monuments in Mesopotamia because of unavailability of stone and timber. However, archaeologists
have excavated mounds of important structures in mud bricks dried in the Sun.
Achievements of Sumerians
The Sumerians used plough and invented boats moved by wind. They were experts in metal works and
bronze artifacts, and developed skills in astronomy and mathematics, which they used for the
preparation of calendar, land measurement and administration like Egypt. They also invented 60 minutes
in an hour and 360 in a circle. They developed a writing system called Cuneiform (a complex and
difficult wedge shaped pictorial or non-alphabetic system). It was written on clay tablets by pressing
wedge shaped marks and drying it in the Sun. They also contributed in law, the art and sciences.
The Old Babylonian Empire
Babylon, which means gate of the god, was the capital of the Kingdom of Babylon. It was an important
trading and religious center. King Sumuabun, Babylonian first ruler, founded a dynasty in 1894 BC.
The best-known king of the dynasty was Hammurabi (1792-1750 BC). He won fame for developing a
wise and fair code of law called Hammurabi code, which regulated property ownership, business
practices, flood and agricultural controls, labor and family relationships, etc. This code consisted both
economic and criminal laws. The reign of Hammurabi was a “Golden Age” to the Babylon society.
However, in the struggle for power Assyrians replaced Old Babylonian Empire since 9th C BC.
Assyria’s Civilization
Assyrians were called Romans of Asia, since they were conquerors like Romans, won victories in
Roman ways with superb organization, weapons and equipment. They were Semitic speakers originally
from now northern Iraq. Initially Ashur (named after the chief god) and later Nineveh were its capitals.
The king had absolute power and ruled as representative of the chief god, Ahsur. Its army (cavalry,
chariots, and infantry) was efficient and well organized. They also developed siege techniques. The
army used iron weapons. The Empire was divided into provinces. The society consisted of nobles, free
small-scale landowners, private traders, hired persons, and a few slaves. Large part of state revenue
came from taxation on trade. Assyria declined after mid-7th C BC, due to the Medians and Babylonians
attack. Internal power succession weakened it thereby creating an opportunity to its enemies within and
outside. Finally, the New Babylonian Empire replaced it.
New Babylonian Empire (626 BC-539 BC)

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It began when King Nabopolassar controlled Babylon from Assyrians. Babylon achieved its greatest
glory Nebuchadnezzar II (605-562 BC) who rebuilt Babylon on a grand scale. Nebuchadnezzar II main
palace and a fortress stood between Ishtar Gate on the Processional Street and Euphrates River. It
probably included the city’s famous Hanging Gardens, which are one of the Seven Wonders of Ancient
World. The Temple of Marduk and the Ziggurat (a monument known later as Tower of Babel) stood
there. In 539 BC Persian invaders captured Babylon and overthrew New Babylon
B. The Persian Empire
The empire included present day Iran and Afghanistan. Persians called their region land of Aryans and
their language Aryan. The founder of the empire was Cyrus the Great (557-530 BC). The Emperor
called the “Great King, King of Kings” was an absolute ruler ruled as representative of the Persian god,
Ahura Mazda. The ruling official of the empire and the cavalry core of the army came from Persian
nobility, while the commoners provided the infantry core of the army.
The empire was divided into provinces called Satrapies, each governed by an official called a Satrap.
The provinces had much more autonomy if they paid tribute and supplied soldiers for the Persian army.
Persians taught their sons to ride horses, shoot bows and speak the truth. They considered it a disgrace to
lie or to be in debt. Early Persians were farmers. Caravans used gold currency called Darics (named
after Emperor Darius who first issued it in 5th C BC).
Achievements of Persian civilization
A religion called Zoroastrianism founded by a prophet, Zoroaster (Zarathustra). He preached that
there were two opposing principles, good (represented by Ahura Mazda) and evil (represented by
Ahriman). They also developed an efficient “pony express” relay system of postal services. Since 331
BC, the empire became part of Alexander the Great’s Empire.
C. India
Indian civilization began in Indus Valley in 2500 BC, in what is now Pakistan and Western India. The
indigenous people called Dravidians founded the civilization. The ruins of Harappa and Mohenjo-
daro attested Indian civilization. The size of the two cities was large and the rectangular pattern of the
streets and the biggest buildings suggest some kind of urban planning. There was also good supply of
water and drainage system.
The disappearance of the civilization was a sudden and complete for the reason not known much.
Nevertheless, the seemingly reasonable suggestions have been environmental degradation caused by
deforestation, epidemic disease (malaria), change in the course of Indus River and climatic changes. The
Indo-Aryans conquered Northern India and drove Dravidians out of the area and set up civilized states of
ancient and medieval India. However, Southern India remained largely Dravidian.
Achievements of Indian Civilization

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Indians developed a religion called Hinduism, based on the belief of early Indo-Aryans. One basic
common idea of Hinduism is that humankind is condemned to a cycle of births. A person can be reborn
as someone spiritually higher or better or as someone lower and worse. Put it differently, they believed
in transmigration or reincarnation of the soul. Salvation can be achieved in different ways. For
instance, it can be attained by giving up the pleasure of the material world and seeking spiritual
enlightenment under the guidance of a Holy Man (Guru).
As a reform movement against Hinduism, Siddhartha Gautama (Gautama Buddha) founded
Buddhism. Buddhism taught the “middle way” to salvation by avoiding extremes of asceticism on one
side and materialism on the other. Indians also known in epic poetry, architecture, astronomy, Medicine
(known in medical treatises) and in Mathematics they invented Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3…) and
introduced decimal system and zero.
D. China
Shang dynasty (1700-1122 BC), centered in Huang He (Yellow River) Valley was the first dynasty of
China. The Shang society was warlike and aristocratic. The major accomplishments of the period
included the creation of bronze vessels, development of horse drawn war chariots and system of
pictographic (non-alphabetic) writing consisting 50,000 characters called Logographic.
People of western China overthrew the Shang and set up Zhou (Chou) dynasty (1122 BC-256 BC). Its
last period was a period of intense wars between rulers of rival Chinese states, hence called “Warring
States Period” (403-221BC). Despite the wars, literary classics developed and philosophy emerged.
Confucius (his real name, Kong Qiu) was the most influential and respected philosopher. His ideas
called Confucianism stress the need to develop moral character and responsibility. No book existed that
was written by him. His conversations and sayings were recorded in a book called the Analects by his
disciples. Confucianism became the official and dominant ideology of China between 100 BC and 1911
AD. Confucianism was a secular philosophy not a religion. Confucius accepted the existence of
“Heaven” but based his ideas on human reason. He was not concerned in metaphysics but ethics.
Confucius taught that society and states would be happy and prosperous if each individual kept to his or
her proper place: “Let the ruler be a ruler and a subject a subject. Let the father be a father & the son be
a son.” There are five cardinal human relationships: ruler to subject; father to son; husband to wife; elder
brother to younger brother, and friend to friend. However, he put great emphasis on personal ethics,
summarizing ethics as “Do not do to others what you do not want done to you”.
During the latter Zhou period, the rulers of the eastern states fought one another for the control of all
China. In 221 B. C the Qin (Chin) state defeated all its rivals and established China’s first empire under
the first emperor, Shih Huang-ti. The ruler believed in a philosophy rival to Confucianism called
Legalism. It emphasized the importance of authority, efficient administration and strict laws.

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A combination of legalistic administrative practices and Confucian moral values helped Chinese Empire
endure for more than 2000 years. Finally, the Han dynasty replaced the Qin state.
The world is indebted Chinese innovation and discoveries like; the use of coal, production of
porcelain known as China or Chinaware, the wheel barrow, the lacquer used to give a hard, glossy finish
to wood leather, discovered silk made from the cocoons of silk worms. The also started silk industry and
trade, and manufactured paper on cotton cloth since 150 AD. Printing and gun powder first invented in
China but later the Europeans duplicated it.
3. EUROPE
A. Ancient Greece
It was the birthplace of western civilization about 2500 years ago. Its civilization developed chiefly in
small City-States (Polis). A small group of wealthy men governed the people of ancient Greece. This
form of government was called Oligarchy. The best-known city-states were Athens and Sparta. Athens
was the largest in size and population. It had good olive oil and wine but little good land for grain and
hence it imported grain. Athens possessed a very strong naval power. It became the home for direct
democracy. Women were denied voting and other rights and slavery was permitted.
Achievements of Greece Civilization
In Philosophy Socrates, Plato and Aristotle are renowned Greek philosophers. The Greeks also
contributed in art, architecture and sculpture. The Architects and sculptors built the Parthenon on the
Acropolis. In medicine, Hippocrates was considered as the father of medicine. Hippocratic Oath,
which carried out in medical school on graduation first imposed by Hippocrates on his pupil that they
would practice their profession properly. In mathematics, Pythagoras, Eratosthenes, Euclid and
Archimedes were well known. In drama, Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides wrote many
masterpieces. In history, Herodotus (father of history) wrote about the Greco-Persian war and
Thucydides, wrote about the Peloponnesian war that was fought between Athens and Sparta. The
Greek also pioneered in physics and biology. Democracy, Marathon, Olympic and Psychology all have
Greece origin.
The glorious days of Athens ended with the outbreak of the Peloponnesian War (431-404 BC) in which
Athens was defeated by Sparta. In 353 BC, King Philip II of Macedonia, a country North of Greek, set
out to conquer Greek and brought all the city-states under his control in 338 BC. His son, Alexander the
Great conquered the entire Persian Empire. After he died in 323 BC, his generals divided the Empire
among themselves. However, the city-states remained under Macedonian control. The period of Greek
history following Alexander’s death is called Hellenistic Age, which lasted until the Romans control
over Greek in 146 BC.
B. Ancient Rome and the Roman Empire

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According to Roman legend, twin brothers, Romulus and Remus, set up a settlement on the Palatine
Hill around Tiber River in 753 BC. Its first known settlers were Latin, who also inhabited many
neighboring towns in Latium, the region surrounding Rome.
At 600BC, a people who lived North of Latium called Etruscans controlled Rome and other towns in
Latium. They had the most advanced civilization in Italy. They built roads, temples, and public buildings
in Rome. They also promoted trade and introduced the idea of the citizen assembly.
Romans were later able to drive Etruscans, overthrew the monarchy and set up the Roman Republic in
509 BC, which had a senate and citizen assemblies. Two elected officials called Consuls headed the
government. A consul served only a year. The Senate was the most powerful body of the Republic. It
conducted foreign policy, passed decrees or official orders and handled the government’s finance.
Senators served for life. Citizens of Roman Republic were divided into 3 classes. These were:
Patricians (nobles, members of Rome’s oldest and richest families who held all important political
positions in the state). All senators were Patricians. Equities (the richest of the non-nobles who owned
land but were sometimes businessmen as well). Plebeians (ordinary citizen including small farmers,
craftsmen, shopkeepers, laborers, etc.).
There were huge number of slaves in Rome itself, in parts of Italy and “Africa”- former territory of
Carthage. Slaves were used in Latifundia (great landlord properties) as agricultural laborers, domestic
servants and also skilled ones as managers, clerks, accountants and teachers. Unskilled slaves were
treated harshly because they were less valuable and could easily be replaced. After the Great Slave
Revolt led by Spartacus (73-71 BC) was crushed, the captured slaves were crucified all along the main
road from Rome to Capua. The only real hope for a slave was for his/her waster/mistress to set him/her
free. This was called Manumission and the ex-slave became a free man/woman.
Rome was successful in war because it was the most militarists of ancient states of the world. It was a
state organized for war. Expansion overseas made it a mighty Empire in the second and first Cs BC.
Rome came first in conflict with Carthage. Both powers fought for mastery of Mediterranean Sea in 3
struggles called Punic Wars (204 and 146) BC. Conflicts among leaders caused upheaval in Roman
Republic during its last hundred years. Finally, a successful general, Julius Caesar (100 BC-44 BC),
had become sole ruler of the Roman world.
A group of senators who feared that Caesar was about to make himself king assassinated him in 44 BC.
Octavian (Caesar’s adopted son and heir) and Mark Antony (Caesar’s friend), avenged the murder and
then divided power between themselves. Octavian and Antony then fought each other for control of
Rome. Mark Antony sought the support of Queen Cleopatra of Egypt (47-30 BC), and they fell in love.
In 31 BC, Octavian defeated the forces of Antony and Cleopatra and made Egypt Roman province.
In 27 BC, Octavian became the first Roman Emperor and took the title of Augustus, thus named
Augustus Caesars. He avoided the title of emperor and preferred to be called Princeps, meaning first
citizen. His reign marked a long period of stability called Pax Romana (Roman Peace), which lasted

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for 200 years. He set up strong defense along the frontiers and kept the provinces under control. Trade
flourished, and art and literature reached a high point during his reign. He died in 14 A.D.
Romans did not have the high intellectual and cultural achievements as Greeks though they did produce
some fine Latin literature in poetry and prose. To Romans Greeks were empty word mongers. The
Romans were practical people, who excelled, as they believed, in war, arts of government and law.
Achievements of Romans
Civil and military roads, bridges great aqueducts served as a model for engineers. The Romans built
public bath and amphitheaters. The largest amphitheater was the Coliseum. Roman laws became the
base of the legal systems of Western Europeans and Latin Americans. We owe the modern Latin
alphabet that they adopted from Etruscans and Greeks (they had taken their alphabet from Phoenicians
who were the first to use alphabetic system of writing). Latin language remained the language of learned
Europeans and the basis of many European languages. Their architecture inspired building design in
Europe and North America.
Roman Empire permanently split into Western and Eastern Empires after the death of Emperor
Theodosius I in 395 AD. The west grew steadily weaker. Vandals, Visigoths and other Germanic
peoples invaded Spain, Gaul (France) and Northern Africa. In 410 AD, Visigoths looted Rome and the
Empire fall in 476 AD. The Germanic chieftain, Odoacer forced Romulus Augustus (last ruler of the
Empire) leave the throne. Germanic tribes had already begun to crave up the empire into several
kingdoms. The Eastern Empire (Byzantine) survived until 1453 AD, when Turks captured
Constantinople. The Roman Empire transformed its social and economic system to the Middle Ages,
during which Roman Catholic Church replaced the Empire as the unifying force in Europe.
America: The Inca, Maya and Azetc were Native American civilization in western hemisphere. These
civilizations were destroyed by Spain.
A. Maya Empire
It reached at its peak from about 250-900 AD. The Maya produced remarkable architecture, painting,
pottery and sculpture. They made advancement in astronomy and mathematics and developed accurate
calendar and writing system. The Maya worshipped many deities. They built top pyramid. The Maya
built tall pyramids of limestone with small temple on top. Today Maya descendants live in Mexico and
Central America.
B. Inca Empire
The Inca Empire began to expand about 1438. It included parts of present day Columbia, Ecuador, Peru,
Bolivia, Chile and Argentina. Its capital was [Link] Inca were skilled in engineering (built a
network of roads) and crafts (fine articles from gold, silver and other material. They also wove fine
cotton and woolen cloth).

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C. Azetc Empire
The Azetc ruled their empire in Mexico during the 15th and 16th centuries. The Empire included many
cities and towns. Tenochtitlan, in the present Mexico was its capital. Agriculture was the basis of the
economy. Corn was the most important crop. The Azetc worshiped in many gods and goddess and used
pictorial writing system.
3.3. Christianity
3.3.1. Origins of Christianity
It as a monotheistic religion emerged in first century AD in Palestine. It is centered on the life and
teachings of Jesus Christ who had lived and taught in Palestine until his crucifixion in 30 AD under the
Roman governor, Pontius Pilate. The first Christians were Jews in Palestine and Syria. Soon many
gentiles (non-Jews) were converted and their number exceeded Jewish Christians. Finally, Jewish
Christians were either assimilated to gentile Christianity or went back to Judaism and ceased to be
Christian.
3.3.2. Early Christianity and its Expansion
Christians gathered in churches becausc they believed that God intended them to form special groups of
worship. The church kept the Jewish scriptures called Old Testament or Hebrew Bible as its scriptures.
A collection of Christian writing called New Testament was added and Christian Bible includes both the
Old and New Testaments.
Christianity developed a strong church organization. Initially there was difference between leaders the
church called clergy and laity (ordinary people or lay people). In 2nd C AD, the clergy divided in to 3
ranks i.e. Bishops at the top, then Priests and Deacons. The head of each local Christian society was the
Bishop. In time, archbishops and patriarch emerged. There were 5 patriarchates: Rome, Alexandria,
Antioch, Constantinople and Jerusalem.
From mid-3rd C onwards, monasteries where monks and nuns lived in separate communities set up.
The monks who lived together had a leader called Abbot and those monks who lived alone were called
Hermits. Doctrines, which were rejected by the Church, were called Heresies and the followers of these
doctrines were called Heretics. The Church Council (meetings of patriarchs, archbishops and bishops)
approved the Church doctrine.
The Council of Nicaea (325 AD) set up the Doctrine of Holy Trinity, which was later confirmed by the
Council of Constantinople (385 AD). The doctrine says that one God exists in 3 persons: God the
Father, God the Son (Jesus Christ) and God the Holy Spirit and that all these persons are equal. The
council condemned Arianism, a belief that Jesus was not completely divine.
Roman government became suspicious of Christianity because Christians would not make sacrifices in
honor to the Emperor, since they believed that doing this was denying God. But refusal to sacrifices was

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considered as political disloyalty by the Roman government. Then Romans persecuted Christians.
However, the persecution strengthened the faith rather than weakening it. In 312 AD, Roman Emperor
Constantine the Great became Christian and officially declared it as his state’s religion. In 1054 AD,
the Christian Church split in to 2 namelyWestern (centered in Rome and led by Pope) and Eastern
(centered in Constantinople and led by Patriarch) Churches.
Unit Review Questions
Choose the Best Answer from the Given Alternatives
1. Which one of the following best characterizes early states?
A. They tended to guided by egalitarian principles than the later states.
B. They were primarily the creation of priestly class.
C. They were the main agents for spreading democratic principles.
D. They tended to confer political rights to limited sections of society.
2. Which one of the following is true about the relationships among ancient civilization?
A. The city-state of Carthage defeated the Romans in the Punic wars.
B. The Kush kingdom conquered Egypt in the 8th C BC.
C. The Chinese invaded their neighbors including India.
D. The territory of Persia was limited to what is today Iran.
3. Which one of the following is the achievement of the civilization of Meroe?
A. Domestication of cattle C. Building canals on the Nile
B. Smelting iron ore D. Invention of the plough
4. The earliest great civilizations were those of
A. Persia and Egypt C. Aksum and India
B. China and Rome D. Egypt and Mesopotamia
5. Which of the following is true about the democracy of the city-states of ancient Greece?
A. It applied to everybody. C. It applied to all men except the slaves.
B. It applied to citizens only. D. It applied to everybody except the plebeians.
6. Which of the following is not among the known distinguishing characteristics of the civilized states of
the ancient worlds?
A. The availability of wealth and some degree of technology
B. The existence of religion and some sort of secular philosophy
C. Having one form of cities and some degree of literacy
D. The existence of democracy and federal government
7. Where did most ancient civilizations emerge? They emerged in:
A. mountains B. rainforests C. river valleys D. savannas

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UNIT FOUR
THE MEDIEVAL PERIOD OR MIDDLE AGES
4.1. Europe during the Middle Ages (500-1500)
4.1.1. Invasions and the Age of Feudalism
Germanic peoples from Scandinavia (Northern Europe) began moving into Central Europe. By 3rd C
AD, they occupied Northern and Northeastern boundaries of Roman Empire and some of them adopted
Roman civilization, traded with Romans, learned to farm the land and accepted Christianity. However,
most Germans were organized in tribal ways, governed by a chief and as such, Romans called them
Barbarians. In 5th C AD, they began invading Roman territory. In 416 A.D, Visigoths invaded Spain.
Angels, Jutes and Saxons began to settle in Britain in 450. In 480s, the Franks set up a Kingdom in Gaul
(France) and Ostrogoths invaded Italy.
These above barbarian invasions divided Roman Empire into many Kingdoms and the strong central
government of Roman Empire disappeared, destroyed Roman trade, most people became rural. Some
towns were completely abandoned and gradually disappeared, ancient literature, architect, painting and
sculpture were almost forgotten and most of Western Europe was divided into large estates of the land
called Manors.
4.1.2. The Roman Catholic Church
It was the main civilizing force of the early middle Ages. It provided leadership for the people and saved
Western Europe from complete ignorance. Popes, bishops and other Church leaders took over many
functions of government, collected taxes and maintained law and order. Church buildings served as
hospitals for the sick and as inns for travelers. Cathedrals (Churches of Bishops) and Monasteries
(Communities of Monks) became centers of learning.
The Latin alphabet continued to be the alphabet of most European languages except Greek and Slav of
Russia and the Balkans. Latin was the language of Roman Catholic Church and a teaching language in
Medieval Universities. It became the foundation modern languages as Italian, Spanish, Portuguese,
French and Romanian. Roman Catholic Church also became the largest landholder in Western Europe.
Rulers and many feudal lords gave fiefs to the Church in return for services performed by the clergy.
Most bishops and other high-ranking clergymen were noblemen.
4.2. The Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire
Why the Byzantine Empire survived until 1453?
Firstly, geographically it was not as open to barbarian attack as the west, except in the Balkans.
Secondly, it was richer. Lastly, it had more population and more towns and cities with defensive walls
than the West.

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In 330 AD, Roman Emperor Constantinethe Great moved his capital from Rome to Byzantium
(Constantinople). Then, in 395 AD, Roman Empire was divided in to West and East.
In Byzantine Empire, the King was absolute ruler and sole lawmaker. The government controlled almost
every aspect of life and had much influence over Church officials. The empire reached its greatest size
under Emperor Justinian I. He organized many laws of Ancient Romans called Justinian Code.
Justinian built his Empire’s largest and most splendid Church, St. Sophia (now Hagia Sophia) in
Constantinople.
Majority of Byzantines were poor farmers. Merchants and craft workers traded in towns and large cities.
They imported silk, spices and luxury goods from China. Byzantines preserved ancient Greek literature
and philosophy and Roman governmental and legal tradition. Christianity, Greek culture and Roman
customs flourished there and served as a link between ancient and modern European civilization.
Christianity became official state religion and had a strong influence on its art, music and architecture.
The Western Catholic Church and Eastern (Greek and Russian) Orthodox Church split in 11th C, partly
due to the dispute over the authority of the Pope. The Eastern Orthodox did not accept that the Pope of
Rome had jurisdiction over East as well as the west or the right to decide by himself on matters of
Christian doctrine.
After Justinian’s death, the empire was strongly threatened by the invasion of Persians. However,
Heraclius temporarily stopped its collapse by defeating Persians. By 1071 AD, Normans had taken
Southern Italy and the Seljuk Turks defeated Byzantine army at the Battle of Manzikert. Finally, the
Byzantine Empire ended in 1453, when Ottoman Turks conquered Constantinople. The last Emperor,
Constantine XI died while defending the city.
4.3. The Rise and Expansion of Islam
4.3.1. Islam and the Muslim Empire
The Prophet Mohammed, who taught Islam, was born in Mecca, Arabia in 570 AD. He preached that
there is only one God (Allah) and he was God’s messenger. Those who believe in one God and accept
Mohammed as messenger are called Muslims. Muslim is an Arabic word that means one who submits to
God. Islam is an Arabic word to submission.
Mohammed began his teachings in Mecca in 610 AD. However, the Quraysh Arabs and the wealthy
merchants in Mecca considered his teachings a threat to their privileges. There was also fear that Mecca
might lose its religious importance because of the new message. The annual pilgrimage to Ka’ba, a holy
shrine in Mecca had been a source of considerable income for the Meccan merchants. So he and his
followers were persecuted and several attempts were made to kill him. Then Mohammed and his
followers fled to the town of Yathrib, later renamed Medinat al-Nabi or Medina (city of the Prophet).
This event called Hejira, took place in 622 AD, the first year of Islamic calendar.

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The inhabitants of Medina who invited Mohammed to their town came to be known as Ansar (the
Helpers). Those who undertook the Hejira or Emigrants are called Muhajirun. The Ansar and
Muhajirun together formed Sahaba (companions of the Prophet). Umma is an Arabic word which means
the Muslim community.
The four legal law schools of Muslim include:
1. Hanafi: is dominant in Turkey, Syria, Iraq, Central Asia and North India/Pakistan.
2. Maliki: has followers in North Africa, Muslim Spain and West and Central Sudan.
3. Shafimadhhab: is found along Indian Ocean Shores (South Arabia and East Africa to Indonesia).
4. Hanbali: formerly dominant in Syria and Iraq, is now restricted to Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. In
Ethiopia, Shafi’i and Hanafi School of Islamic law are dominant.
Quran and Hadith were sources of Shari’a. They give priority to one or the other two sources of law;
analogy and consensus. Mohammed’s immediate successors were called Caliphs. The first four Caliphs
were Abu Baker, Umar, Uthman and Ali. They all belonged to Quraysh tribe and were related to
Mohammed by marriage. Muslim Arabs began their expansion outside Arabia under the first four
Caliphs. In 7th C, due to the succession to the caliphate the Muslim world had already divided into 2
namely Shiites and Sunnites.
1. Shi’at Ali (Party of Ali) or Shiites
Supporters of Ali believed that the Caliphate (they referred to call it Imamate) should go to the family of
the Prophet represented by Ali and his descendants. They also rejected the consensus of the community.
The first Imam was Ali. Shi’ism (doctrine of Shiites) soon split into two sects. The Twelvers
recognized the 12th descendant of Ali called Mohammed [Link] stronghold is Iran. Those
Shiites who recognized the seventh Imam came to be known as Seveners or Ismailis.
2. Sunnism or Sunni Islam - its followers supported the Sunna, i.e. the way of the Prophet.
The major doctrinal differences between Sunni and Shiite Islam are the sources of laws. The basis of
Sunnite laws are the Quran, Hadith, the consensus of the community and analogy. Quran, Hadith of the
Prophet and of the Imams, the consensus of the Imams, and reason are the four bases of Shiite law.
The rapid success of Muslims was due to financial and military exhaustion of Byzantine and Persian
Empires because of long wars. Moreover, their subjects because of oppressive taxation hated
Byzantines. The Christian populations in fertile province of Iran were opposed to the Persian ruling class
who followed a different religion. Persian Empire had also been weakened by dynastic wars before the
Arab conquest.
4.3.2. The Muslim Dynasties
The Umayyad Dynasty (661-750 AD)

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Muawiya, who was member of aristocratic Meccan family, founded Umayyad dynasty. Damascus was
its capital. Contradiction between politically and economically privileged minority and unprivileged
majority led to a crisis that ended up with the fall of the Umayyad dynasty.
The Abbasids Dynasty (762-1258)
It was set up in 762 AD with Baghdad as its capital. Abbasids became victorious as a result of the
support they got from all the disatisfied elements, mostly non-Arabs. By 1258 AD, Baghdad itself lay in
ruins. With its fall, the history of the Caliphate closed.
The Ottoman Turkish Empire
Turks were nomadic people in Central Asia. They were pagan but converted to Sunni Islam in 10th C
and became firm [Link] leaders led Turkish troops for Abbasid Arab Caliphate. When the
Caliphate broke up into different Muslim states, a number of these states had Turkish rulers, who used
Turkish soldiers. In 1071 AD, a Turkish Sultan, Alp Arslan defeated Byzantine army at the Battleof
Manzikert, in Asia Minor.
Osman or Othman, first Sultan, founded the empire. The Ottoman Empire began in N.W Asia Minor in
1280 AD. In 1453 AD, Sultan Mehmet II Fatih, the Conqueror (1451-81 AD) took Constantinople
(renamed Istanbul) and made it his capital. The empire reached the height of its power under Sultan
Suleiman I “the Magnificent” (1520-66). It was the great Muslim state in the world. The state
machinery was fairly simple but effective.
The Sultan was an absolute autocrat “the shadow (representative) of God on Earth”. His power was
only limited by need to make his policies and decisions agree with the Sharia (the Muslim law), as
interpreted by the Muslim ‘clergy’, the Ulema. Since the Sultan appointed the leaders of the Ulema, its
interpretations were usually what the Sultan wanted. Under the Sultan there was a chief minister called
Grand Vizier, who sometimes commanded the army as well.
The core of the regular, professional army was the infantry of the Janissaries who were recruited from
regular tribute of Christian children taken from [Link] army used matchlock muskets and canons.
The cavalry of the army was the Sipahi. Leaders and their men were given land in Asia Minor and
Europe called Timars, which became hereditary. Ottoman Timars were much like medieval European
fiefs and there was in fact a military feudalism in Ottoman Empire quite similar to Medieval west
Europe.
The aggressive, expansive Ottoman Empire with its powerful, well-disciplined army and good navy
also, was a dangerous enemy to European states. Ottoman economic and military decline from 17th C
onwards removed Ottomans danger from Europe. European states especially, Austria and then Russia
began to push forward aggressively against the Ottoman Empire.
4.3.3. Muslim Legacy

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Islamic civilization (800 and 1200 AD) was not specifically Muslim. However, Arabic grammar, law
and theology are some aspects of the civilization with definitely Muslim character. Culture of medieval
Islam was multi-racial. Arabs, Jews, Persians, Turks, Berbers and Spaniards all contributed to its
development. Though Islamic civilization borrowed freely from Greeks, Persians and Hindus, it was
also creative and original. The writings of Aristotle, translated by Syrian Christians, inspired Muslim
thinkers such as Al-Kindi, Ibn Sina (Avicenna), and Ibn Rushd (Averroes).
Al-Kindi, called “Philosopher of the Arabs” exalted Logic and Mathematics. He wrote and edited many
books on Science, Psychology, and Medicine and Music .Ibn-Sina combined Philosophy and Medicine.
He wrote a medical encyclopedia, which was translated into Latin and remained a textbook for
European medical students until the 17th C. Ibn-Rushd was known for his works on the philosophy of
Aristotle and on Muslim theologians.
The Muslims made great advancement in the following fields:
In Mathematics: Algebra, Plane and Spherical Trigonometry, the Geometry of Planes, Cones and
Cylinders. Though they were probably Hindu invention, “Arabic Numerals” were transmitted to Europe
by Arabs. They applied mathematical knowledge to business accounting, land surveying, astronomical
calculations and mechanical devices.
In Medicine: Hunayn-ibn-Ishaq developed the science of Optics. Physicians studied both Botany and
Chemistry in order to discover curative drugsand also antidotes to various poisons. It was al -Razi, a
Persian, who 1st distinguished Smallpox from Measles.
In Astronomy: Muslims used Astrolabes (devices for measuring the height of stars) and built primitive
versions of Telescope. Muslim scientists knew that the earth was round and that it revolved around the
Sun, long before Copernicus and Galileo.
In Geography: Descriptive Geography was their favorite subject.
In History: History was a major discipline, too. Muslim Historians were the first to try to structure
History by looking for patterns in the rise and fall of dynasties, peoples and civilizations. For example,
Ibn-Khaldun linked the rise of states with the existence of a strong group feeling between the leaders
and their supporters.
In Architecture: Muslim architects devoted some of their time and talents to designing palaces, schools
and other buildings. Paintings and sculpture were rare until modern times. Calligraphy was an
important art form, used for walls of public buildings as well as manuscripts.
4.4. Medieval Society
4.4.1. Feudalism
Medieval Europe was feudal in its rural economy. Feudalism describes relations of peasants dominated
by lords. It began even in the last period of the Roman Empire. In the late Roman Empire, there was the

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existence of dependent peasants called coloni. The coloni were not slaves but they owed labour services
to their land lords and could not leave their land lord’s land. They were very similar to the serfs of the
middle ages. In the early middle Ages, coloni simply became what were called serfs.
In large areas of Europe, the feudal rural economy operated as follows:
A lord had a manor or several manors. On a manor lived peasants, many of them serfs, who cultivated
the land. The serfs belonged to the lord and they could not leave the manor without his permission. The
lord kept part of the land of the manor under his own direct control. This land, called the demesne, was
cultivated for the lord by unpaid, compulsory corvee labour of his serfs. The produce of this land went
to the lord. The peasants also paid feudal dues, in kind like cheese, eggs, cloth, honey… or in money,
to the lord. The peasants were allowed to cultivate some of the land of the manor to support themselves
and their families. A lord also had jurisdiction (legal authority) over his serfs. In his manor court, the
lord or his agent heard cases and could impose money fines as punishments. This right was very
profitable for the lord. Great lords had the right to decide major criminal cases in their courts and hang
criminals for crimes like murder.
The Feudal society was sharply divided into the privileged upper class (kings, nobles, higher clergy and
nights) and the unprivileged lower class (the great mass of Peasants or Serfs). Position in society was
determined by birth. Below the king stood powerful lords who pledged him allegiance and military
service. Because Kings were weak, local nobles controlled their own territory.
Nobles made laws, levied taxes, dispensed justice, and waged war, thereby assuming functions of the
government. They govern people by their personal whim or desire i.e. there was rule of men as opposed
to rule of law. In central and Eastern Europe serfdom started later than in Western Europe but it became
more common and harsher at the end of the middle ages, and lasted longer.
Serfdom and corvee were imposed on peasants at the bottom of society. Peasants were the largest group
of people. Nearly all of the peasants were serfs (peasants who by law had to work the land they were
born on). They depended on the nobles for their livelihood. The serf was not a free man, for he was
bound to the soil and could not leave lord’s land without permission. In medieval Europe, burden and
benefits were not equally shared.
Military Feudalism during the Middle Ages
It was found at the top of society in relation between lords and their vassals. Cavalry became
increasingly important in war in middle ages. Kings and great lords needed men who were experienced
in fighting on horseback wearing armor and carrying a shield, spear (lance) and sword. These men were
called knights.
In the early middle Ages, a king or great lord to get knights was to give a knight land. The land
provided the material resources for knight, to equip themselves with horses, armor and weapons. In any
case, knights would get land if they agreed to serve a king or great lord. Vassalage was a binding

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agreement between the king and the lords and their vassals, where the vassals were obliged to render
their lord with military service.
The king was at the apex of the feudal society. Powerful lords stood immediately below the king. These
lords received fiefs (grant of land) from the king and made allegiances and military services. This
relation called Vassalage. The lesser lords were vassals of the powerful lords and received a land called
fifes in exchange for pledges of allegiance and military services. The lowest and most numerous group
of nobles that constituted the bulk of the feudal armies were called the [Link] mutual obligation
between the lord and the vassal was hereditary and the serfs could not advance to higher social class.
Feudalism was characterized by continuous disputes, invasion and war.
Manorialism
Manorialism was the economic system of Europe from the end of the West Roman Empire (476 AD) to
1200’s. Manor is a large estate controlled by a lord and worked by peasants. Manors supplied food,
clothing, shelter and nearly everything else needed by the lords and peasants. Most manors were made
up of the lord’s land and small plots of land held by the peasants. The lord lived in the manor house,
which was usually surrounded by a garden, an orchard and farm buildings. The peasants’ huts (cottage)
were clustered nearby. Manors also included a church, a mill and a press for making wine.
The peasants depended on the lord for protection from enemies, for justice and for what little
government there was. The peasants farmed both the lord’s land and their own. They were bound to the
soil. This means that they were part of the property, and they remained on the land if a new lord acquired
it. Unlike slaves, they could not be sold apart from the land. Peasant rarely traveled far from the manor.
European peasants were known as serfs. The manorial system first began to decline in Western Europe
when trade and towns revived in the 11th C. The revival brought back an economic system based on
payment with money.
4.4.2 The Rise of Trade and Towns
In the 11th C towns appeared along the main trade routes. Most early towns developed near a fortified
castle, church or monastery where merchants could stop for protection and the location of natural
resources. Many people moved to towns in search of jobs. As towns grew in size, the variety of
occupations carried on by the inhabitants increased. These craftsmen produced goods for merchants to
sell to the towns people. Some peasants farmed the land outside the towns and supplied the towns’
people with food. Medieval towns, which arose mainly because of the growth of trade, encouraged
craftsmanship and trading activities.
4.4.3. Medieval Culture
[Link]. Art
Towns’ life encouraged greater interest in art and learning. The gathering together of large number of
people, the increase in trade and travel, and the freedom and security offered by cities and towns

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encouraged art and learning. Two noteworthy achievements were the building of cathedrals and the
growth of universities.
Styles of Church Architecture in Western Europe
1. Romanesque: flourished between about 1000 and 1150. It had the Romans influence of architecture
in the early Christian Churches. It had massive walls, strong columns, rounded arches and doomed roof.
2. Gothic Architecture: had high towers and walls, pointed arches and leaning arches (called flying
buttresses), large windows and tall pointed arches. Artists of many kinds lavished their skill on the
cathedrals.
[Link]. Education
The Christian Church played an important part in shaping European formal education during the Middle
Ages. Religious authorities controlled most of formal education. In the monastery and cathedral schools,
students studied such subjects as church music, theology and Latin; the official language of the Western
Church. Students also taught subjects like grammar, rhetoric and logic (Trivium group) and arithmetic,
geometry, astronomy and harmonics (Quadrivium group). These two groups together called the seven
liberal arts. Many young people who did not receive formal schooling became apprentices to skilled
masters and learned a trade. Young men learned the arts and values of chivalry, which prepared them for
military or government careers.
The first modern universities developed in Europe during the 1100’s. The universities did not originate
as place or groups of buildings. They began instead as collections of scholars organized into
corporations with certain privileges and responsibilities. The University of Paris, the largest in
Europeduring the 13th c, served as a model for the majority of northern European universities. Most of
these universities in northern Europe developed from teachers’ guilds at cathedral schools. The guilds
charged a fee to train students and to grant degrees. They were run by corporations of teachers.
4.4.4. The Crusades
Crusades were Christian military expeditions organized mainly to recapture Palestine (Holy Land) from
the Muslim Seljuk Turks from 1096-1291. The Turks crushed the Byzantines at the Battle of Manzikert
in Asia Minor in 1071. The Turks had become Muslims. However, unlike Muslim Arabs, they made it
difficult for Christian pilgrims to reach the holy place. In 1095, Byzantine Emperor Alexius Comnenus
asked Urban II, Pope of the Roman Catholic Church for assistance in fighting the Turks. Urban agreed
to help. In 1095, at the Council of Clermont, France, Urban called for a crusade. The crusaders, who
came from Western Europe, organized eight major expeditions between 1096 and 1270. Kings, nobles
and thousands of knights, peasants and towns people took part in the crusades.
To gain permanent control of the Holy Land and to protect the Byzantine Empire were the two stated
goals of the crusade. Not all the crusaders however, joined the expeditions for religious reasons. For
instance, the French knights wanted more land. The Italian merchants intended to involve and then, if

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possible, to control the trade of Middle Eastern Ports. Many priests and monks wanted valuable
religious relics. Large numbers of poor people joined the expeditions simply to escape the hardships of
their lives.
The First Crusade (1096-1099)
An enthusiastic preacher known as Peter the Hermit and a knight called Walter the Penniless led a
group that rushed a head of the official expedition. One group of the crusade army was the untrained,
undisciplined and less equipped peasant force. The main armies sent by Pope Urban II consisted chiefly
of well-trained French and Norman knights. Byzantine forces also joined the crusaders. In 1097, the
crusaders defeated the Muslims near Nicea, in northwest Turkey. One part of the crusaders marched
toward Jerusalem and recovered the Holy City (Jerusalem) after six weeks of fighting in 1099. After this
victory, most of the crusaders returned home.
The Second Crusade (1147-1149)
In 1144, the Turks conquered the County of Edessa, one of the four Christian states in the conquered
land by the crusaders. The threat to the other Christian states brought about the second crusade. King
Louis VII of France and King Conrad III of Germany led the armies of the Second Crusade. However,
there were disagreements between their armies, and the Muslim forces defeated them before they
reached Edessa.
The Third Crusade (1189-1192)
In 1187, Saladin, the Sultan of Egypt and Syria, united Muslims and easily defeated a Christian army at
the Battle of the Horns of Hattin, and triumphantly entered Jerusalem. Thus, the fall of Jerusalem in
the hands of Muslim started the third crusade. Emperor Frederick I (Barbarossa) of Germany, King
Richard I (the Lion-Hearted) of England and King Philip II (Augustus) of France led the third
crusaders. Frederick drowned (died) in Asia Minor in 1190 on his way to the Holy Land. Quarrels
among Richard, Philip and other leaders limited the success of the crusaders. Philip returned home to
plot against Richard. Richard attempted to recapture Jerusalem, but failed. Before Richard left for home,
however, Philip negotiated a treaty with Saladin and consequently, the Muslims allowed Christian
pilgrims enter Jerusalem.
The Fourth Crusade (1202-1204)
It resulted from the failure of the third Crusade to recapture Jerusalem. However, the crusaders became
involved in affairs of Byzantine Empire and never reached their original goal.
The Children’s Crusade (1212)
Thousands of boys and girls from about 8-10 years old from France and Germany became convinced
that they could recover Jerusalem. They believed God would deliver the Holy City to them because they

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were poor and faithful. These children expected God to part the waters of the Mediterranean Sea so that
they could cross safely to Jerusalem. Consequently, none of the children reached the Holy Land.
The Fifth Crusade (1217-1221)
The Christians captured the town of Damietta in Egypt. However, other efforts failed, and the crusades
soon gave up Damietta in exchange for a truce (peace treaty).
The Sixth Crusade (1228-1229)
Emperor Frederick II of the Holy Roman Empire led it. He negotiated a peace treaty with the Sultan
in which the Sultan gave Jerusalem to the Christians. However, the Muslims seized Jerusalem again in
1244. This resulted in the seventh crusade.
The Seventh Crusade (1248-1254)
Louis IX of France who revived the idea of winning the Holy Land by attacking cities in Egypt led this
crusade. However, Louis was captured and then ransomed. Louis remained in the Holy Land for four
years, and in 1270, he led the Eighth Crusade. Louis died soon afterward, however, when a plague
broke out in his army.
N.B: Europeans lost interest in the Holy Land and rather turned their attention westward to the Atlantic
Ocean. In 1492, Christopher Columbus sailed to the New World. Europeans looked toward America.
They left the Holy Land to the Muslims.
Consequences of the Crusades
The crusaders failed to crush Muslim power in the Holy Land; however, they saved the Byzantine
Empire from falling into Muslim hands until 1453. The crusaders stimulated economic growth by
bringing increased trade between cities that bordered the Mediterranean Sea. The crusades also
encouraged commerce and weakened the power of the nobility, while they helped strengthen the
Catholic Church. Crusades introduced new products such sugar, rice and apricot into Western Europe.
Western Europeans learned how to build better ships and make maps that are more accurate. West
European began to use magnetic compasses to tell directions.
4.5. The Middle Ages in the Far East
4.5.1. India
From about 300 to 500, India had a period of greatness. By about 500, however, this period of peace and
prosperity in India ended with new external attacks. The first attack came from the White Huns,
people related to the Huns under Attila who had attacked the Roman Empire. Then other bands of
raiders came down from the mountain passes in the northwest. By about 700, these raids had grown into
full-scale invasions. Arabs, Persians, and savage tribesmen (Turks and Mongols) pushed into northern
India. These invading groups fought not only against the people of India but also among themselves.

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The Turkish invaders made their capital at Delhi in northcentral India. In time, Mongol raids led by
Tamerlane threatened the power of the Turks. Tamerlane swept into India in 1398. Within the short-
lived stay in India, he sacked Delhi and caused a greater loss of life and property than any other
conqueror. The Turkish rulers never fully recovered from their defeat at Tamerlane’s hands.
After 1500, the Turks were overthrown by a new Mongol invasion that set up the Mogul (Persian for
Mongol) empire in India. Religion exercised strong influence on Indian culture. After 800, Buddhism
ceased to be an important religion in India but it left a deep impression on Indian thought and learning.
Indian art and learning also influenced by Islamic people invaders between 700 and 1500. When the
Muslim peoples invaded India, they destroyed much of old India’s sculpture and architecture, but
brought new architectural ideas of their own. For instance, the Taj Mahal, a graceful, stately tomb
erected in the 1600’s.
4.5.2. China
1. The Sui dynasty (581-618): reunified China after almost 400 years of division. By 605, the Grand
Canal linked the Yangtze Valley with northern China. The canal made the grain and other products of
the south more easily available to support the political and military needs of the north.
2. The Tang dynasty (618-907): was a period of an age of prosperity and great cultural
accomplishments. Itscapital was Chang’an (now Xian). Some of China’s greatest poets, including Li
Bo and Du Fu, wrote during the Tang period. Buddhism remained an enormous cultural influence, but
followers adapted it to Chinese ways. However, in the 9th C, a revival of Confucianism began. The
Tang Empire ended in 907 due to rebellion. From 907-960, five dynasties struggled for succession.
1. The Song dynasty (960-1279): reunified China in 960. It introduced two major changes inside China.
Firstly, rulers firmly established a system of civil service examination that had begun during the Tang
period. Thus, they completed the shift of social and political power from aristocratic families to officials
selected based on talent. Secondly, it established Neo-Confucianism as the official state philosophy.
During the Song period, rice production had increased. The Chinese invented Gun powder, the magnetic
compass, and moveable type for printing. Art, philosophy and literature also flourished. Hard glazed
porcelains and magnificent landscape paintings were major fine art achievements.
2. Southern Song dynasty: In 1126, the Song dynasty lost northern China to invaders from Manchuria.
The Song then moved their capital from Kaiteng to Hangzhou, and the dynasty became known as the
Southern Song. In 1279 the Mongol warriors led by Kublai Khan from the north defeated the Song
dynasty and established the Yuan Dynasty.
3. The Yuan dynasty (1279-1368): During the Yuan period, led by Kublai Khan all China had come
under foreign rule for the first time. Marco Polo, a trader from Venice, traveled widely in China from
1275 to 1292, and returned home with glowing accounts of the highly civilized country he called
Cathay. The Mongols, ruled China harshly. During the mid-14th C, rebellions drove the Mongols out of
China and led to the establishment of the Ming dynasty.
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4. The Ming dynasty (1368-1644): marked a period of stability and prosperity. Literature and art
flourished again.
5. The Manchu or Qin dynasty (1644 to 1912): ruled China after the Manchu people of Manchuria
invaded China.
4.5.3. Japan
During the late 15th C, new ideas and technology began arriving in Japan from China. Japanese borrowed
the Chinese system of writing and adopted their advanced methods of calculating the calendar. Japanese
brought Confucianism from China. Buddhism also came to Japan from China and Korea.
Prince Shotoku (r. 593-622) encouraged the Japanese to adopt Chinese ideas. He tried to adopt the
Chinese system of centralized imperial rule. In 645, Kotoku became emperor and began the Taika
Reform, a program that introduced more features of the Chinese model of government. It also
introduced a central system of taxation and a land distribution program. In 858, Kotoku and his court fell
under the control of a powerful noble family called Fujiwaras. They gained power by intermarrying
with the imperial family. The lords who controlled the estates were called the daimyo. The daimyo hired
bands of warriors known as samurai to protect their lands and the peasants who worked them.
Two of the most powerful bands of samurai were headed by the Taira family and Minamoto family.
These families fought for control of the imperial court. In 1160, the Taira family seized power from the
Fujiwara. However, Taira control ended in 1185, when the Minamoto clan defeated the family. The
Minamoto family, headed by Yoritomo, became the strongest family in the country. Yoritomo set up his
military headquarters in Kama Kura. Yoritomo claimed to be the protector of the emperor and ruled in
his name. In 1192, the emperor gave Yoritomo the title Shogun (general). Yoritomo’s military
government called Shogunate. Shogun rule lasted until 1867 in the name of the emperor.
In 1336, a samurai leader Takauji Ashikaga gained control of Kyoto and established the shogunate in
Kyoto. The Ashikaga family ruled Japan for almost 235 years. But the family’s control was weak, and
the last 100 years of Ashikaga rule was marked by constant warfare among local samurai bands.
The first Europeans to reach Japan in 1543 were the Portuguese sailors. In mid-16th C, Catholic
missionaries from Spain and Portugal arrived in Japan along with some traders. During the early 17 th C,
traders arrived from the Netherlands and England.
4.6. The Development of Early Capitalism in the Middle Ages
4.6.1. Capitalism Defined
The period from 1000-1500 can be called Later Middle Ages. In this period, Europe’s Economy
expanded. There was some decline of European economy in the 14th C resulting from war and plague.
The Hundred Years War (1337-1453), which was fought between England and France interrupted
trade and exhausted the economies of both nations. In addition, the breakdown of feudalism and

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Manorialism caused civil war throughout most of Europe. The Black Death (1347-1352), an outbreak of
plague, killed about a fourth of Europe’s population. Severe droughts and floods also brought death,
diseases and famine. From c. 1000- c.1500, however, capitalist relations were developing.
Important Characteristics of a Capitalist Economy include:
1. Land is an absolute private property, able to be bought and sold.
2. Lending money at interest.
3. A “Market economy”, in which goods of all kinds are produced for sale.
4. Labour is free in order to work for money wages with no slavery or serfdom.
5. Businessmen are respected and profit making is strongly motivated in society.
6. Accumulating money to use to make more money (investment).
N.B: Other characteristics of a capitalist society such as the legal equality of all citizens however, did
not come in most of Europe until after the French Revolution of 1789.
4.6.2. Towns and Long Distance Trade
Between 1000 and 1300, towns and cities grew in size and number, and long distance and other trade
expanded. Capitalist relations developed most quickly in urban centers and in connection with the long
distance trade. Urban revival began around 1000.
Towns and cities had several, different economic activities. These were:
All provided a market for the sale of goods, centers of manufactories, centers of administration, religious
and cultural centers and center of universities and banks. The greatest cities like Venice in Italy became
completely independent city republics and in Germany, important cities were “free cities” under only the
German Emperor and were able to manage their own affairs with almost no outside control.
Towns and cities followed their own rules and regulations. There was no serfdom in towns and cities.
“City air is free air” was a German saying at the time. However, towns and cities were not democratic.
The richest citizens, usually merchants, controlled their administration.
Technology: the Middle Ages made important advances in technology. These were a better plough, the
stirrup, iron horse shoes, compass, a better loom for weaving, mechanical clock, water and wind power
for grinding grain, guns and printing with moveable metal. Printing helped to spread literacy and was the
next great “knowledge revolution” after the invention of writing in the ancient world and the
development of an alphabetic system by the Phoenicians.
Unit Review Questions
Choose the Best Answer from the Given Alternatives
1. What was the key feature of politics in the Byzantine Empires?
A. The absolute nature of the power of the emperor
B. Decentralization of power and authority among various elites

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C. Persistent of peasant rebellions against absolute monarchies

D. Temporary alliance between the nobility and the bourgeois against the king
2. Which one of the following was important in the development of early capitalism in Europe?
A. Railways B. Slave plantation C. Long distance trade D. The chemical industry
3. Which one of the following Medieval Islamic scholars contributed for the development of the field
of medicine?
A. Ibn-Khaldun B. Al- Bakri C. Ibn- Sina D. Ibn Ishaq
4. Which one of the following was not the major characteristic of the Dark Age?
A. Societies became urban centered C. Greeco Roman civilization flourished
B. Feudalism flourished D. Early capitalism emerged
5. Which one of the following was an achievement of Muslim Arab Civilization?
A. Use of Latin Grammar B. Democracy C. Calligraphy D. Gothic paintings
6. What was the manor in medieval Europe?
A. Peasants who did not have a land of their own to cultivate
B. A large castle built for defensive purposes
C. A large self-sufficient estate owned by a feudal lord
D. Knights who owned loyalty to kings
7. What was the origin of the division between Sunni and Shias in Islam?
A. The issue of succession to the caliphate C. The issue of when to undertake a jihad
B. The question of relationship with other religions D. The issue of where to locate Islam’s capital

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UNIT FIVE
THE ETHIOPIAN REGION AND THE HORN OF AFRICA UP TO 1270
5.1. Peoples and Languages of the Ethiopia Region and the Horn of Africa
Northeast Africa is generally taken as the cradle of humankind. The oldest human fossil Lucy or
Dinkenesh discovered at Hadar, Afar. Since the oldest fossils so far discovered are found in Ethiopia
and the Horn (Awash and Omo basins), this became a proof for the belief that the Horn of Africa was
the original homeland of humanity.
In classifying languages, linguists compare lists of basic words from a large number of languages.
Languages, which belong to the same group, share certain basic vocabulary that trace back to a common
origin. Linguists refer to this shared origin as the proto-language or the ancestral language.
The four super families or proto-languages of Africa are Afro-Asiatic, Nilo- Saharan, Niger-Congo
and Khoisan super families. In terms of number of speakers, Niger-Congo is the largest super-family
followed by Afro-Asiatic, then Nilo Saharan and Khosian. Speakers of Niger-Congo are found in
western, central, eastern and southern parts of Africa. Afro-Asiatic and Nilo-Saharan are spoken in the
Ethiopian region and the Horn of Africa. The speakers of the Khoisan super-family are found in
Southern Africa.
Afro Asiatic and Nilo Saharan Super families
1. Afro-Asiatic: is spoken in northern, central, northeastern and the Horn of Africa. It has six families
such as Berber, Chadic, ancient Egyptian spoken in northern, central and northeastern Africa while
Cushitic, Omotic and Semitic spoken in Ethiopia and the Horn.
1.1. The Cushitic Family: The majority of the peoples of Ethiopia and the Horn are speakers of
Cushitic family. It is has four branches.
A. Southern Cushitic: spoken outside the Horn of Africa in Tanzania
B. North Cushitic: represented by a single language spoken by the Beja people, who are living in
northwestern Eritrea and the adjoining districts of the Republic of Sudan
C. Central Cushitic (the Agaw languages): includes Bilen, Agaw, Hamtang, Qimant and Awign. Bilen
is spoken in Bogos or Keren in Eritrea, Hamtang in Lasta and Wag and in the middle Tekeze valley.
Qimant is spoken around the Belaya Mountain in Metkel, Awign in Metekel and Agaw Midir region.
D. East Cushitic: divided into Highland East Cushitic (Hadiya, Kambata, Sidama, Gedeo, Alaba,
Burjiand Libid) and Lowland East Cushitic (Oromo, Afar, Somali, Konso, Gidole, Ebore, Dassenech
and Saho). Central Cushitic and East Cushitic are spoken in Ethiopia and the Horn.

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1.2. The Omotic Family: is spoken mainly by the peoples living in Omo valley in Southern and
Southwestern Ethiopia. Speakers of this family are Walayta, Gamu, Gofa, Dawro, Konta, Gimira, Kafa,
Maji, Ari, Sheko, Dorze and Yem.
1.3. The Semitic Family also called Ethio-Semitic is classified into North Ethio-Semitic and South
Ethio-Semitic. North Ethio-Semitic includes Tigra, Tigrigna and Geez. Geez had long ceased to be a
spoken language of the region. However, it still survives in the Orthodox Church of Ethiopia as literary
[Link] is spoken in Tigray as well as in Eritrea. Tigra is spoken only in Eritrea. South
Ethio-Semitic is divided into (a) ‘Outer’ South Ethio Semitic (Gafat and Gurage). Gafat language is a
dead language because no one speaks it and (b) ‘Transversal’ South Ethio-Semitic (Amhara, Argoba,
Harari and Silti people).
2. The Nilo-Saharan super family-The majority of the speakers live in Beni-Shangul Gumuz and
Gambella. The main speakers are Anuak, Nuer, Majangir, Mien, Berta, Gumuz, Komo, Ma’o and
Kunama. Ethiopia and the Horn consisted ethnically and linguistically diversified people. It was for this
reason that Italian historian, Conti-Rossini, the famous Italian scholar of Ethiopian history, described
Ethiopia as “Museum of peoples”.
5.2. The Aksumite Kingdom
5.2.1. The Pre- Aksumite States
A. Punt
Our evidences concerning Punt come mainly from Egyptian writing system called hieroglyphics. The
ancient Egyptians used to refer to the territory to the south of Egypt as the Land of Punt. With this
region, they maintained closer commercial and cultural relations since ancient times. It is believed that
wheat, barley and the plough were introduced to the Horn from Egypt. Queen Hatshepsut of Egypt (r.
1490-1468) dispatched the best-known expedition to Punt state. The expedition brought back from the
Land of Punt products like incense, sandalwoods, ivory, rhinoceros horn, gold, ebony, leopards and their
skins and various types of live monkeys. The Egyptian used incense and myrrh were used for ritual
purposes.
The precise location of Punt state was not clearly known. The trade between Egypt and Punt was
conducted both on land and sea routes. The Egyptian fleets brought to the Punt mostly finished products,
such as necklaces, axes, daggers, trinkets and bracelets.
B. Damat
It was located a little to the south of Aksum. Damat had maintained a very strong contact with South
Arabia. For instance, unknown king of Damat used the South Arabian politico-religious title of
Mukarrib. Moreover, one of the languages by which these inscriptions are written was Sabean, which
had its origin in South Arabia. Damat is the immediate precursor of Aksum.

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C. Pre Aksumite Center of Cultural Development

According to archaeologist sites like Yeha, Coloe, Matara, Hawelti- Melazo, Kaskase, Matara and
Adulis were centers of well-organized communities as well as pre-Aksumite centers of culture and trade
in the Horn of Africa.
5.2.2. The Aksumite State
Scholars have suggested the rise of the Aksumite state to the middle of the 2nd C B.C. Based on some
available evidences; scholars argued that civilizations in the region were largely the results of internal
developments, i.e. the growth of agriculture and the beginning of a sedentary way of life. Aksum itself
had inherited its civilization from the state that flourished in the region before it rather than creating a
new culture of its own or inheriting it from South Arabia. However, Aksum and South Arabia share
some common features like worshipping the same gods and using the same script. Our information
about Aksum comes from inscriptions (inscribed in Sabean, Greek and Geez languages) and other
written sources.
The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea
It was a trade manual written in the middle of 1st C A.D by an unknown Greek speaking sailor. It was
in this document Aksum was mentioned for the first [Link] gives a detailed account of internal and
external trade of Aksum and the well-known ports on the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean coasts. It also
describes the social and economic life of the coastal people. According to Periplus of the Erythrean Sea
Adulis was the port of the city of Aksum and a man named Zoskales was the king of Aksum. Zoskales
was well acquainted with the Greek language, which was lingua-franca of the Greco-Roman World.
5.2.3. The Expansion of Aksum
Aksum territorial extent included Beja lands in the north, country of the Kunama and Tekeze River in
the west, and Babel Mandeb in the southeast. The rivalry over the ivory trade led to frequent clashes
between the Aksumite state and the kingdom of Meroe in the Sudan. Eventually, Meroe was destroyed
by the military campaign of King Ezana in mid 4th C A.D.
The Aksumite attempt to expand to South Arabia came from the desire to control and monopolize the
Red Sea trade on both sides. Around the early 3rd C A.D the Aksumite soldiers defeated the rival
kingdoms in South Arabia and controlled parts of the Peninsula. This expansion and military strength of
Aksum enabled it to emerge as one of the three powerful empires of the world with Byzantine and
Persia. In fact, the Aksumite control over South Arabia did not last long. In the 6th C, the Aksumite king
Kaleb led large military expeditions to South Arabia and was able to control the region. This Aksumite
military occupation continued until the last quarter of the 6th C.
5.2.4. Aksumite State Structure and Society

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The Aksumite state was based on a well-organized society. Aksumite society constituted different social
groups. The great majority of the population consisted of the peasantry, while the rest included artisans,
merchants and [Link] Aksumite state structure was more or less monarchical. The kings were at the
center of the political power. Nevertheless, the Aksumite kings did not have absolute power. They
appointed officials to various provinces of the empire. These officials ruled the tributary states. In return
for their services, peasants paid tribute to the officials.
5.2.5. Aksumite Economy
Agriculture and trade were the dominant economic activities. However, trade yielded much revenue for
the Aksumite state than agriculture. Aksum enjoyed good trade relations with the outside world through
the Red Sea and land routes (with Egypt, Mediterranean, Meroe and south and southwestwards of
Ethiopian region). The center of Aksumite international trade was the port of Adulis, which rendered
shipping services. Merchants from Egypt, India and China came to trade in Adulis.
According to the Periplus, the export items of Adulis consisted mainly of ivory, tortoise-shell,
rhinoceros horn, hippopotamus hides, slaves, gold, and live animals like apes, baboons, and giraffes
while, the import items came mainly from Egypt, the Mediterranean region, Arabia, Syria and India.
The items included textiles, robes, dyed cloaks of many colors, glassware, brass, copper sheets, drinking
vessels, wine, olive oil, silver and gold plates for the king, clay utensils and iron tools like spears, axes,
adzes and swords..
To promote the trade Aksumite kings issued coins of gold, silver, copper and bronze. Some of the early
Aksumite coins bore legends in Greek, while the later coins carried inscriptions in Geez language. The
earliest Aksumite coins also carried representations of the sun's disk and the moon's crescent. However,
beginning from the 4th C A.D it was replaced by the cross of Christ.
A Greek traveler, Cosmas Indicopleustes in the 6th C A.D produced a book entitled the Christian
Topography. According to him, the Aksumite kings had sent their commercial agents to the lands to
the South of Blue Nile, known as Sasu, to buy gold. They made extensive use of barter, mainly in their
domestic trade with the gold producing regions of the west and southwest. ‘Silent trade’ (exchanged
their goods without verbal communication) was conducted between the Aksumite merchants and the
local people of the southwest.
N.B: Because of internal and external trade, the Aksumite state became prosperous. The wealth
particularly obtained from the export trade strengthened the power of the Aksumite kings, who extended
their hegemony over the territories on both sides of the Red Sea.
5.2.6. The Introduction and Expansion of Christianity into Aksum
The cultural influence of the eastern Mediterranean region on Aksum is clearly reflected in the religion
and the writing system of the Aksumite civilization. The Aksumites followed a traditional religion,
based on the worship of various gods. The gods were local (Astar, Mahrem, Baher and Arwe), Greek

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(Zeus, Ares and Poseidon) and South Arabian (Almoqah). However, Christianity introduced to Aksum
the reign of Ezana in the 4th C A.D by a Syrian Christian, Fremnatos, who was appointed by the
Alexandrian patriarch Atenatewos as the first Bishop of Aksum in the name of Aba Selama.
Ezana was the first Aksumite king to be converted to Christianity. However, he was not the first convert
in the empire. The Ethiopian Church was able to appoint its own patriarch in1958. After the arrival of
the Nine Saints to Aksum from Syria, Lebanon and Cyprus the expansion of Christianity got momentum
towards end of the 5th C.
The Nine Saints translated the Bible and other religious literatures from Greek to Geez with the help of
local clerics, converted many people to Christianity, built several Churches, introduced a monastic life to
Ethiopia and established several monasteries. Some of the legacies of Aksumite state were monumental
obelisks, palaces and churches,writing system, numerical system, iron tools, ornaments, bricks, pottery,
coins and tombs,
5.2.7. The Decline of Aksum
The beginning of the decline of Aksumite power was closely linked with Kaleb’s second military
expedition. In the first expedition, Kaleb successfully restored Aksumite power in South Arabia
However, some years later South Arabia regained its independence. At the time, Kaleb was not
enthusiastic about taking action to retake South Arabia. However, Timothy III, patriarch of Alexandria
and the Byzantine Emperor, Justinian called Kaleb to take action against South Arabia. The Patriarch
wanted to ensure the protection of the Christian community in South Arabia. Justinian also determined
to overcome the challenge from the reviving Persian Empire in the 6th C. Besides rescuing the Christian
community, Emperor Justinian also wanted to protect the eastern trade from falling into the hands of the
Persian Empire.
Kaleb undertook the mission half-heartedly and this led Aksum to face the superior economic and
military power of the Persian Empire. Being victorious in this war, the Persians inflicted a blow to the
Aksumite economic and political interest in the Red Sea. With that, Aksum lost the control over the
Arabian side of the Red Sea.
In the middle of the 7th C, the Muslim Arabs controlled the Red Sea trade. The Muslims destroyed the
port of Adulis and annexed the Dahlak Islands. As the result of Arabs, control of the Red Sea Aksum
was out off from the side world. It also lost control over the Red Sea trade. This weakened the economic
power of the Aksumite kings. This set in motion the military weakness of Aksum. As a result, the
Aksumite did not resist the invasion of Beja people internally. Thus, the external factor (expansion of
Muslim Arabs) and internal factor (invasion of Beja people) led to the gradual shift of political center
of Aksumite to the South. The Agaw chief defeated the last Aksumite ruler, Dil Naod around 1150 A.D.
5.3. The Zagwe (Agaw) Dynasty
5.3.1. Origin, Rise to power and Expansion

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When the Aksumite political center shifted southwards, the Agaw chiefs intermarried with the Aksumite
court and served in various government bureaucracies, including military leadership. Apparently, this
gave them advantage in the contest for power, which they took easily from the weakened Aksumite
rulers. Marara, or Marra Tekle Haymanot, an Agaw from Lasta founded the dynasty. He established
his center in Adefa, in the district of Bugna in Lasta region. The center of the kingdom later changed to
Roha later named Lalibela.
Its territorial extent of Zagwe includes the territory that stretched up to Lake Tana in the west, the whole
region of Tigray and southern Eritrea in the north and the whole of present-day Wollo and northern
Shewa in the [Link] eastern limit of the territory was not clearly known.
The Zagwe kings wisely followed a neutral policy and maintained friendly relations with both the
Muslim and Christian states during crusades. This neutral policy won the Zagwe kings in getting land in
Jerusalem from the Muslim authorities. This land served to build a Church for the Christian community
of the town and the pilgrims to the Christian Holy Land. The Zagwe kings also maintained religious and
commercial relations with Egypt.
The Zagwe period was a time when the Christian kingdom enjoyed a long period of peace. As a result,
the Zagwe kings neglected the task of building a strong army. Instead, all their potential energy and
wealth was spent on the construction of churches. As a result, they could not successfully defend their
kingdom against their rivals.
5.3.2. Achievements of the Zagwe Kingdom
It is renowned in its architectural achievements (building of monolithic rock-hewn churches chiseled out
of single rocks). Lalibela was responsible for the construction of 11 monolithic churches. It retained
many of Aksum’s traditions and cultural traits. Both kings maintained close ties with the Orthodox
Church, and Christianity continued to be the state and official religion of the country. Geez continued to
function as the language of the Church and writing. In the field of architecture, there is also similarity
and continuity between the two periods. For instance, the church of Dabra Damo and Lalibela were built
from single rock of stone.
5.3.3. Factors Contributed for fall of Zagwe Dynasty
A. Internal factor: Lack of smooth political succession to the throne
B. External factor: opposition from Tigrean and Amhara regions
N.B: Circa1270 Yekuno Amlak from Amhara deposed the last Zagwe king, Yetbarek.

Unit Review Questions

Choose the Best Answer from the Given Alternatives
1. Which of the following languages of Ethiopia belongs to Cushitic family?

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A. Gurage B. Harari C. Agew D. Argoba

2. The two ancient states in the region before the rise of Aksumite Kingdom were
A. Punt and Yeha C. Damat and Punt
B. Yeha and Hawelit D. Coloe and Matara
3. Which one of the following is correct about the linguistic diversity unity of the Ethiopian Region?
[Link] languages of the region except the Semitic languages originate from one common language
proto-family
B. Despite their wide variety, a large number of the languages share common elements due to
people’s interaction
C. The relatively small number of languages within the Omotic family suggests that this was the
utmost recent language to develop in the region
D. The presence of a wide variety of languages spoken in the region indicates that the area was a
favorite destination for migrants from Asia
3. What was the basic factor that led to the emergence of the Zagwe dynasty?
A. The economic weakness of the Aksumite ruling class following the reorientation of the Red Sea
trade
B. The strategic advantage of the Agew gained from the gradual shift of political center to the Agew
heartlands
C. The socio-economic disruption caused by the rebellions of Queen Yodit
D. The control of the Agew elite established over the gold trade to the Sasu region
4. Which one of the following is the major achievement of Aksumite civilization?
A. The economic weakness of the Aksumite ruling class following the reorientation of the Red Sea
trade
B. The invention and spread of the use of the plough among the Cushitic people
C. The development of an indigenous art and architectural style
D. The provision of better support to local craft industries
5. What makes the historic churches of Lalibela a major cultural achievement?
A. Their construction over a relatively short period of time
B. Their distinctive architectural style different from Aksumite
C. The fact that each of them is hewen out of a single rock
D. Their construction by experts from Egypt and Syria
6. Which one of the following criteria do linguists use in classifying languages?
A. The key vocabulary by speakers of the languages
B. The culture of the people who speak the languages
C. The economic organization of the people who speak the languages
D. The physical features of the speakers of the languages
7. All but one of the following does not belong to an Omotic language family.
A. Bench, Dawaro, Gofa, Koyra C. Sheka, Yem, Dawuro, Bench

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B. Walyata, Kaffa, Yem, Magi D. Kaffa, Hadiya, Kambata, Gofa

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UNIT SIX
THE TRANSITION FROM MEDIEVAL TO MODERN PERIOD
6.1. The Renaissance: A Rebirth of Learning
What does Renaissance mean?
It was an intellectual movement seen in the 14th, 15th, and 16th Cs in Europe. It indicates the “re-birth of
learning”. Many European scholars and artists especially in Italy studied the languages, literature and
arts of ancient Greece and Rome.
 It was a series of literary and cultural movement
 It was the revival of antiquity or the revival of learning
These movements began in Italy and eventually expanded into Germany, France, England and other
parts of Europe.
The Renaissance started in Italy because:
 The Italian cities were the center of Greeco-Roman culture
 Wealthy people in Italy supported them.
Characteristic features of Renaissance
Focused on the rediscovery of the ancient pagan cultures
Emphasized on reason and free inquiry
Concern for Humanism (the most significant intellectual movement) – humanists’ concern was
not with religious matters, but with everyday human problems.
Early Humanists included:
A. Francesco Petrarch (1304-1374): an Italian poet scholar who wrote beautiful poetry.
B. Giovanni Boccaccio (1313-75): known for his collection of stories called the Decameron, published
in 1353
Renaissance scholars in North and Western Europe were not interested in studying classical literature;
they sought humanistic methods to the study of Christianity. These scholars became known as Christian
Humanists. The leading Christian scholars were:
1. Desideratum Erasmus (1466-1538): known for his famous book “The Praise of Folly” published in
1511.
2. Sir Thomas More (1476-1538): was best known in his work called Utopia, portrayed an ideal state.

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6.1.1. Revolution in Art, Literature and Drama

Characteristics of Renaissance Art
During the Middle Ages painters and sculptors tried to give their works a spiritual quality. They were
not concerned with making their subjects appear natural or life like. But Renaissance painters and
sculptors wanted to:
 portray people and nature realistically.
 Influenced by the artistic achievements of ancient Greeks and Romans. Example:
A. Giotto di Bondone (1260-1337): an Italian painter portrayed nature realistically.
B. Donatello (1386-1466): an Italian sculpture curved many figures of men on horseback. He is famous
for his life size statue of St. George in Armor.
Others include the architect Filippo Brunelleschi, and the painter Masaccio (a nickname for the real
name Tommasso Cassai).
Arts of the late 15th and early 16th Cs were dominated by the following three individuals:
A. Michelangelo (1475-1564), an Italian who was many sided man and the greatest Sculpture in history
and known in many disciplines. Example: the famous statue of Moses.
B. Raphael (1483-1520), an Italian painted a number of beautiful pictures. Example: the Sistine
Madonna
C. Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), an Italian many-sided man mainly known for his two paintings of
the Last Super and Mona Lisa. As a result of his inquiring mind, he became a symbol of the
Renaissance sprit of learning and intellectual curiosity.
6.1.2. Renaissance Literature achievements: due to the use of vernacular languages and invention of
printing press, literature was encouraged. The outstanding men in the area of literature included:
 Dante Alighieri (1265-1321) represented the transition in literature from the middle Ages to the
Renaissance. His great epic poem La Divine Commedia (Divine Comedy) written in 1308, reflects
the powerful interest in all aspects of human life and behavior.
 Nicolo Machiavelli (1469-1527), an Italian wrote a political book called the 'Prince', a study of the
rise of political power.
 In Spain Miguel de Cervantes Savedra wrote his allegorical novel, Don Quixote.
 In France, Francois Rabelais wrote lusty, vigorous caricatures of the world around him.
 In England worthy of note are the Sonnets of Sir Philip Sidney, the epic; The Faerie Queen by
Edmund Spencer and plays of Christopher Marlowe, William Shakespeare, and other dramatists
who wrote during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I (1558-1603).
Drama is an art form that tells a story through the speech and actions of the characters in the story.

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There were three types of plays; comedy, tragedy and pastoral.

Renaissance Scientific Achievements: Some of the famous scientists include:
 Nicolas Copernicus-proved the Sun-centered theory
 Galileo Galilei-astronomer and physist
 William Harvey-physician and etc.
6.2. The Reformation
What is the basic protestant doctrine?
Reformation was a religious revolt started in 1517, against the Roman Catholic Church. There were
different causes for the reformation:
 Nationalistic minded figures, except in Italy considered the Pope a foreigner ruler.
 Some rulers were against church taxes and church tax exemptions.
 Some educated persons who were influenced by the Renaissance ideas challenged church
authority.
 Church abuses (worldliness, simony, nepotism, and Sale of indulgence)
Unsuccessful Early Attempts of Reformation
There were unsuccessful early attempts in the 14th and 15th c by:
A) John Wycliffe and
B) John Huss
Actual Reformation
The actual reformation movement was started by a German Martin Luther in 1517. He was a Catholic
monk and professor of theology at the University of Wittenberg.
The Revolt of Luther
The Reformation began within the Catholic Church itself. On October 31, 1517, Martin Luther (1483-
1546), a monk and professor of theology, wrote his Ninety Five Theses and according to tradition
posted them on the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg Germany. The theses were a series of
statements that attacked the sale of indulgences. Luther later criticized what he considered other abuses
in the church.
Luther taught that God justifies human beings. The doctrine of "justification by faith in Christ alone"
was the heart of Luther’s belief. It contradicted the Church’s teaching of grace and good works as a way
to salvation.

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In January 1521, Pope Leo X excommunicated Luther and declared him a heretic. In May 1521
Emperor Charles V signed what was called the Edict of Worms.
But the nationalistic northern German rulers supported Luther. This saved him from punishment and
throughout northern Germany; they accepted his ideas as a new religion called Lutheranism. Earlier, in
the 1520’s King Gustavous I of Sweden took over much church property and introduced Lutheranism in
Sweden and in Finland which was then under Swedish control. In 1536, King Christian of Denmark
made Lutheranism the state religion. They also established it in Norway which was then a Danish
province.
Other Protestant Reforms include:
Calvin
 John Calvin helped establish Protestantism in Geneva, Switzerland. His followers in France were
called Huguenots.
 In Scotland, John Knox introduced Calvin’s teachings and introduced Presbyterian system. In
1560, the Scots made Protestantism their state religion.
Henry VIII and the Church of England
In England, as in Scandinavia, the Reformation was established by an act of state. The immediate
cause for England’s break with the Catholic Church was the refusal of Pope Clement VII to annul
(cancel) King Henry VIII’s marriage to his first wife, Catherine of Aragon. Catherine had not borne
Henry a son, and the king wanted to marry Anne Boleyn in the hope that the marriage would produce a
male heir to the throne. The pope refused to grant him a divorce from his Spanish wife.
Henry also desired the extensive Church properties in England. In 1534, Parliament passed the Act of
Supremacy which instituted an independent Anglican Church of England with the monarch the head of
the Church in England. Henry VIII remained basically a Catholic. However, Protestantism made great
advances under his son Edward VI. Queen Mary I succeeded Edward in 1553. She restored
Catholicism as the state religion of England and she suppressed the Protestants.
Queen Elizabeth I (r.1558 to 1603), established a moderate form of Protestantism that became known
as Anglicanism. English people who followed John Calvin were called Puritans. They opposed
Anglicanism because it was episcopal (governed by bishops).
England forced Ireland to adopt Protestantism as the state religion, but the Irish people remained loyal
Catholics. Protestants colonized Northern Ireland, also known as Ulster, and the conflict started
between Catholics and Protestants.
The Roman Catholic Church and Counter Reformation
Counter Reformation also known as the Catholic Reformation generally refers to a period of Roman
Catholic Church history in the 16th C. The Counter Reformation consisted of two related movements.
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1) A defensive reaction against the Reformation, and

2) A Catholic reform.
As a defense against Protestantism:
A) The Roman Catholic Church called the Council of Trent (1545-1563) which met in Italy.
It defined the Catholic doctrine on questions disputed by Protestant theologians. The questions included
original sin, grace, free will, the seven sacraments, and so on.
It reaffirmed the basic Catholic doctrines as papal supremacy and exclusive Church authority to interpret
the Bible. It also authorized an index; a list of Biblical books forbidden to Catholics and prohibited
Church abuses etc.
B) In 1542, the Church reorganized the Inquisition in Italy to help the courts fight Protestantism more
effectively.
C) The establishment of different missionary organizations
 The Capuchins
 The Dominicans
 The Franciscans
 The Society of Jesus (Jesuits), in Spain organized by Ignatius Loyala in 1534. Its members were
called Jesuits who were active in many continents.
Historical Significance of the Reformation
As a result of the Reformation:
A) Europe was divided between the Catholic countries of the south and the Protestant countries of the
north.
B) In many parts of Europe the diversity of religious life created the necessity of religious toleration and
a respect for the impotence of individual conscience.
C) The establishment of state Churches as occurred in England reflected the growth of nationalism.
D) Luther and other Protestants opposed the celibate life of monks and nuns and idealized family life
and participation in community activities. The protestant stress on the holiness of a person’s daily
life encouraged industriousness, thrifty living, and careful management of material things. This
attitude became known as the protestant ethic. It may have contributed to the growth of industry
and commerce during the 18th and 19th Cs.
E) Protestant leaders also emphasized education. They promoted literacy, an educational curriculum
based on ancient Greek and Ronan literature, and a high respect for teachers and learning.

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Art during Reformation

Baroque is a term applied to many forms of art created in Western Europe and Latin America. Three
elements in the cultural life of Western Europe helped form the baroque style.
First, artists in the late 16th C rebelled against the art of the Renaissance. Renaissance art was restrained
and orderly and generally systematically balanced. Baroque painters, architects and sculptors achieved
balance in a more dramatic and exciting way.
Second, many rulers wanted an art style that would glorify their reigns. Magnificent baroque palaces
such as Versailles in France and the Zwinger in Germany expressed the power and authority of the head
of state.
Third, the Counter- Reformation stirred a sense of religious enthusiasm in Europe during the late 16th
and 17th Cs. Baroque churches expressed the drama and emotion of this movement.
6.3. The Rise of Absolute Monarchs and National States
Rise of Absolute Monarchs
During the early middle age the weak kings exercised little power over feudal lords, because they
obtained soldiers and weapons from the feudal lords and thus dependent on the allegiance of the nobility
to maintain power.
But near the end of the Middle Ages, the king (particularly in England, France, Spain, Russia, Prussia,
and Austria) began to extend his rule at the expense of the nobles. By the 17th C, the king had become an
autocrat, or absolute monarch.
Factors strengthening Royal power:-
a) The Crusade and other wars
b) The rising middle class(Bourgeoisie) supported the king
c) The introduction of Gun powder
d) The reformation gave the king power formerly held by the Catholic Church
e) The awakening sprit of nationalism made the king symbol of national unity
The Beginning of National States

England

Early English history was the story of invasions. In 1066, the Normans led by William, Duke of
Normandy in northern France, defeated the Anglo- Saxons at the Battle of [Link] who
became known as William the Conqueror, was crowned king of England. In time, the Normans and the
Anglo-Saxons became a united people.

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 Henry II: He was well- known as a builder of the English government and law. The jury system
came in to use.
 King John: Henry’s youngest son, brought troubled times to England. He was the first king to sign
Magna Carta (Great charter) in 1215.
 Edward I: House of parliament became important during his reign. It had two branches:
 The House of Lords which was made up of leading nobles and Church leaders and,
 The House of Commons that consisted of knights, lesser landowners, less important Church
leaders and the representatives of the towns.
Tudor Rule (r. 1485-1509)
Tudor family ruled England and strengthened royal authority.
Henery VII: crowned on the battlefield of Bosworth in 1485 (after the War of Roses).
Henery VIII: was talented and popular, but also selfish and wasteful. In 1534, he had parliament to pass
the law of Act of Parliament; to replace the Catholic Church by Anglican Church.
Queen Elizabeth I: Her reign was often called the “Golden Age of English History”. During her reign:
 preservation of Protestantism in England
 England achieved world power
 In 1588, England won a great sea battle against Spain called the Armada. After Elizabeth, England
was ruled by a new dynasty known as Stuart.

France

Many historians mark the beginning of the French nation from the coronation of Hugh Capet in 987.
For many years the Capetian kings controlled only their royal domain (land), between Paris and Orleans.
But the Capetian kings gradually added more territory to their personal lands and became stronger than
any of their rivals.
Philip II, called Philip Augustus, was the first great Capetian king. After he came to the throne in
1180, he more than doubled the royal domain and tightened his control over the nobles. He also
developed Paris as a permanent expanding capital.
The handsome Philip IV, called Philip the Fair, rebelled against the pope’s authority. He taxed
Church officials and arrested a bishop. In order to gain support in his dispute with the pope, Philip
the Fair called together representatives of all estates, or classes of people in France in 1302. This
council of the estates was called the Estates-General.

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The last king of the Capetian dynasty, Charles IV died in 1328 without a male heir. A cousin
succeeded him as Philip VI. King Edward III of England, a nephew of the last Capetian king also
claimed the French throne. These led to the Hundred Years War.
The power of the kings and their ministers grew steadily from the 16th to the 18th Cs. France became a
strong nation largely through the efforts of such ministers as Cardinal Richelieu who as a prime
minister of Louis XIII had increased royal power more than any other individual.
Louis XIV was the outstanding example of the absolute French king. He boasted: “I am the State”.
He was most extravagant. He built the magnificent palace of Versailles.

Spain

Nation state formation in Spain was due to the political marriage between prince Ferdinand of Aragon
and Princes Isabella of Castile in 1469.
In 1492, their army conquered Granada, there ending Moorish rule on the peninsula. In 1480, they
established the Spanish Inquisition, a court that imprisoned or killed people suspected of not followings
Roman Catholic teachings. Ferdinand seized the small kingdom of Navarre in 1512 to complete the
union of Spain.

Russia

After the rise of Moscow its grand prince came to be called czar. In 1547, Ivan IV also known as Ivan
the Terrible became the first ruler to be crowned czar. He made the power of the czar over all Russia
complete. Ivan and later czars passed a series of laws that bound the peasants to the land as serfs.
Serfdom became the economic basis of Russian power.
Ivan fought Tatars and Kazan to the southeast, and won their lands. Russian forces then crossed the
Ural Mountains and conquered Western Siberia. He also tried to win lands northwest to Baltic Sea, but
he was defeated by Lithuanian, Polish, and Swedish armies.
In 1610, Polish invaders occupied Moscow and they ruled through a powerless council of boyars (high
ranking landowners) until 1612. However, the Polish control of Moscow led the Russians to unite their
forces and drive out invaders. They recaptured the capital in 1612.
After the Poles were defeated, there was no one of royal birth to take the throne. In 1613, a kind of
parliament with little power, called the Zemski Sobor (Land Council), elected Michael Romanov czar.
The Romanov czars ruled Russia for the next 300 years, until the February Revolution of 1917 which
ended the czarist rule. During the 17th C, Russia annexed much of Ukraine and extended its control of
Siberia eastward to the Pacific Ocean.

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The Reign of Peter the Great was a powerful ruler, creating a strong army and made territorial
conquest and tries to Westernize Russia.

Prussia

The rulers of Prussia, headed by the royal family of Hohenzollern, controlled lands originally peopled
by Slavs, and conquered and colonized by Germans in the middle Ages. The early Hohenzollern rulers:
 Established autocratic government through the land owning hereditary aristocrats; Junkers.
 Created a well-trained army and,
 By war, marriage, and diplomacy, expanded their territory.
In the 1600’s, the Hohenzollerns added the districts of East Prussia and Pomerania to their territory.
Prussia was greatly strengthened during the rule of the Great Elector, Frederick William, from 1640 to
1688.
Frederick the Great or, Frederick II, came to the throne of Prussia in 1740. He helped form the
Prussian theory of government based on discipline and authority. Frederick believed in the idea
“might make right”.
His tax collectors were called war commissars, and all the members of his cabinet were called war
ministers.
Using the strong army his father had organized, he seized Silesia from Austria in 1740. In the late
1740’s he expanded Prussia further by taking part of Poland.

Austria

In the late eighth century, Austria came under the rule of Charlemagne, king of Germanic people called
the Franks. After Charlemagne's death in 814, the Frankish empire broke up. In 962, the pope crowned
Otto emperor of what later became known as the Holy Roman Empire. German emperors ruled the
Holy Roman Empire until 1806 when it came to an end. Austria was to become the empire's most
important state.
In 976, Emperor Otto II gave control of north eastern Austria to Leopold I of the Babenberg family. In
1156, Emperor Frederick I increased the importance of this area by declaring it a duchy, a territory ruled
by a Duke.
In 1273, the princes of Germany elected Rudolf I, a member of the Habsburg family of Switzerland, as
Holy Roman Emperor. Rudolf defeated Ottokar in battle in 1278 and began to acquire for his family the
lands that the king had taken.
In the 14th C, the Habsburgs lost the Holy Roman crown. In 1359, the great grandson of Rudolf I,
Rudolf IV, claimed the title of archduke of Austria. In time, the Habsburgs acquired the other regions
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that make up present day Austria.

Strong Monarchs and Hundred Years War (1337-1453)
 Hundred Years War was a war fought between France and England to control the French throne.
 This struggle between England and France actually consisted of a succession of wars (like battle of
Crecy in 1346, Poitiers in 1356, Agincourt in 1415) broken by truces and treaties.
 The English loss of Normandy in France in 1204 developed as the basic cause of the war. The war
had also several contributing causes.
 In the fighting that followed, the English won most of the battles. But the French won the war when
the British siege the city of Orleans in 1428 inspired and led by a French peasant girl called Joan
of Arc. Several events hindered the course of the war. These included peasant rebellions; pillaging in
France by unemployed soldiers; the Black Death, (a form of bubonicplague, in the two countries); a
peasants' revolt in England in 1381.
Consequences or effects of the war:-
 The war weakened the powers of the nobility and strengthened centralized government in both
countries.
 It also marked the decline of feudalism.
 The rise of French unity,
 The development of new military tactics and,
 The growth of English sea power.
6.4. EuropeanExpansionOver Seas
Why did Spain and Portugal seek all-water routes to the East in the 15th century?
Factors Encouraging Overseas Voyages
 European interest to trade with the East and taste of luxurious goods of the East (Jewels, silk, pepper,
spices and etc.)
 To look for a new sea route (since the overland route was controlled by the Ottoman Turks)
 European curiosity about the Far East due to:
 The report of Marco Polo
 The Renaissance quest for world’s size, shape, and people.
 Scientific progress: efficient sailing ships, and availability of navigation instruments
 Wealth and ambition of new national states: Prince Henry the navigator of Portugal.

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The principal voyages include:

By the middle of the 15th C, the Portuguese were trying to find a way round Africa to open a direct sea
route to the valuable spice trade of the East.
A) In 1488 Bartholomew Diaz reached the southern tip of Africa, Cape route-called the Cape of Good
Hope.
B) Vasco da Gama, a Portuguese explorer sailed to India in 1497-98 and back; and the "Cape route"
round Africa and across the Indian Ocean to the East was open.
C) In 1492, Christopher Columbus, an Italian in the service of Spain, crossed the Atlantic Ocean and
reached the islands now called the West Indies.(the New World). He was trying to sail round the
world to reach India, China and the East. He did not know that the American continents were across
his route. Other Spanish voyages soon confirmed that a new continent had been discovered.
D) In 1519-22, Ferdinand Magellan's expedition first sailed round the world. At the head of 241 men
and a fleet of 5 ships, Magellan sailed across the Atlantic Ocean to the coast of Brazil. He and his
crew resumed the voyage through a passage to the pacific and then reached the Philippines where
Magellan was killed in April, 1521. The Victoria, one of the five ships, with the surviving, members
of the crew finally reached Spain on Sept 6, 1522 nearly 3 years after the voyage had begun.
NB: The Spanish and Portuguese led the voyages in the 15th and 16th Cs. The Dutch, the French and the
English followed in the 17th and 18th Cs.
European Colonial Empires in Asia (16th to the 18th centuries)
I. In Asia
Europeans, first the Portuguese and then the Dutch, English, and France came to trade with those
countries. For that, they established trading posts called factories.
a) Portugal: In the 16th C, Portugal established trading posts in the East at Goa in India and Macao in
the East Indies.
b) Spain annexed the Philippines Island.
c) Dutch (Holland) established her own trading posts in the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia).
d) The French established trading posts in India such as Pondicherry, southern India.
e) England gained a strong foot hold in India mainly using Trading companies, one was the British East
Indies Company established in 1600. As a result, Britain had established trading posts at Bombay
(present Mumbai), Madras, and Calcutta.
The coming of the British and French to India led to fight each other for the control of India and its rich
trade in the 17th C.

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In a major war with France, Britain gained dominance over India in 1763 after the Seven Years War

II. In the New World

a. Portugal settled in Brazil.
b. Spain settled the West Indies, Florida, Texas, California, Mexico, Central America, and South
America(except Brazil).
The huge Spanish empire set up in the New World was divided into two parts each ruled by a “viceroy”-
representative of the king of Spain.
c. Holland: In 1621, the Dutch West Indies Company was founded to trade in the New World. In
1624, the company colonized New Netherlands (consisting of parts of present day New York, New
Jersey, Connecticut, and Delaware). In 1626, Dutch colonists bought Manhattan Island from the
Indians. They had established New Amsterdam (now New York) there.
In between 1652 up to 1674, the Netherlands and English fought three naval wars to take leadership in
the area.
d. France: The French-fur traders played a leading role in the exploration of North America. In 1603,
the French explorer, Samuel de Champlain settled Canada along the St. Lawrence River. In 1608,
he founded the city of Quebec as a fur-trading post
France also settled trading posts and forts from Quebec (in eastern Canada) to New Orleans (near the
Gulf of Mexico) and founded Detroit, St. Louis and New Orleans. The French also had some Islands in
the West Indies. The head quarter of the governor of New France (North America) was in Quebec.
e. England: The first English permanent settlement in North America was founded at James Town
Island in Virginia in 1607. Plymouth was the second permanent settlement.
After English colonists had settled James town and Plymouth, large area of the Atlantic Sea Coast were
colonized. The English colonies were generally grouped in to three according to location:-
1. The Northern or New England Colonies were Connecticut, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and
Rhode Island.
2. The Middle Colonies include Delaware, New Jersey, New York, and Pennsylvania
3. The Southern Colonies were Georgia, Mary Land, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Virginia.
Based on ownership, there were three types of American colonies:-
A. Royal Colony was under the direct control of the king
B. Proprietary Colony was controlled by a prominent individual-the proprietor under the grant from
the king.

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C. A Corporate Colony was operated as a rule, under a charter obtained from the king by a company’s
stock holders.
Generally the Spanish and Portuguese Empire in America and the British colonies in North America
were” Settlement Colonies”
In Brazil, the Caribbean Islands and part of North America, “Plantation Colonies” were established
crops were produced by Slave labour (from Africa). Crops exported to Europe include Sugar Cane,
Tobacco, and Cotton.
Colonial Rivalries and Wars
The western European powers engaged in a number of wars caused partly by colonial rivalries. In the
New World Britain, France, and Spain were the leading nations fought each other for many years to
control the area. For example:
Spain and Portugal
In the mid-16thC, Spaniards settled some of the many Islands in the Philippines. But it was disputed by
Portugal. Finally in the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494 settled it. But later in 1571, Spain controlled the
area against the treaty and established a colonial capital at Manila. Thus, Spain ruled the Philippines for
more than 300 years.
English and Dutch
There was rivalry between the Dutch who had control Dutch East India and the English who had
influence in India. There was also rivalry between the English, the Dutch and France who took over
parts of Latin America and chiefly the West Indies. There was also competition between the Dutch,
English, and French claimed section of what become the United States.
But the most competition was between:-
England and France
For over hundred years, England and France fought many bitter wars for European dominance and
colonial supremacy. Including:-
 The King William’s War (1689-1697)
 The Queen Ann’s War (1702-1713)
 The king George’s War (1744-1748)
 The Seven Years War (1756-1763)
 The French Indian War (1754-1763) i.e. in India, Robert Clive, a brilliant English leader, crushed
the French in 1557 at the Battle of Plessey.

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In North America, the English was also victorious. They Invaded French Canada under Gen. James
Wolf, Captured the strong hold of Quebec.

Finally, under the Treaty of Paris in 1763, France gave all its colonies in North America and India. In
1763, Britain became the lone European imperial power in North America between the Atlantic Ocean
and the Mississippi River.

The Commercial Revolutions and its Effects on World Trade

What do we mean by the ‘Commercial Revolution’?
European powers expanded trade on their colonial empires in the 18thC. Different regions were
supplying different commodities for them. For example:
A) The North Atlantic System
Include Western Europe, Russia, the Baltic, Scandinavian, Canada and etc. Its main products were
timber, fish, and fur.
B) The South Atlantic System
Included the Spanish colonies in South and Central America, the Portuguese colony of Brazil, the sugar
producing Islands of the Caribbean, West Africa, and the Southern colonies in North America. The most
prominent product were Sliver, Sugar Tobacco, African Slaves, and after 1800, Cotton.
C) The Indian Ocean World System
Here British power was growing more dominant using the British East Indies Company. Primary trade
items include Spices, Silk, and other luxury goods. This development led to the emergence of Britain as
the dominant economic and political power in the world.

The term commercial revolution summarizes the effect that European overseas expansion had upon
both Europe and the rest of the world
III. Effects upon Europe
a) Expanded world trade
b) Shifted economic power and trade routes
c) Adopted Mercantilism
IV. Effects upon the Rest of the World
 Europeans obtained Negros in Africa
 Many Europeans migrated to overseas colonies
 Spread civilization
Unit Review Questions
Choose the Best Answer from the Given Alternatives

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1. What was the reason, other than the religious one, for which North German princes gave support and
protection to Martin Luther?
A. Their desire to punish the Catholic Church for its persecution of German peasants
B. Their aspiration to replace the supremacy of the Italian nobility in the institution of the Church
C. Their ambition to weaken the Holy Roman Emperor and take over ownership of church property
D. The expectation that Martin Luther would become heir to the throne of the Holy Roman Empire
2. What was a royal colony in the Americans?
A. A colony under the direct control of a king
B. A colony established by a trading company
C. A colony put under the administration of the Royal Navy
D. A colony set up by an individual through a grant by the king
3. The renaissance art was different from the art of the preceding period by its:
A. Concern depicting everyday life in a realistic manner
B. Emphasis on building gigantic Cathedrals with spires and palaces
C. Exclusive focus on religious themes in painting and literature
D. Adoption of the baroque and gothic styles in painting
4. What was the final outcome of Reformation?
A. Overall decline of religion in Europe
B. A permanent division among Christians on theological matters
C. An even stronger Catholic Church
D. Stronger bond between Church and State everywhere
5. What was the difference between Renaissance scholars and Christian Humanists of the fifteenth
century?
A. The former focused on science and technology while the latter studied the humanities
B. The former sought to recapture ancient literature while the latter studied the Bible
C. The former were interested in non-human things while the latter studied things related to
humanity
D. The former were mainly Italian while the latter were mainly Dutch
6. Which of the following is true about the heroic deeds of Joan of Arc (1412-1431)?
A. She led the French army in the fight to lift the English siege on the city of Orleans
B. She was the commander of the French army which successfully broke English naval blockage in
the British canal
C. She was canonized by the Russian Orthodox Church for her death for the cause of the Church
D. She became famous for her participation in the Hundred Years War as head of the French
Catholic Church
7. Which of the following Christian teachings was very central to Martin Luther’s ninety-five theses?
A. Supreme authority of the Pope over the Church
B. Salivation of the individual is determined by one’s good deeds

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C. The practices of ‘indulgence’ should be introduced in to Germany

D. Faith alone ensures the salivation of the individual believer
8. Which one of the following pair of European countries pioneered overseas expansion?
A. Spain and Portugal C. Holland and Spain
B. Portugal and England D. Holland and England
9. What was the significance of the battle of Plessey in India?
A. It led to the replacement of Muslim dominance by Hindu dominance in Indian politics
B. It helped Britain emerge as the prominent colonial power in India
C. It led to the transfer control of India from French to Britain
D. It led to the division of India between British and French spheres of influence
10. What were the features of the so-called “protestant ethic”?
A. Public rather than family-centered style of life
B. Work for the salivation of the soul rather than for money
C. Industriousness, economical living and careful management of property
D. Strict observation of ethical rules in public affairs
11. Which of the following is correct about the establishment of National States in Europe?
A. It took place at the same time in all European countries.
B. Austria was the first to become a national state.
C. In many places it was accompanied by the rise of absolutist rulers.
D. It was always accompanied by the adoption of constitutions.

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UNIT SEVEN
THE ETHIOPIAN REGION AND THE HORN OF AFRICA UP TO 1529
7.1. "Restoration" of the Solomonic Dynasty and the Christian Highland Kingdom
Why did the successors of the Zagwe call their dynasty 'Solomonic'?
Write the major characteristic features of the restored Solomonic dynasty.
The founder of the new dynasty was a local ruler in Amhara called Yekuno-Amlak. This dynasty,
which came to power in 1270, called itself 'Solomonic'. Yekuno-Amlak and his followers took this
dynastic name to justify their legitimacy by claiming that the Zagwe rulers were illegitimate. To
justify this they resorted to the legend of Queen Sheba and King Solomon.
However, the success of Yekuno Amlak was not simply based on his legendary claims. His success had
economic and military reasons. At the beginning the new dynasty established its center around Tegulet,
a district in northern Shewa. But later on the royal court has shifted from region to region on the eastern
foothills of the Shewan plateau.
The major developments of the period include:
1. The immediate attention of the dynasty was the issue of securing power.
After the death of Yekuno-Amlak in 1285, the dynasty began to face internal political instability.
Between 1294 and 1299 the problem of succession was so intense that five successive kings came to
power.
 To solve this, a royal prison was established at Amba Gishen.
This measure solved the problem of succession and facilitated the consolidation of the power of the
Christian kingdom of the medieval period.
2. Another issue of immediate attention was the regulation of the kingdom's relations with the
neighboring states and peoples.
 Making territorial expansion towards the neibouring states.
 Amde Tseyon (r.1314-1344) was the most expansionist king.
3. The expansion had brought additional economy to the state.
In the early period of the ‘Solomonic’ dynasty, the economy of the kingdom mainly depended on
agriculture. Trade took a very important place in the economy after the conquest of the Muslim
sultanates in the southern parts of the region.
In turn, this trade brought:
[Link] states and peoples of the region were brought together and they developed a sense of
economic interdependence.
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[Link] also promoted their interaction in different aspects of social life. This could be explained both
in terms of wars as well as peaceful relations.
[Link] desire to monopolize the long distance trade routes of the region led to frequent clashes between
the rival states of the region.
D. On the other hand, the trade routes which criss-crossed the Ethiopian region and the Horn of Africa
resulted in the exchange of various social and cultural values among the diverse peoples of the area.
4. Another development of the period was the further expansion of the Orthodox Church.
 The Church further expanded into Shewa, Gojjam and in the regions around Lake Tana.
5. A very important feature of the medieval Christian highland kingdom, that followed the large scale
territorial expansion, was mainly the creation of a feudal administration known as Gult System.
 In order to effectively administer the vast empire, the kings maintained both hereditary chiefs and
appointed officials.
 These officials, administrative as well as military, were given the right to collect tribute from the
local people over whom they were appointed. This system was called the Gult system. Gult was a
right to levy tribute on the owners of rest and produce of rest land. Rest was hereditary right to
land use by members of families and clans whose ancestors retained the land for the long period of
time. This system remained to be the predominant feature of Ethiopian feudalism up to the 20th C.
 The tribute collected from peasants by the bale-gult could be:
 In kind
 In service-as corvee or free labour
 In return, he is responsible for the maintenance of law and order in his region.
Generally, the gult system had served two very important purposes in the medieval Christian kingdom.
Firstly, it helped the kingdom to maintain large Territorial Army during the period. Because almost
every bala-gult was responsible to recruit soldiers from his region and command them.
Secondly, it greatly simplified the task of administering the vast Christian kingdom of the period. The
empire was divided into different minute pieces in which each Bala-gult maintained the peace and
security of his region.
6. Another main feature of the medieval period was the mobile nature of the royal court. Throughout
the period there was no permanent capital city like Aksum or Lalibela. Instead, the kings lived in roving
or moving capitals.
 For that, there were no permanent structures like palaces and castle.

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 For most of the medieval period, the court was moving on the eastern foothills of the Shewan
plateau. In fact, some kings after the middle of the 15th C, tried to stay at one region for many
years. For instance, Emperor Zara-Yacob (r. 1434-68) found the town of Debre Berhan in 1454
and subsequently stayed in it for 14 years.
7.2. Muslim States in the Ethiopian Region and the Horn of Africa up to 1529
How was Islam introduced to Ethiopia and the Horn?
Identify some of the economic, political and social features that were commonly shared by the Muslim
sultanates of the medieval period.
Trade and Islam were the main factors for the emergence of the Muslim sultanates in the Ethiopian
region and the Horn of Africa. In order to see the establishment of the Muslim states in the region, let’s
first discuss the introduction of Islam to Ethiopia and the Horn.

Islam was introduced to the region through two points: the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden coasts.

Islam penetrated the region through two main gates.

One of the gates was the Dahlak Islands in the Red Sea.
The second and perhaps the most important gate for the spread of Islam into the interior of the region
was the port of Zeila on the Gulf of Aden coast. The introduction of Islam in the region, together
with the trade, led to the establishment of a series of Muslim sultanates or states along the Zeila trade
route into the interior.
These sultanates shared many features in common, such as:
 Their population was made up of Muslim communities.
 Their rulers exercised both religious and political powers.
 Islam and trade were the main factors for their emergence.
 Most of the sultanates were located in the southeastern lowlands of the Ethiopian region.
 Although some of the communities practiced mixed farming, the economy of the sultanates
mainly depended on trade.
Beyond these common features, however, each sultanate developed in its own peculiar way.
The Sultanate of Shewa
It was the oldest Muslim state in the Ethiopian region. The first ruler of the sultanate came to power
around 897 A.D. The ruling dynasty of this Sultanate was called Makhzumite. The Makhzumite
claimed to have descended from the Makhzumite clan of South Arabia. The rulers used the Muslim title
called sultan.
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For most of its history, the sultanate of Shewa did not have good relation with its neighbors. One of its
neighbors was the kingdom of Damot which existed to the northwest of Shewa.
The rulers of Ifat led constant campaigns against Shewa. Finally, one of the sultans of Ifat deposed and
murdered the sultan of Shewa in the mid-1280s, thereby putting an end to the oldest Muslim sultanate of
the Ethiopian region.
The Sultanate of Dahlak
It was established by the tenth century the prosperous sultanate of Dahlak had emerged. The economy of
the sultanate was based on trade and piracy. Before Zeila emerged as a main center of trade
The sultanate of Dahlak had attracted the interest of three powerful states, i.e., the Mamluks of Egypt,
Yemen and the Ethiopian Christian Kingdom. Each tried to extend its hegemony over the sultanate.
But they maintained their independence until the conquest of Ottoman Turkey ended that independence
in mid-16th C.
The Sultanate of Ifat
The sultanate of Ifat seems to have emerged in the mid-13th C in the lowlands east of the Shewan
plateau. It was founded by a local Muslim ruling family called [Link] Walasma, the
contemporary of Yekuno- Amlak, was the first historically known ruler of the sultanate.
The strategic position (along Zeila trade route) enabled Ifat to monopolize the trade of the region,
enabled Ifat to become the leading and the most powerful Muslim sultanate of the Ethiopian region.
Their hegemony came to an end in 1332 when Amde Tseyon concquered it.
The Sultanate of Hadya
The sultanate is mentioned for the first time during the reign of Amde Seyon. The ancestors of the
present ethnic groups like Burji, Kambata, Tembaro, and part of the Alaba people constituted the
medieval population of Hadya.
The economy of Hadya mainly depended on mixed farming, while some part of the population led a
purely pastoral life. Trade also contributed to the economy of the state. Hadya was the main source of
slaves for the region.
The rulers had the title of Garäd. The Christian kings even went to the extent of securing the loyalty of
the rulers of Hadya by means of political marriage. The daughter of a well-known Hadya garad was
married to Emperor Zara-Yacob’s and became Queen Illeni, famous women in the politics of the
Christian Kingdom. Baide Mariyam and Libne Dengel were also officially married to Hadya
princesses.
The last rebellion of Hadya was during the reign of Sarsa Dengel (r.1563-1597) who totally abandoned
the sultanate because of the increasing pressure from the expanding Mecha Oromo.

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The Sultanate of Bali

Its rulers used the title of garad. We do not know when Bali emerged as a state. The sultanate is
mentioned in the chronicles of the Christian kings beginning from the 14th C, when the sultanate came
under the control of Amde Seyon. Since then the garad of Bali paid tribute to the Christian Kingdom up
to the CHK up to 16th C.
The ancestors of the present Sidama ethnic group were one of the settlers of the sultanate. Some groups
of the Oromo people also occupied the highlands of Bali.
The Sultanate of Sharka
The present territory of the Arsi Oromo made part of the territory of the medieval sultanate of Sharka.
We do not know when the sultanate emerged as a state. But beginning from the 14th C onwards it existed
as tributary to the Christian Kingdom up to the first quarter of the 16th C, when it was controlled by the
army of Imam Ahmad Ibrahim.
One of the medieval settlers of Sharka was the ancestors of the present day Alaba people. Some groups
of the Oromo people were also part of the medieval population of Sharka.
The Sultanate of Dawaro
Dawaro corresponded roughly to present Arsi region. The ancestors of the present Sidama ethnic group
are known to have settled in the territory of Dawaro.
The present-day Dawro people also trace their origin to Dawaro. According to their tradition, they were
forced to move to their present territory around the Omo River because of the wars of Imam Ahmad
Ibrahim.
The Sultanate of Dera
Dera was a very small sultanate located east of the Awash River between the sultanates of Dawaro and
Bali. At the beginning of the 14th C the Sultanate of Bali extended its power over Dera. But the
hegemony of Bali came to an end when the power of the Christian Kingdom grew strong in the area
during the reign of Amde Seyon. The Christian kings used Dera as a place of exile for unruly monks,
who were forced to reside amid a hostile Muslim population.
The Sultanate of Fatagar
The sultanate of Fatagar emerged around the middle of the 13th C. The territory of Fatagar included
more or less the present districts of Minjar, Shenkora and Ada'a in Shewa. Fatagar also became the
tributary of the Christian Kingdom during the reign of Amde Seyon. It was later reduced to a province
directly ruled by the Christian Kingdom. Since then, the province became the center of the kingdom for
almost a century.
The Sultanate of Arbabani

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The information we have is only about its location which comes from an Arab historian called al-
Umari. According to al-Umari the sultanate of Arbabani existed south of the Awash River between the
sultanates of Hadya and Dawaro.
The Sultanate of Adal
Adal emerged towards the end of the 14th C. Ifat and Adal shared a common dynasty-Walasma.
When Ifat became a tributary of the Christian kingdom, its ruling class divided into two groups:-
 The first group, the merchant class, decided to recognize the authority of the Christian kingdom
over Ifat.
 The second group, the militant wing, however, opposed this Christian domination and
determined to regain the lost independence of Ifat.
Therefore, this militant group decided to establish a new base by retreating further to the south eastern
lowlands of Harar, where they founded the sultanate of Adal around 1380. The first center of Adal was
at Dakar, southeast of Harar, which later shifted to Harar.
Among the successors of Umar Walasma, Haqadin II and Saadadin rebelled against Amde Seyon’s
son and successor, Sayfa Arad (r. 1344-71) and they continued their resistance from their new center in
Adal. The offensive grew strong particularly during the times of Ahmad Badley, one of the strongest
sultans of Adal. He led a series of military campaigns against his contemporary Christian king, Zara
Yaqob (r.1434-1468). After his initial success, however, Badley finally suffered a complete defeat in
1445. This battle was followed by the growing internal weakness of both Adal and the Christian
kingdom.
7.3. Omotic States in the Ethiopian Region and Horn of Africa up to 1529
The Omotic states have the common name Omotic. Explain why and how they got this name.
The Kingdom of Damot
Damot was one of the oldest and strongest states in the Ethiopian region. Territorially, Damot roughly
occupied the western and southwestern part of the Ethiopian region. Damot also included the central and
southern parts of Shewa. A vast territory south of the Abay gorge was also part of the territory of Damot.
We do not know when the kingdom of Damot came into existence. However, the history of the kingdom
goes back to the Aksumite period. Among the kings of Damot, Motalami is constantly mentioned in the
records of the period. Damot seems to have attained the peak of its power during the reign of this king.
The Kingdom of Kaffa
Kaffa is located south of Gojeb [Link] people of Kaffa called Kafficho. The origin of Kaffa called
[Link] administration of Kaffa was divided into provinces administered by provincial governors.

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The central government was headed by the king who had absolute power. He was assisted by a council
of seven called Mikerecho, which had a very strong power in the state system. The kings used a title
called Tato.
The kingdom of Kaffa was known for its defense system. The kingdom of Kaffa was a very rich area.
Its economy depended on trade and agriculture. Kaffa was incorporated by MenelikII in the late 1890’s.

Due to its strong political organization, defense, and strong economy, Kaffa kept its autonomy for a
long period of time

The Kingdom of Enarya

Enarya is mentioned for the first time in the documents of the Christian kings towards the end of the
Aksumite period. Christian influence grew strong and finally, Enarya became the tributary of the
Christian kingdom during the reign of Amde Seyon.
The later history of Enarya was closely related to the history of the Oromo people. Enarya was one of
the kingdoms which strongly resisted the expansion of the Mecha Oromo in the area beginning from the
end of the 16th C.
Finally, it was defeated by one of the clans of the Mecha called Limmu. Subsequently, the conquerors
took the name Limmu-Enarya, signifying a complete assimilation of the people of Enarya to the Mecha
Oromo.
The Kingdom of Bizamo
The kingdom of Bizamo existed on the southern bend of the Abay River just opposite to the present
district of Wambarma in southern Gojjam. The medieval population of Bizamo consisted of the speakers
of the Omotic language family. Among them the present day Shinasha ethnic group was one of the
settlers of the kingdom.
On the arrival of the Mecha Oromo towards the end of the 16th C, part of the remaining population fled
across the Abay into Gojjam. While part of the population remained behind retreated further west to the
lowlands, the remaining part was assimilated by the Mecha Oromo.
The Kingdom of Welayta
The kingdom is mentioned for the first time during the period of the Zagwe dynasty. During the reign of
Amde Seyon, Welayta became the tributary of the Christian kingdom.
In the 16th C Welayta was invaded by the army of Imam Ahmed Ibrahim. But the kingdom did not fall
under Muslim control. The kings of Welayta used the title of Kawo.
The Kingdom of Yama (Yem)

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The kingdom of Yama existed between the Gibe River and the upper course of the Omo River. The
kingdom is mentioned in the Christian kings’ literature for the first time during the reign of King
Yeshaq to whom it paid tribute in horses. The first kings of Yama belonged to a dynasty called
Halmam Gama.
The economy of Yama mainly depended on agriculture. Trade played a secondary role in the economy
of the kingdom. Nevertheless, the kingdom was one of the sources of slaves for the Ethiopian region.
7.4. Hegemony of the Christian Highland Kingdom in the Ethiopian Region and the Horn of
Africa up to 152
From1270-1529 the Christian kingdom was in a continious war particularly with the Muslim
sultanets. The main cause of the conflict was the control of trade routes along which the long
distance trade was [Link] trade was totally monopolized by Muslim traders.
Therefore, territorial expansion of the Christian kingdom was initiated by Amde Seyon. The first
military campaign of Amde Seyon was made against Damot, Falasha and Gojjam. He annexed them
to the Christian kingdom in 1316 and 1317.
Among the sultanates stated earlier Ifat was the most powerful state. The success of the Christian
army alarmed the Muslim communities in Ifat. After this victory Amde Seyon had conquered the
sultanate of Hadya around 1317. The leader of the sultanate of Ifat in the front was Sabradin who
launched his attack in [Link] he was defeated he escaped to the sultanate of Dawaro. Amde
Seyon continued his campaign to Dawaro. Sabradin was captured and had won other Muslim states.
Finally Amde Seyon died in1344. His successors continued the Christian dominance until it was
stopped at the Battle of Shimbra Qure in [Link] this battle the dominance of Christian
Highland Kingdom was declined.

After the 1332 defeat, Ifat was no longer the leading Muslim state in the region and it was reduced
to tributary status. This was followed by the successive Christian appointments over Ifat and a
large Christian garrison was stationed in Ifat.

After Made Seyon, the struggle against the Christian rule started during the reign of Sultan Haqqeddin
II (AD 1363/4-1373/4, who extended his power over many of the sultanates from the new center of Adal
in Harar. Haqqeddin himself was killed by king Dawit in 1387.
The struggle continued during the time of the next sultan called Sa’adaddin, who was finally pursued
and killed in Zeila in 1403.
They again revived under Ahmed Badley, one of the most powerful sultans of Adal. He killed King
Yishaq (r.1413-30) in 1430.

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Zara Yaqob (1434-68) finally defeated the army of Adal in 1445. Sultan Badley and his collaborator
Mahigo were killed in the battle. This marked the peak of the dominance of the Christian kingdom in
the Ethiopian region and the Horn of Africa.
The dominance of the Christian power began to decline during the last quarter of the 15th C. The reign of
Zara Yaqob marked the peak of the power of the Christian kingdom. His successor, Ba'ida Mariyam
(1468-1478) was not powerful enough to push back the mounting pressure. It was during the reign of
Ba’ida Mariyam that the Christian army faced its first serious defeat. This defeat marked the end of the
dominance of the Christian kingdom in the Ethiopian region and the Horn of Africa. Eventually, this led
to the establishment of Muslim hegemony in Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa in 1529, when Ahmad
1bn-1brahim defeated the Christian army at the Battle of Shimbra Qure.
Unit Review Questions
Choose the Best Answer from the Given Alternatives
1. Which of the following states of southern Ethiopia was able to successfully resist the forces of Adal
early in 16th C and remain independent?
A. Enarya C. Hadya
B. Damot D. Welayta
2. What kind of conflict emerged within the ruling elite of the Muslim state of Ifat following their
conquest by Amade-Tseon?
A. Differences on whether or not to push against the lowland pastoralists
B. Conflict between moderates and militants over the issue of loyalty to the Christian State
C. Conflicts on the issue of whether or not to form an alliance with the Yemenese ruling class
D. Difference on whether or not to accept complete assimilation to the Christian state
3. What was common to the Muslim Sultanates that emerged in Southeast Ethiopia during the Medival
period?
A. Their rulers enjoyed both political and religious power
B. Their economy was dependent on pastoralism
C. Their political institutions were copied from the Christian state
D. Their ruling classes were descendants of Arabs from Yemen
4. The common characteristic of the Omotic states was that they:
A. were Muslims and Christians
B. were all sedentary agriculturalists
C. mainly followed traditional religion
D. were all pastoralists
5. Which of the following is true about Christian-Moslem conflicts in Ethiopia and the Horn between the
14th and the 16th Cs?
A. Religion served as ideology for an essentially economic conflict
B. The Moslems were always armed and encouraged by outsiders
C. The conflict was basically religious
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D. The Christians were always on the offensive

6. What caused the internal divisions within the sultanate of Ifat in the second half of the 14th C?
A. differences of opinions on what kind of strategy to adapt towards the Christian kingdom
B. differences of the legitimacy of establishing an alliance with the non-Muslim Damot state against
the Christian kingdom
C. the issue of accepting or rejecting the help of the rules of Yemen to fight against the Christian
kingdom
D. on the issue of relocating the political center of Ifat from the Ifat lowlands to the deserts of Awsa
7. The role of the institution called Mikerecho in the political system of the medieval kingdom of Kaffa
was:
A. supervising provincial administration C. checking the power and authority of the king
B. giving whatever assistance the king needs D. monitoring tribute collecting
8. Which of the following two Medieval states in southern Ethiopia were conquered and subjected by the
advancing Mecha Oromos?
[Link] and Damot C. Shewa and Ifat
B. Wolayta an Kaffa D. Adal and Hadya
9. What was the feature shared in common by the Muslim Sultanates of the Ethiopian region in the
medieval period?
A. Their populations predominantly depend on agriculture
B. They were allocated in the north-western lowlands of Ethiopia
C. Muslims and Christian populations were of fairly equal size
D. Rulers exercised both political and religious authority
10. Which of the following is correct about the respective role of the routes through which Islam was
introduced into Ethiopia?
A. The port of Zeila was used by Islamic warriors committed to Jihad
B. Dahlak was both a staging point and the oldest Muslim state in the Ethiopian region
C. The port of Zeila was the most important for the entry into the interior
D. The Dahlak islands were the major point of entry to central Ethiopia
11. Which of the following is correct about the Christian kingdom after 1270?
A. The kingdom made extensive territorial gains to the south
B. The mobile royal camps led to the deterioration of security
C. The gult system led to the emergence of powerful regional lords
D. The new rulers deviated significantly from the political tradition of Aksum
12. The most important political function of Amba Gishen was:
A. Reduction of conflict over succession by confining princes
B. Education of princes in the art of politics
C. Giving legitimacy to Emperors through anointing
D. Keeping the chief symbols of authority in a secret location

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UNIT EIGHT
MAJOR EVENTS OF THE 16TH CENTURY ETHIOPIAN REGION AND THE HORN OF
AFRICA AND THEIR IMPACTS
8.1. Portuguese and Ottoman Turkish Rivalries in the Ethiopian Region and the Horn of Africa
Explain about the main cause for the Portuguese expansion in the Indian Ocean.
The legend of the Prester John of the Indies was important for the revival of the foreign relations of
Ethiopia with ChristianEurope. Therefore, some European monarchs began to communicate with this
Christian state through letters. For instance, in 1400 King Henry IV of England wrote a letter to the
Christian king addressing him as the Prester John. Moreover, the Portuguese, the Christian superpower
of the world, continued to search for the country of the Pester John and before the end of the 15th C they
succeeded to send a delegation to Ethiopia in 1494. But these attempts were always frustrated by the
Egyptian sultans who did not want to see the rise of a Christian power in the Horn of Africa.
The Portuguese expansion of the early 16th C in the Indian Ocean was the result of the voyages of
exploration of the preceding century. Since the overland route was blocked by the Ottoman Turks, the
Portuguese government to finance sea voyages to explore a new sea route to the Far East. Finally, the
Portuguese sailors succeeded in discovering a new sea route with the voyages of Vasco da Gama who
reached India in 1498.
After Vasco da Gama’s voyage, they set up a series of posts along the coasts of India, the Persian Gulf,
Arabia and East Africa. They also blockaded the Red Sea and diverted the trade to the new sea route
around the continent of Africa. In this way, the Portuguese monopolized the spices trade between the Far
East and Europe.
During the search for a new sea route to the Far East, a Portuguese named Pedro de Covilhao reached
the court of the Christian kingdom of Ethiopia in 1494. But he was not successful to establish closer
relationship between Ethiopia and Portugal.
Just as the Europeans were eager for a Christian ally in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the Ethiopians
were also keen to obtain the Christian European technical assistance. As stated earlier, the late 15th C
was marked by the decline of the Christian kingdom and the growth of threat from the sultanate of Adal.
As a result, the Christian kings were in need of the military help of their European Christian counter
parts against the Muslim threat from the southeast. To that end, Queen Eleni, the wife of Emperor Zara
Yaqob’s and the regent ruler of the Christian kingdom, sent a mission to Portugal in 1512.
The mission was led by an Armenian merchant called Matthew. In her letter, Eleni requested the
Portuguese government for military help against the sultanate of Adal. In 1520, the Portuguese sent an
official diplomatic mission to the Christian kingdom of Ethiopia. But this mission stayed for six years
and left Ethiopia in 1526.

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In 1541 the Portuguese expeditionary force, which played a significant role in the final defeat of Ahmad
Ibn Ibrahim, arrived in Ethiopia.

The Christian Kingdom needed help against the lowland sultanates, while Portugal wanted a maritime
ally to chase Turkish ships out of the Red Sea. Whatever the case, it was this contact which prepared
the ground for the later involvement of the Portuguese in the military conflict between the Christian
Kingdom and the Sultanate of Adal.

8.2. Conflicts between the Sultanate of Adal and the Highland Christian Kingdom
Zara Yaqob’s successors were not strong enough to maintain their hegemony over Adal.
Sultan Muhammad, the son and successor of Ahmed Badley, lead a revolt against the Christian
kingdom. However, the sultan continued to pay annual tribute to the Christian state. After the death of
the sultan in 1470, they formed a strong opposition and challenged the power of the reigning sultan.
Subsequently, a civil war broke out in Adal which lasted for a long period of time.
During the years of the civil war the sultans lost their power. Actual power was held by Emirs or Imams
who completely dominated the sultans. Mahfuz was one of the powerful emirs who strengthened the
sultanate and launched a series of attacks on the Christian Kingdom from the last decade of the 15th C
onwards. Mahfuz’s attacks continued throughout the reigns of Eskindir (r. 1478-1494) and Na’od (r.
1494-1508). Finally, he was killed in a battle with the army of Lebne Dengel (r. 1508-1540) in 1517.
Finally the leadership of the Muslim sultanate of Adal passed to a powerful imam called Imam Ahmad
Ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi, who was commonly known in Ethiopian Highland Christian tradition as Ahmad
Gragn (the left handed).
As soon as he took power in Adal and before launching his campaigns against the highland Christian
kingdom, Ahmad Ibn Ibrahim tried to consolidate his rule in the lowlands. He restored peace in the
lowland regions and recruited soldiers from the peoples of the area. Moreover, he also strengthened his
army by instilling the spirit of Jihad into the conflict.
However, it should be noted that the conflict between the Christian Highlan Kingdom and the Muslim
Sultanates was not over religious issues. The conflict was between the Solomonic and Walasma rulers
over the basic economic interest. That is the control of the lucrative Zeila trade routes and the lands
through which these routes passed. The Muslims were also fighting to regain the independence which
they lost to the Christian Kingdom earlier and create a Muslim empire of their own.
Ahmad opened his campaigns on the Christian kingdom in 1527. In this year, Ahmad’s forces
successfully raided Dawaro, Fatagar and Bali, the tributaries of the Christian Kingdom. Emperor Lebne
Dengel, who defeated and killed Mahfuz in 1517, responded by ordering Degelham, the governor of
Bali, to marchto Adal. But Degelham was defeated by the Muslim forces of the Imam in Adal. Since

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then the Christian forces took defensive position. Ahmad then undertook a series of expeditions which
took him further westwards into the highlands.
Finally, Ahmad fought a major battle with the Christian army led by Lebne Dengel in March 1529 at a
place called Shimbra Qure, near Mojjo. At this battle Lebne Dengel and his army suffered a crushing
defeat from which they could not recover.
Ahmad’s ambition was to build a big empire in the Horn of Africa. Therefore, in 1531 he resumed his
campaign and led the Adal army to Dawaro and Bali. The two sultanates were easily defeated and were
annexed to Adal. Since 1531 onwards no part of the Christian kingdom was left untouched. Welayta
was the only state which successfully resisted the Imam’s army led by Wazir Ibn Mujahid.
Finally, the sultanate of Adal established its hegemony over the Ethiopian region and a large part of the
Horn of Africa. The territory was divided into provinces which were ruled by governors appointed by
ImamAhmad. At first, the Imam established his center in Aksum. Later on, the center shifted to
Dembiya, near Lake Tana.
You remember that the Portuguese diplomatic mission to the Christian kingdom stayed in the country
for six years, until 1526. When the mission departed for Portugal, one of its members called John
Bermudez remained in the court of Lebne Dengel. In 1535 Lebne Dengel sent Bermudez to Europe with
two letters addressed to the Pope of Rome and the King of Portugal.
The Viceroy of India in Goa was empowered to send a strong military force to the Christian Kingdom.
In 1541, Bermudez arrived with 400 soldiers led by Christopher da Gama, the younger son of famous
sailor, Vasco da Gama.
The Portuguese fought their first major battle in which they defeated the Adal army garrisoned in
Agame. On the basis of this strategy, the Imam first led his army to attack the Portuguese in Seharti.
With the help of their canon, the Portuguese defeated the Imam’s army. The Imam himself was seriously
wounded and narrowly escaped capture. The Portuguese also moved southwards and camped in Wafla
south of the Lake, where they awaited the coming of King Gelawdewos.
To avoid this he turned to the Ottoman Turks, the rivals of the Portuguese, for military assistance. The
Ottomans responded immediately by sending 900 infantry men armed with muskets and canons. Then
he fought at Wafla. In the battle that followed, the Portuguese suffered a crushing defeat. Their
wounded commander, Christopher da Gama, was captured and killed.
Finally, Gelawdewos led the combined forces against the army of the Imam in Dembiya. The decisive
battle was fought in February 1543 at a place called Wayna Dega, near Lake Tana. The Imam was shot
by one of the Portuguese soldiers. A little later, the Imam died and his army retreated to Adal. His
remaining army and his wife, Bati-dil-Wonbera retreated to Adal.

The battle of Wayna Dega brought the dominance of the sultanate of Adal in the Ethiopian region to

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an end. Ultimately, the war weakened both fighting sides. Indeed, the war had exhausted both the
Christian Kingdom and the Sultanate of Adal.

Results of the War

The military conflict which lasted for about two decades caused much destruction. Several churches,
monasteries and mosques were looted and burnt to the ground.
It was a loss of several cultural heritages.
Besides, a large number of men died on both sides. As a result, there was a severe population
reduction in the region.
It was a loss of an immense wealth both in human and in material.
Above all, the war undermined the power of the Christian kings by destroying the earlier
professional soldiers built over the preceding centuries. This resulted in the outbreak of a rivalry
between the monarchy and the nobility.
The military conflict was also responsible in part for population movements in the region. Many
people changed their settlement area to avoid the conflict.
The war also led to the intermixing of different ethnic and religious groups of the region.
Because of the population movement and chaos which accompanied the conflicts, the trade routes to
Zeila became more and more unsafe for caravans. In fact, some trade continued to trickle through to
Zeila until 1559, when Harar was abandoned and the Muslims shifted their center to Awsa in the
Afar region.
8.3. Oromo Population Movement
8.3.1. Original Homeland of the Oromo
Until recently, the issue of locating the original homeland of the Oromo has been the subject of
controversy among historians.
According to the Oromo traditions, the original homeland of the Oromo people is the highlands of the
present Bale and Sidamo provinces. While the ritual and political centers, more specifically known as
Madda Walabu, of various Oromo clans were located in the highlands, a number of Oromo groups also
lived outside these centers.
8.3.2. Oromo Institutions and Social Organization
On the eve of the 16th C movement, the Oromo were organized into two separate confederacies called
Borena and Barentu.
 The Borena confederacy consisted of the Macha-Tulama, Guji and southern Borena clans.

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 The Barentu consisted of Karayu, Ittu, Marawa, Akachu, Warantisha and Humbana.
Economy: Before their movement:
 The majority the confederacy lived in the highland of Bali and were practicing mixed farming
 The people who were living in the lowlands practiced pastoralism.
 Religion: Before their conversion to Islam or Christianity, the Oromo worshipped their own
traditional religion. In this traditional religion, the Oromo believed in one supreme God called
Waqa, which refers both to the sky and the sky God.
The power of Waqa is manifested through a spirit called Ayana. The spiritual leader in the Oromo
traditional religion was known as Qallu. He was a high priest and believed to be possessed by the
Ayana. The Qallu was also called Abba Muda, i.e., father of anointment.
Muda ceremony: was celebrated once every eight years in honor of the Qallu. In the ceremony, the
Qallu gave his blessing and anointed the gada officials who governed the Oromo for eight years

NB: The Muda ceremony was the point at which the gada system and the Qallu institution intersected.

The Gada System

The gada system is a complex socio-political and military organization of the Oromo people. The gada
system is a system of classes that succeeded each other every eight years in assuming military,
economic, political and ritual responsibilities among the Oromo people. Two distinct categories existed
in the gada system, which are very important to understand how the system worked. The categories,
called the gada grade and gada class, worked in parallel or side by side.
There were ten different grades and five different classes. In particular, the gada grades were important,
because they made the system work in a cycle. The full cycle of the system had ten grades and each
grade had a life-span of eight years. Therefore, the full cycle of the gada system had a life span of eighty
years. The first five grades or forty years were the practical schools during which the young men were
trained militarily, politically and ritually to take over the leadership of the nation.
The groups of men are called Parties or “Classes” or Age sets (a group of people who share the same
status). For example: the five commonly used party names used in the gada system are:-Birmaji,
Horata, Bichile, Duulo, [Link] stages or categories or eight years long period through which all
parties must goes are known as grades (are the stages of development). For example: Iti-Mako,
Daballe, Folle, Qondala and Luba.
These grades or eight years period through which parties/classes or ‘age sets’passed are:

No Grade Number of years Age of individual

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1 Iti-Mako 0-8 8-16

2 Daballe 8-16 16-24

3 Folle 16-24 24-32

4 Qondala 24-32 32-40

5 Luba 32-40 40-48

Each Gada grade has its own functions;

 Iti-Mako serves as messenger
 Daballe serves as herding of livestock.
 Folle serves as military battalions
 Qondala serves as transition grade and actes as the reserve army to assist the Folle military.
 Luba serves as the ruling grade which means they served political authority
All male Oromo joined the gada system at their birth. Joining the system was marked by membership to
one of the five classes. At the same time, the members of the class would enter the first grade. Those
who became members of one of the classes would remain for the rest of their lives as members of that
class. But this was not the case with gada grades, becausemembersof gada classwouldnotremain in the
same grade. Rather, they would stay for eight years in one grade and then pass to the next grade, where
they again would stay for another eight years.
In short, every eight years members of gada class passed from one grade to the next grade until they
completed the last eight years of the tenth grade. After completing the eight years of the last grade, the
members of the gada class would leave the gada system.

NB: A man and his brothers are in the same party regardless of their age differences. Together they
move through the hierarchy of grades, a complete Gada Cycle of forty years behind their father.

In the gada system, specified social and political duties were assigned to members of gada class which
they accomplished during their stay for eight years in each grade.
 In this regard, the sixth gada grade is very important, because members of gada class would
assume political leadership.
 The right of political leadership was held by members of the gada class as a whole.

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 But before assuming the political power, they have either to raid new territories which their
ancestors did not raid, or achieve something new for the Oromo society.
The Gada Officials
The gada government called Chaffe/Assembly (the main decision making body) was set up by officials
elected from the members of the gada class. The gada officials were elected on the basis of their ability
and merit. Some of them include:-
1. Abba Boku or Abba Gada (Father of the Gada): spokesman of Gada Assembly serve for eight
years. He is the first among equals.
2. Abba Sera: Chief of Judge
3. Abba Dula: commander of the army
4. Abba Lafa: possessor of land
NB: Beside these, to run the government, the Abba Boku was helped by a council known as “Shanee”
or ‘Salgee” and retired gada officials.
These elected officers were simply the representatives of the reigning set.
NB: The elected gada officials would assume executive power for eight years. They administered the
clan in accordance with the laws of the gada system in which the will of their class members and that of
the Oromo people at large is embodied. After eight years, the gada officials and their class members
would hand over power to the class in the fifth grade during the term of their office
8.3.3. Cause and Directions of the Oromo population Movement
The Oromo population movement was almost completed within eighty years, i.e., in the period of one
full gada cycle. The movement began at about 1522 and subsided around 1604. The exception was the
resistance of Enarya which lasted up to 1710.
The main cause for the movement of the Oromo was population pressure. Beside these:
 Shortage of pasture land in the highland
 The gada system itself
 The weakness and exhaustion of both the Christian High;and Kingdom and Muslim Sultanates

But not to extend territory, to control trade routes and to impose culture or religion

Directions of the Oromo population movement

In the 16th C, the Oromo population movement was carried out:-

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Inside Ethiopia- following two directions in to the central, south-eastern, western, southern and
northern regions.
The Barentu followed the North Eastern direction of Ethiopia(Harar, Wollo, Tigray, and Eritrea)
The Borena followed North Western direction of Ethiopia(to Shewa, Wollega, Illubabur, Kaffa, And
Gojjam)
Outside Ethiopia- they moved to the present day of Kenya and Somalia.
Reasons for the success of the Oromo population movement
There are two important reasons for the success of the Oromo population movement.
1. The strong nature of Oromo socio-politico-military organization gave them superiority in military
tactics;
 the gada system gave military training for all male members
 New territory through Buta war
 Their military strength
 Their institutions of adoption- Guddefecha and Mogassa
2. The exhaustion of the Christian HighLand Kingdom and Muslim Sultanate of Adal due to the civil
war-Both could not withstand their expansion
8.3.4. Consequences of Oromo Population Movement
Explain some of the Consequences of the Oromo Population Movement
The movement affected both the Oromos and other peoples of the region.
A. It enabled the Oromos to settle in new areas within and outside Ethiopia.
 They settled permanently in Northen Kenyan
 They were pushed out from Somalia
[Link] movement affected the medieval states of the Ethiopian region:-
 The Christian Kingdom was restricted to the north of River Abay
 Adal Sultanate was reduced to a city state surrounded by the wall of Harar (Jegol Gimb)-built by
Emir Nur Mujahid
 States of Damot, Gafat, Bizamo, Bali, Hadya, Ifat, Dawaro, and Fatagar were highly influenced
and some of them were completely destroyed.

NB: The only survived states were Kaffa and Welayta

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C. It had also brought either property looting and conflict or adoption with the Oromos
 Those who resisted cruelly treated.
 Those accepted peacefully (kindly) treated.
D. The movement brought ethnic and cultural intermixing of Oromos with other peoples of the region.
 Other peoples took Oromo culture and institutions
 Oromos also took various elements from others. For example:
 The majority accepted either Christianity or Islam
 Took monarchial system
E. After the expansion, they largely became sedentary agriculturalists. They also involved in the long
distance trade of the region
[Link] movement seriously affected the Gada system and led them to adopt monarchial system.
 Constant wars gave the rise of powerful war lords
 The Oromos borrowed some elements of the political system of kingship from others. For
example: States formed in Gibe and Wollega regions.
Unit Review Questions
Choose the Best Answer from the Given Alternatives
1. What was the basic reason for the conflict between Ottoman Turkey and Portugal in the Horn region
during the 16th C?
A. Control of the main route to the Holy Land
B. Dominance over their respective religions in the area
C. Territorial annexation and expansion in to the interior
D. Control over trade and trade routes in the region
2. In what ways did the rivalry between the Portuguese and the Ottoman Turks affect the conflict
between Christian and Moslem forces in the Horn?
A. Directly by participating in the wars
B. Indirectly through supplying arms and ammunitions
C. Indirectly through political and moral support
D. Indirectly by imposing a naval blockade on the side that they opposed
3. Which one of the following best describes the nature and consequences of interaction between the
Oromo and other Ethiopian populations during their movement?
A. The interaction was primarily one-way with the Oromo assimilating all the societies they came
into contact with
B. The interaction was reciprocal with the Oromo and the people they came into contact with
influencing each other’s culture
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C. The interaction was peaceful with the Omotic-speaking peoples while it continued to be hostile
with the semetic-speaking groups
D. The interactions weakened Oromo pastoral values and the gada system and led to the erosion of
their culture
4. Which of the following states was a serious obstacle to the establishment of a viable relation between
the Ethiopian Christian kingdom and Portugal during the Medival period?
A. Mamluk Egypt C. Muslim Arabia
B. The western Roman Empire D. Ottoman Turkey
5. Which of the following is true about the Oromo Gada system?
A. Political power was peacefully transferred from one group to the other every eight years
B. It operated through competitive election of officers irrespective of age or grade
C. it accorded equal rights to women and men
D. it clearly distinguished and separated religion from politics
6. Which of the following factors was the most significant for the victory of Adal forces over those of
the Christian state in the 1520’s?
A. superior weapons
B. the success of Imam Ahmed in unifying Afar, Somali, and Harari forces
C. defection of Christians who opposed Lebne Dengel
D. Turkish military and political support
7. What is the justification for referring to the Oromo population movement of the 16th and 17th Cs as a
unifying phenomenon in Ethiopian history?
A. That the Oromo did not oppress non-Oromo groups whom they defeated
B. That the Oromo practice a system of adoption of children called Guddefecha
C. That the movement reduced the number of linguistic and cultural entities in southern Ethiopia
D. That the Oromo brought the Muslim-Christian wars of the 16th C to an end
8. What was the impact of the story of “Prester John of the Indies” on Ethiopia’s foreign relations of
the 15th C?
A. It attracted the Portuguese to establish closer relations with Ethiopia
B. It attracted the Turks to establish closer relations with Ethiopia
C. It increased Turkish hatred and animosity towards Ethiopia
D. It shaped the religious policy of the Portuguese towards Ethiopia
9. Which one of the following was NOT a consequence of the Oromo population movement?
A. Intensification of cultural exchange between Oromo and other populations of the region
B. The democratization of the gada system through borrowing from Islam and other local religions
C. The transformation of some of the Oromo groups from pastoralists into sedentary agriculturalists
D. The assimilation and loss of ethnic identity of many ethnic groups in the region
10. Which of the following is true about the population movement of the Oromo in the 16th and 17th Cs?
A. It avoided all occupied and cultivated lands

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B. It was mostly peaceful negotiated

C. It led to the linguistic and cultural absorption of many non-Oromo communities
D. It started and ended within the borders of present-day Ethiopia

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UNIT NINE
THE ETHIOPIAN CHRISTIAN HIGHLAND KINGDOM (1543-1855)
What factors/reasons had contributed for the political instability in Ethiopia that occurred in
the period under discussion?
9.1 Attempts to Consolidate and Shift the political Center of the CHK
After the death of Imam Ahmed at the battle of Woina Dega in 1543, three Christian Highland
Emperors; Gelawdewos (r.1540-1559), Minas (r.1559-63) and Sartse Dingel (r.1563-97)
encountered three problems from three directions namely:
i. The raids of Adal (the continuation of the war of Ahmad Gragn)
ii. The Oromo population movement and expansion and,
iii. The encroachment of the Ottoman Turks along the Red Sea coast (1557-1865)
I) Gelawdewos (r.1540-1559): was the first king to confront the raids of Adal and the expansion
of the Oromo. He consolidated his power in the Northern provinces (Dembiya, Gojjam,
Begemidir, Lasta, Simen and Tigray). Then, he established his new political center in Waj in
Shewa (near the present day town of Debre Zeit) where he attempted to launch military
campaigns against Adal in the East and the Oromos in the south. His campaign against Adal
was more successful than the Oromos because:
1. The Muslim army fought a conventional war in which Gelawdewos and his army had
superiority in men power and firearms.
2. The Muslims settled communities who could be followed up and punished.
On the contrary he failed with the Oromos because of the following factors, namely;
1. The application of guerilla warfare by the Oromos-Hit and Run tactics unsuitable for the
Christian army.
2. Fast mobility of the Oromo troops due to absence of large camp followers and surprise attack
at night fall.
3. The exhaustion of the Christian army by the war of Ahmad Gragn
On Good Friday of 1559 Gelawdewos led his army to fatal campaign against Adal under Emir
Nur Mujjahid. First he sent Hamelemal but defeated. Then he sent his best army under his own
command; however he was defeated, killed and beheaded by the Emir Nur Mujjahid
The victorious Adali forces were defeated by the Oromos at the Battle of Hazello, near the
Awash valley. Since then, the Muslims were restricted to their walled city of Harar.

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II) Minas (r.1559-63): He was brother and successor of Gelawdewos. Minas shifted his
political center from Shewa to north of the Abay River, first to Mengeste Semayat, in Eastern
Gojjam and then to Gubae in Enferaz (in Dembiya) near Lake Tana. The shift of his political
center was a miscalculation by Minas that led to destructive result namely;
1. The region south of Abay was left open abandoned to the Oromos- settled there without any
hindrance. The Oromos established there new political center at Odda Nabi in Fatagar near the
present-day Dukem.
2. This evacuation greatly changed the political geography of the Christian Kingdom-the
territory south of was detached from the old provinces-the Christian Kingdom was diminished in
size.
Minas did nothing to regain the lost Christian provinces to the South of Abay River.
The Renewal of Social Disorder and Anarchy in the CHK under Minas
From his new capital at Gubae in Enfranz in Dembiya near Lake Tana, Minas:
A) Began to maintain himself and his army by looting and harassing the peasants-created social
disorder and anarchy
B) the provincial war lords began to reject or defied the authority of the monarchy which led to
strong rivalry between the two early symptoms of regionalism the decline of imperial power at
the expense the provincial governors in collaboration with the clergy against the monarchy.
III) Sartse Dingel (r.1563-97): He was the son and successor of Minas who came to power at
the age of thirteen. The first of his reign witnessed political instability caused by the rebellion of
his old generals. He had faced a challenge from his own general for he was a child king.
i) Hamelmal: rebelled or defied the authority of the king in 1565-66, settled with his large army
in Western Shewa, but reconciled with Sartse Dingel in 1566.
ii) Fasilo: did the same against Sartse Dingel in1566 and even attack him and the king was
narrowly escaped from death.
As soon as his power was consolidated, (reversed the first sign of regionalism), Sartse Dingel:
a) Marched to the south across the Abay River to stop the advance of the Oromo and regain the
former-the lost province of the Kingdom.
b) In 1568, he got the submission of Enaraya
c) However, he failed in his campaigns against the Oromo-could not stopped them from their
expansion.

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The Ottoman Turks Encroachment in Northern Ethiopia in the late 1570s and the revolt of
Bahire Negash Yishaq in 1578 and in the late 1570s, Sartse Dingel’s attention was shifted
towards the Ottoman Turkish expansion on the Red Sea coast.
In 1557, the Ottoman Turks occupied the port of Massawa-expanded to the hinterland and
occupied the highland village of Dabrawa, the capital of the coastal areas ruled by Bahre Negash
Yishaq, appointed first by Minas and later by Sartse Dingel. Bahre Negash Yisehaq’s rebellion
began during Minas and continued under Sartse Dngel, for a short while he was submitted to
Sartse Dingel who reinstated him to his old post.
The Ottomans pushed or incited him to rebel against his own king Sartse Dingel which he did in
1578. In 1879, Sartse Dingle crushed the rebellion of Bahre Negash Yisehaq.
Although Sartse Dingel could not dislodge the Ottoman from the occupied costal territories, he
defeated them at the battle of Addi Daerro and Dabrawa. Therefore, from 1557 to 1865 Massawa
and the surrounding coastal areas remained under the Ottoman Turkish control.
The Renewal of the Oromo Invasion (1588)
In 1588, the Jawi Oromo attacked Fasil, Sartse Dingels brother who had been stationed with
large army in Waj-an old capital of the late Gelawdewos. Fasil and his soldiers were killed by the
Jawi Oromo.
Sartse Dingel swore to avenge, but the Oromo quickly retreated as usual to their base areas (arid
region). Sartse Dingel had two option(a) to wait until they came or (b) to punish them in their
base area by conducting a punitive expedition.
He passed his fatal decision (choice 2) his troops died of Hunger and disease-disastrous
campaign to Sartse Dingel-retreated back to Gubae -the old center established by Minas. As a
result, Sartse Dingel decided to stop any more attempts or campaign against the Oromo in order
to regain the lost provinces or south of Abay.
However, Sartse Dingel reversed his decision in 1595. When he marched south wards across the
Abay on the request of the ruler of Enaraya for military assistance against the Oromos. But he
could not stop them and severely defeated by the Oromos. Finally, in 1597 Sartse Dingel made
another campaign to Enaraya to confront against the Oromos, but he feels ill and died in the
district of Shat near the Gibe River.
Upon the Death of Sartse Dingle in 1597, once again the Christian Kingdom fell in to Sartse
Dingil in 1557; once again the Christian Kingdom fell in to Internal Political Instability 1597-
1607 Political Disorder and Bloody Civil War followed in the Christian Kingdom.
Since the Wars of Ahmed Gragan (1527-1543), there had been a gradual erosion of the power of
the kings (as well as a result of acute power struggle in the Christian court). The period

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witnessed the weakness of kings-the feudal lords challenged the authority of the monarchy. The
old generals-provincial warlords wanted to put their own candidates (kings) on the throne-as a
result, from 1597-1607 three kings enthroned and dethroned one after another. These were:
i) Yaiqob (r.1597-1603)
ii) Zadingel (r.1603-1604)
iii) Yaiqob (r.1604-1607)
iv) Susenyos (r.1607-1632)
Finally in 1607, Susenyos succeeded in securing the throne came to power with the assistance of
the Oromo warrior who had stayed during his exile for more than two decades.
Susenyos coronation solved the problem of power struggle of the Christian kingdom but for the
time being.
Religious controversy between EOTC and the Roman Catholic Church began soon which
unleashed the internal power struggle in Ethiopia.
Brainstorming
Suggest some of the possible reasons or factors that contributed for Susenyos conversion to
Catholicism?
9.2 Catholicization and Civil Wars
Religious Controversies Catholicism versus the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahido
The Jesuits were (and still are) the leading spiritual soldiers of the monastic order of the catholic
called the Society of Jesus founded by Ignatius Loyolla , a Spanish veteran in 1534. They
evangelized the people into Catholic faith everywhere as a part of Catholic Counter Reformation.
The Problem was related with the arrival of Portuguese Soldiers in 1541.
 On the request of King Libne Dingel a Portuguese military assistance under Captain
Christopher de Gama arrived in Ethiopia in1541 against Imam Ahmad Ibrahim.
 After the battle of Woyina Dega (Feb 22, 1543), the Portuguese did not leave the country,
instead:
a) They married to Ethiopian women
b) Settled at Fremona near Adowa
c) Brought Catholicism: the Jesuits to convert Ethiopian Orthodox Christians to Catholicism.

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The ground for the strong effort of the Portuguese government and the Pope of Rome to was
convert the Orthodox Tewahido Christians to Catholicism-the alleged promise of King Libne
Dingle.
The Alleged Promise of Liben Dingel (1535)
1) According to John Bermudez (Envoy of Liben Dingel) King Libne Dingel in return for the
Portuguese Military Assistance, had Promised.
a) To give one third of his kingdom to the King of Portugal and
b) To be converted, together with his subjects to Catholicism
2) Provide the ground for the strong effort of the Portuguese government and the pope in Rome
to convert the Orthodox Christian of the Christian Kingdom into Catholicism
But in reality, Libne Dingel had no such pledge and no intention at all.
1) The Attempt of John Bermudez and Gelawdewos (1520/1535/1541/ (1543-53)
The first attempt of Conversion began as soon as the Portuguese soldiers entered to the Christian
Kingdom in 154. By the time Gelawdewos had already succeeded his father. John Bermudez
heard the death of Liben Dingel and the succession of Gelawdewos while he was in Goa (the
capital of Portuguese colony in India). He soon made himself Patriarch of the Christian
Kingdom.
In fact, he was not ordained by the Pope of Rome, but he claimed that Liben Dingel nominated
him patriarch of the Christian Kingdom. On this fake ground, he acted as if his nomination was
approved by the pope of Rome. Then he began to force Gelawdewos to fulfill the alleged
promise of his father (military assistance as precondition) namely:
1) To get the conversion of Gelawdewos personally
2) To recognize his position as the Patriarch of the Christian kingdom and
3) To assist him in converting his Orthodox Christian subjects-the masses-to Catholicism (as
promised by his father)
Gelawdewos was highly depended on getting the military assistance of Portuguese soldiers. John
Bermudez knew this reality-he forced Gelawdewos to fulfill his father’s alleged promises in
order to secure the assistance of Portuguese soldiers.
But Gelawdewos who knew that his father did not make the supposed promise rejected the
request of John Bermudez. John Bermudez tried to induce the Portuguese soldiers not to fight for
Gelawdewos, but failed to do so.

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The Portuguese soldiers who knew about story rejected Bermudez’s attempt (not to fight on the
side of Gelawdewos)-rejected him. Besides, the King of Portugal, King John III of Portugal,
also refused to recognize Bermudez as the Patriarch of the Christian Kingdom of Ethiopia. In
1553 finally, the frustrated Bermudez returned to Debarwa
Official Appointment of Patriarch and Bishop for the Christian Kingdom (as a result of
misunderstanding of Gelawdewoss letter) began after the retirement of John Bermudez in 1553.
The appointees were selected from the Society of Jesus-the Jesuits. The appointment was the
result of a misunderstanding of the letter of Gelawdewos
After the war against Ahmed Gragn was over at the battle of Woina Dega in1543, Gelawdewos
permitted those Portuguese soldiers who fought on his side to live permanently in the kingdom.
Married Ethiopian women and lived especially at Fremona, near Adowa and Dembiya central
Lake Tana region.
Gelawdewos wrote a letter to King John III of Portugal to send catholic priests who could
render religious services to the Portugal soldiers. But King John III thought that Gelawdewos
wanted to be converted to Catholicism. The King and Pope decided to send one patriarch and
two bishops selected and ordained among the Jesuits. When Gelawdewos heard about the
arrangements (made in Europe) for his conversion, he wrote a letter of objection to the
Portuguese government of India in Goa–then he sent. The governor Don Pedro Masccarenhas
sent a young Jesuit Rodriguez to convince Gelawdewos to accept the Patriarch and become a
Catholic.
2) Rodriguez (1553-1557): was Jesuit priest officially selected and appointed from the Society
of Jesus. He was sent by Don Pedro Masccarenhas, the Portuguese governor of India at Goa.
Gelawdewos objected to accept the Patriarch and to be converted to Catholicism. On his way to
Ethiopia, Rodriguez was advised by John Bermudez to use force/threat in enforcing Gelawdewos
to accept his request.
Immediately after his arrival, he openly criticized such Orthodox Christian practices such as:-
a) Male circumcision
b) Food taboos
c) Fasting on Wednesdays and Fridays and
d) The observance of the Sabbath
Gelawdewos tolerated Rodriguez because he needed the military assistance of the Portuguese
army for the conflict with Adal is not yet resolved. But finally Gelawdewos rejected the demand
for his conversion and Rodriguez returned to Goa without success.

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The recruited patriarch and the bishop decided to go to the Christian Kingdom and asked the
governor of Goa for armed intervention (-military support-the idea of using force). But the
governor opposed the idea of using force and instead sent again a bishop called Andre de
Oviedo.
3) Andre de Oviedo (1557-1597): was a Jesuit bishop sent by the Portuguese governor of Goa
who arrived at the court of Gelawdewos in1557 (whose objective was) to convince the king (to
convert Gelawdewos to accept the demands). He accompanied Gelawdewos from one campaign
to another and tried a lot to convince him, but with no success and his effort proved fruitless.
In 1558 instead Gelawdewos wrote a book called “The Confessions of Gelawdewos” (The
confession of Faith) in which he:
A. defended the practice of the Orthodox faith /doctrine against the criticisms of the catholic
priests and
B. declared that was not prepared to be converted to Catholicism and even strictly opposed
conversion.
An important document that has come to be known as Confession of Gelawdewos /the
Confession Faith-a confession, written in the form of a letter to Don Pedro Masccarenhas,
Portuguese viceroy /Governor of India at Goa by which Gelawdewos confirmed /defended his
Orthodox faith…read as: “This is my faith and the faith of my father, the Israelite king and the
faith of my flock…and the faith of my Kingdom”.
He wrote this book /letter because he was accused by some people of that he might have some
relation /inclination towards Catholicism.
Oviedo was welcomed by Bahire Negash Yeshaq who led them to Debarwa-the Jesuits were
established themselves at Fremona near Aksum. But Oviedo retaliate Gelawdewos by isolating
him from the Portuguese soldiers. It was at the critical time that Gelawdewos, who was
abandoned by the Portuguese soldiers that faced the army of Adal (alone) at Fatagar where he
was defeated and killed in1559
Oviedo and King Minas (r. 1559-1563)
After the death of Gelawdewos (1559)
a) Oviedo moved to the Portuguese arm to the province of Tigray, where he joined
Bahirenegash Yeshaq, the leader of opposition forces against Minas
b) Oviedo assured Bahire Negash Yeshaq that Portuguese military assistance would come soon
to depose Minas and appoint a puppet king of their own choice.
c) Yeshaq and his followers agreed to be converted when they said Portuguese military
assistance arrive.

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d) But Oviedo’s promise was not fulfilled and he himself died in1597 without any success in his
mission.
6) Minas (r. 1559-1563): strongly opposed the Jesuits, took severe measure, even persecuted
them and at one time he imprisoned Oviedo.
7) Sartse-Dingel (r, 1563-1597): followed a policy of tolerance and even gave religious freedom
to the Catholic followers in Ethiopia.
Of course, Oviedo and his followers reached Dembiya, near Lake Tana where the early remnants
of the Jesuits Portuguese soldiers of 1541 were living with their families. Finally, Oviedo died in
1597 without any success of his mission-in converting the kings and the people to Catholicism.
After the death Sartse Dingel(r, 1563-1597 and Oviedo 1597, the Christian Kingdom faced:
1. Political disorder due to acute power struggle
2. Gradual erosion of the power of the kings since the wars of Ahmed Gragn
The weakness of the kings led the Orthodox Church leaders-the clergy-to ally with the most
powerful provincial governors- the nobility besides. The king could not depend on /lost the
loyalty of the army. The Kings began to consider the advantage of converting to Catholicism to
get military assistance from the Portugal/ external intervention
After the death of King Sartse Dingel real powers fall in the hands of the nobility at the expense
of the monarchy/kings. Church leaders-the clergy, allied itself with the most powerful provincial
governors /the nobility. Then the kings needed external intervention and Portuguese military
support
Why kings converted to Catholicism? This was because:
1) They sought to obtain Portuguese military assistance so as to consolidate their power (in their
final showdown with the nobility and the clergy (the basic reason).
2) They were attracted by the intelligent charity made to the poor by the Jesuits
(contributory/secondary factor)
3) To practice /imitate European strong model of government/ maintain strong monarchy/
absolutism. They also needed European advisors to reform/modernize the country.
With the death of Oviedo in 1597, two other bishops Pedro Paez and Alfonso Mendez were
sent to Ethiopia. The exception of Paez all of them were unsuccessful in their mission mainly
because they were not wise in their dealings with the kings.
Pedro Paez (1603-1622): was the most brilliant and successful of all the Jesuits.
8. Yaiqob (r. 1597-1603): was half brother of Susenoyos: By the time he arrived at Massawa in
1603, the reigning king was a 14 years old Yaiqob deposed and replaced by Za-Dingel

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9. Za-Dingel (r. 1603-1604): was well-aware of the political problems faced by his predecessors.
Therefore, he was determined to get rid of:
a) disloyal soldiers and their commanders
b) church leaders; the clergy and
c) the provincial governors; the nobility, whom he thought were the source of the weakness of
the king, the monarchy
Well aware of the attitude of the king, Paez directly told Za-Dingel that if he agreed to be
converted to Catholicism, he could get Portuguese military assistance with which he could defeat
his enemies and consolidate his political power.
Za-Dingel banned the observance of the Sabbath to satisfy the demand of Paez. But he had faced
strong opposition from the Orthodox Christian and the people. In the civil war that followed, Za-
Dingel was denounced by the people and was killed at the Battle of Barcha in1604.
10. Yaiqob (r. 1604-1607): He was reinstated –put on the throne again. Paez continued the same
dealing with him. The King then agreed to accept /embrace/ Catholicism, but before the
agreement was implemented, he was killed in 1607 and succeeded by his half-brother Susenyos.
11. Susenyos (r, 1607-1632): The reign of Susenyos saw the success of the long effort of the
Jesuit bishops. He inclined towards Catholicism in order to get Portuguese military assistance (so
as to consolidate his power). The Jesuits got freedom to preach their religion freely and recruit
converts even in the court itself (Royal families and Dinatary).
The first important convert was Ras Se’ele Kirstos, the younger brother of Susenyos and one of
the old powerful generals, who was re-baptized publicly in 1611.
The palace clergy and other members of the royal families were then converted. Example:
1) Ras Se’ele Kirstos
2) Abba Merka, Father Confessor of Susenyos
3) Azaze Tino, Chronicler of Susenyos
Public Debates (Beginning from 1612)
Beginning from 1612, a series of public debates on the Catholic principles were held in the court
under the chairmanship of Susenyos himself. The Catholics were represented by Ras Se’ele
Kirstos. In the meantime the Orthodox traditional practices such as:
1. Circumcision
2. Fasting on Fridays and Wednesdays and
3. The observance of Saturday were condemned as heresies

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These theological controversies shocked the very foundation of the Ethiopian Orthodox
Tewahedo Church.
The Orthodox Clergymen who stood against Catholicism faced mistreatment in the court.
All these measures brought about the rebellion of the peasants led by the clergy and the nobility-
Yolyos, son in law of Susenyos
 Abbune Simmon and
 Ras Yemane Kirstos, the brother of Susenyos
The first peasant rebellion against Susenyos broke out and led by the above mentioned nobilities.
But ruthlessly crushed and the rebels were killed in action, Yemane Kirstos defeated his brother.
Susenyos went to Gorgora with great ceremony.
In 1622 Susenyos himself was officially converted to Catholicism in public. He declared
Catholicism the official state religion. Unfortunately Paez died and replaced by Alfonso Mendez
1622-1625 who introduced a number of Catholic reforms in Ethiopia in 1626.
From 1626-1632 the Peasant Rebellion developed into CW:
From 1626-1632 Susenyos fought many battles and the peasant rebellion was developed into
bloody c-wars dueto:
a) The hasty imposition of the new religion on the peasants and
b) The banning of the long established Christian practices
Thus, both the clergy and the nobility joined the rebellion to defend their religion. This period
witnessed one the large scale peasant uprising in Ethiopian history led by Melka Kirstos (25000
peasants were killed). After the battle of Denkez in June 1632 Susenyos gave up his war and
abdicated his power in favour of his son Fasiledes
Fasiledes (r. 1632-1667): was the son and successor of Susenyos and he restored the Orthodox
Christian faith to its former position. He expelled all the Jesuit Missionaries including Mendez;
but not harmed because he feared the Portuguese military retaliation.
Severe measure was taken against local converts. Example-Ras Se’ele Kirstos was hunged.
1) Introduced the Closed Door Policy, a shift in foreign policy by which:
 He barred all Europeans from entering the country.
 Ethiopia closed her doors to Europe and everything European.
 Diplomatic isolation from Europe-isolated Ethiopia for about 2Cs (17th to the early 19th Cs).
Hence, centuries of contact with Europe was reversed and all European Christians were
suspected as Catholics. Fasiladas had signed a treaties of alliance with Imams of Yemen and the

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Pashas of Swakin and Massawa not to let Europeans enter the country/ to prevent the coming of
any Europeans enter the country/report the coming of any European to the country.
During the long period of isolation only two Europeans succeeded in reaching the Christian court
–violated the closed door policy namely: 1) Dr. Jaques Poncet: the French physician who cured
Iyassu I /the great (r, 1682-1706) of his skin disease. And 2) James Bruce: the Scotish traveler
who came to Ethiopia to discover the source of the Blue Nile in1636
Faisladas founded the city of Gondar as permanent capital next to Lalibela that brought an end to
the tradition of mobile /roving capital/the royal court.
Waj---Mengiste Semayat---Gubae----Ayba---Gorgora---Azezo---Denkez---Gondar
He built the grandest palace with a huge swimming pool close to river Qeha (Timekete Bahir).
He also re-built St. Marry Church of Aksum demolished by the Wars of Ahmad Gragn.
9.3 The Gondarian Period (1636-1769)
Gondar was founded in 1636 by Fasiledes as permanent capital after Lalibela ended the tradition
of roving or mobile capital of the royal court of the medieval period. Several kings began to rule
from Gondar stayed for long period.
The period between 1636 and 1769 is known as the Gondarian period due to which Gondar
enjoyed a period of glory and greatness. Gondar became the permanent center of the Christian
kingdom-promoted cultural revival of the kingdom.
Gondar became known for its architectural achievements and building technology
 Magnificent castles and palaces were built by kings
 The Castle of Gondar /the Royal Enclosure/ at the heart of Gondar
 Residence for the Abune and the Echegie
 Many churches were built outside the Imperial [Link] became center of Excellence.
Churches as-theology
-poetry
-music Attracts scholars
-law
-and other religious subjects
Arts as-church painting
-cross making
-calligraphy and Developed resembled continuation

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-other arts
The Architectural Style of the buildings resembled with that of Aksum and the Zagwe period.
Trade
Gondar also became the center of active trade. It had been criss-cross by the major Long
Distance Trade routes passed through it.
Metema /Galabat to Ethio-Sudanese
border

South western Ethiopia (Bonga in Keffa)-Gondar- Aksum-Adowa-Massawa on the Red

Sea coast
In addition to the Weekly market, daily markets flourished Gondar became a meeting point for
people of the surrounding region. People exchanged different items of trade –cattle, honey, butter
and grain for urban products of the weavers, blacksmith and goldsmith.
The trade was dominated by Muslims the “Jabarti”-were also weavers. Items of various crafts
were provided by the Falashas (Bete-Israei)-they engaged in masonry, pottery, basketry and
metal works.
The major objective or the reality behind the establishment of Gondar by Fasiledes was:-
a) To control the major Long Distance Trade Routes and
b) To collect as many revenue as possible
Urbanization: the expansion of Gondar as a town-the population /the inhabitants’ census
reached about 70,000. There had been separate living quarter for different communities at
Gondar especially during the reign of Yohannes I (For Example, Addis Alem was reserved for
the Muslim Community).
Yohannes I (Tsadiqu Yohannes) (r. 1667-1682): was the son and successor of Emperor
Fasiledes. He constructed a palace –the royal residence including the Library. He was devoted
Christian –“Tsadiqu”/the Righteous one/. He Strengthened Orthodox Christianity
He tried his best to check/ stop the rapid expansion of Islam-Islamization. He followed the policy
of religious segregation, passed the Edict of Religious Segregation in1668 and 1678 renewed. He
established separate living quarter for different communities and religious groups
a) The Chewa –resettled at the heart of the city
b) Non-Chewas- resettled outskirt of the city
c) The Muslims- at River Qeha Addis Alem
d) The Falasha- at Weleqa
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e) The Foreigners-at Police Medda

He had maintained his father’s Policy of Closed Door.
Iyassu I (The Great) (r. 1682-1706): was the son and successor of Yohannes I. He was the most
powerful of all Gondarian kings. He was the last powerful Christian king before the fall of the
kingdom into the period of political disorder.
He made a campaign against Shewa and collected annual tribute, but recognized the power of
rulers there (since Minas) and of the Abay.
During his reign:
a) The traditional civil code-the Fetha Negast was revised.
b) Land laws were amended.
c) Taxes and customs were recognized.
d) Trade was advanced (revived).
These reforms promoted the development of trade through which he strengthened commercial
relations with Egypt.
He denounced or canceled the Closed Door Policy and invited a French physician, Charle
Poncent (came 1699-1700) who cured him from his skin disease.
He also sent a delegation of seven young Christians to the Pope of Rome. This attempt of
conversion aroused suspicion among the Clergy
The Earthquake of 1704 in Gondar aggravated/strained his relation with the clergy for it
was considered as bad omen-as Gods expression of anger a God’s curse against the Jesuits
presence accelerated his assassination.
Iyasu had no alternative but fled to an Island Monastery in Lake Tana when he was followed by
assassin (led by his son Taklahaymanot- ErgumTaklahaymanot) and murdered him in1706.
The Period of Political Upheavals (1708-1721): The death of Iyasu I in 1706 ushered the
period of upheaval-power struggle was severely intensified. Court intrigues, murder, poisoning
and assassination were common-the Byzantine kind of Politics.
From 1706-1721 four kings reigned; (Teklehaymanot I r. 1706-1708), Tewoflos (r.1708-1711),
Yostos (r.1711-1716) and Dawit (r.1716-1721) one came after another through murder,
assassination and poisoning. They were weak and unable to defend their own capital Gondar.
Gondar was occasionally plundered by bands of robbers and bandits.
Religious Controversy within the Ethiopian Orthodox Church
The clergy and members of the rival ruling families, on their part, were engaged in the splitting
religious controversy.
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This brought about the heritage of religious conflict that arises between Ethiopian Orthodox
Church and Roman Catholic Church.
The Reign of Atse Bekaffa (r. 1721-1730): His reign was relatively peaceful than those of his
predecessors. Under his reign, the Christian kingdom enjoyed a short period of political stability.
He was admired for his efficient administration.
It was during his reign that Shewa became autonomous ruled by independent rulers (by
detaching itself from Gondar and Gondarian kings). Historians compared him with Emperor
Louis the XIV of France-a Romantic historywas narrated regarding his wife Etigie Mintewab,
who dictated him in all aspects of his life as that of the French King mentioned above. Bakaffa is
an Oromo term meaning a person who spraws when he walks
Iyassu II the Little (r. 1730-1755): was son and successor of Bakaffa. He was made king while
he was a child (7 years old) under the regency of his mother-Etigie Mintewab (Walete
Giyorgis)-the wife of Bakaffa.
Etigie Mintewab who came from Quara and became influential women in the Christian
kingdom after queen Elleni and ruled the country on behalf of her son-as a regent–for certain
years. She had succeeded in securing the power of her son by the support she got from the lords
and chiefs of Quara-Quaragnoch-her kind men. She had exercised a strong political power at
Gondar. In 1732, she brought her brother Wolde Leul to the court of Gondar and appointed him
as Ras Bitwoded. But, she was challenged by the lords of other provinces- especially the Oromo
Lords from Wollo.
Iyassu II himself was worried (opposed) the growing power of his mother and his mother’s king
men-the Quara Lords. He was decided to get rid of them and replaced by the Oromo Lords from
Wollo like Amizzocalled Wabi (who later baptized as ‘Bersabah’). This event marked the
active involvement of the Wollo Oromos in the politics and political faction of the queen
Mintewab and Wabi. This power struggle in the palace finally led to the end of the Gondarian
period and the emergence of the period of Zemna Mesafint.
Iyoas (r.1755-1769) and Power Struggle between the Quara and Wollo Political factions at
Gondar (1767-1769)
Iyoas was son and successor of Iyassu II. His reign was dominated by two rival groups- the
Wollo Oromo factions. It was during his reign that the influence of the Wollo Oromo further
increased and the Amhara chiefs-the Quaregnoch who felt dominated by the Oromos challenged
the role of Iyoas. Oromo language became the language of the palace at Gondar.
The two Factions /Groups (1767-1769)
1) The Wollo Oromo Faction

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It was led by Wabi (Bersabah), the wife of Iyassu II and mother of king Iyoas-the reigning king.
She was supported by her two Oromo brothers Lubbo and Birille, who arrived at Gondar with
3000 cavalary men.
2) The Quara Factio/group
It was led by Etegie Mintewab, the grandmother and regent of Iyoas and mother in law of Wabi.
She (Mintewab) was controlled state power in the name of her grandson, Iyoas.
The power struggle was openly started in 1767 with the death of Ras Bitewodad Walde Leul
brother and the right hand men of Mintewab.
The conflict between the two factions created political disorder around Gondar and endangered
Mintewab’s power. Thus she was forced to look for any strong personality who could help her to
control the [Link] most powerful candidate in 1768 was Ras Michael Sehul of Tigre.
Ras Michael Sehul of Tigray (1768-1771)
He was invited to Gondar to restore peace and order by Mintewab. He arrived Gondar in 1768
with his large Tigrayan forces and suppressed the opposition with a heavy hand restored peace
and order in Gondar. He was rewarded the highest title and became Ras Bitwodad. However,
king Iyoas ordered him to go back to Tigray, Michael felt strong and refused to obey the order of
the king.
Ras Bitwoded Michael Sehul assassinated king Iyoas in 1769. This incident marked the
beginning of the new era in Ethiopia in which powerful regional lords undermined the power the
monarchy-the Period of Zemna Mesafint (1769-1855).
Michael Sehul-then after became “King Maker” at Gondar for the period 1769-1771 and the
guardian of the shadow king at Gondar. He was opposed by the regional/warlords/ of Gojjam,
Wollo and Lasta-the Amhara-Oromo coalition force.
In 1771-Michael Sehul was defeated by this coalition force at the battle of Sabrakussa-fled to
Tigray and died in 1780. After 1771, chaos and disorder continued until the coming to power of
Ali Guangul of the Yejju Oromo Dynasty (1780-1855).
9.4. The period of Zemene Mesafint (1769-1855)
It broke out with the assassination of king Iyoas by Michael Sehul in January, 1769. Michael
Sehul became king maker at Gondar and the guardian of the king at Gondar from 1769-1771. It
was a period of total decline in Ethiopian history, characterized by:-
i) The decline of Imperial power at the expense of the regional feudal lords
ii) Regional lords crowned puppet kings at Gondar and ruled in their names
iii) Kings at Gondar were nominally crowned but they had no real power
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iv) Perpetual civil wars were fought among different regional lords for three objectives, namely;
a) To expand their territories/domains at the expense of their neighbors or immediate
contenders
b) To became Ras Bitwodad so as to become the guardian of the shadow kings at Gondar and
c) To collect as much tribute as possible in the name of these weak kings
v) It was a period of feudal political disintegration
vi) The absence of rule of law/anarchy, lawlessness and disorder
vii)Trade was disrupted and agriculture was discouraged, agricultural fields were
turned into battle fields
viii) It affected (negatively) the social and economic life of the peasantry; they suffered a lot
from the frequent wars:
 Quartering of the army and the bandits (shiftas)
 Heavy taxation
ix) The frequent wars had undermined sense of nationalism-period of weak national feeling.
x) Religious conflict: intense doctrinal controversy within the Orthodox Church and its clergy-
the division of the EOTC into different religious sects having a regional character-religious
sectarianism/factionalism.
Factors that Contributed for the Erosion of the Power and Authority of the Christian Kingdom
were:
1) The wars of Imam Ahmad Ibrahim (1527/29-1543)
The continuous war devastated the economy that in turn had weakened the power of the
Christian kingdom. Liben Dingel was the first victim-lived a fugitive life for more than a decade.
Gelawdewos lost his life and beheaded by the Amir Nur Mujjahid in 1559.
2) The Establishment of Gondar as Permanent Capital City
Kings stayed at Gondar for long period of time and neglecting the province. Roving capital was
convenient to collect tax, administer and crush rebellions that broke out in provinces. In the
absence of effective administration structure and garrisoned army, this ensured loyalty of
regional lords. This made the regional lords built up their power which threatened the traditional
authority of the monarchy. Example: King Tekle Giyorgis I (r. 1789-1800) who enthroned and
dethroned six times in his 11 years of his reign-the Christian tradition nicknamed his as Fitsame
Mengest, ie the end of the Kingdom.
The Yejju Oromo (Warra Sheh) Dynasty/Family (r. 1786-1853)

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It was founded in1786 by Ras Ali Gunagul the Great (Ali I /“Talak”)(r. 1786-1803). It
dominated the politics of Northern Ethiopia in the name of puppet kings of Gondar until1853.
They ruled from their resident political center at Debre Tabor.
Ras Gugssa (r, 1803-1825): was the strongest of all Yejju lords/rulers. He was challenged by 2
successive Tigrian rules: Ras Wolde Selassie of Enderta (r, 1790-1816) and then Dejjazmach
Sebagadis of Tembien (r, 1822-1831). But Gugssa neutralized the situation by his military and
diplomatic skills as well as by means of royal marriage/alliance.
Ras Yimam (r. 1525-1825): was the son and successor of Gugssa. He had faced strong
challenge from Semien and Tigre, where he defeated Semien.
Ras Marye (r. 1828-1831): was challenged by Dejjach Sebagadis of Tigray. This led to the
battle of May Aslamay, near Debre Abay where the two rivals; Ras Marye and Dejjach
Sabagadis were killed, but the Yejju lords emerged victorious and continued to rule the country.
Ras Ali Alula (Ras Ali II/ “Tanash”) (r. 1831-1853)
He was the last Yejju Oromo ruler, son of Etigie Menen and father of Tewabech. He was
defeated by Kassa of Quara in 1853 at the Battle of Ayshal-this incident marked the end of the
Yejju Oromo Dynasty.
The Major Political Center of the Period the Yejju rules/ the Zemene Measfint were:
a) Tigre in the North
b) Semien, Dembiya, Begiemidir, Lasta, Amhara, Yejju and Wollo in the center and
c) Gojjam and Shewa in the south.
The Zemene Mesafint was also characterized by Foreign Threat-especially Egyptian threat
along the Ethio-Sudanese Border. Since 1821 Egypt occupied the Sudan by smashing the Funj
Kingdom, the Egyptian threat get momentum. However, Egyptian attempt to penetrate to
Ethiopia was repulsed by regional lords of the period such as:
a) Dejach Wubie of Semien and Tigray c) The bandit/shifta Kassa Hailu
b) Dejach Kinfu Hailu of Quara and
The main battles included the Wad Kaltabbu (1838) and Debarik (1848).
The Major Cosquence of the Zemene Mesafint
1) Many people abandoned their professions and became Shifta/ bandits.
2) Merchants were unable to conduct trade peacefully-the Long Distance Trade was highly
affected.
3) Decline of agricultural products.
4) The life of the peasants was insecure and they shouldered great burdens.
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The End of the Zemene Mesafint 1855: The rise of Kassa of Quara crowned Emperor
Tewodros II in 1855 marked the end of the Zemene Mesafint; the Battle of Deresgie. Kassa of
Quara was the man who initiated the process of restoring the power and authority of the
monarchy. Before his rise to power, Kassa of Quara eliminated those Dejjazmaches-regional
feudal lords at four successive battle fields: Guramba, Gorgora Bichen, Ayshal and Deresgie.
The Battle of Deresgie (Feb. 9. 1855): The defeat of Dejjazmach Wubie of Simen and Tigray
by Kassa of Quara at the battle of Deresgie marked the end of the period of the Zemene
Measfint.

Unit Review Questions

Choose the Best Answer from the Given Alternatives
1. The Locality in Eastern Gojjam that served as a political center to Emperor Minas (r, 1559-
1563) was:
A. Jan Amora B. Debre Zeit (Waj) C. Mengiste Semayat D. Denkez
2. What was the major reason for the conversion of Emperor Susenyos to Catholicism?
A. His loyalty to the church was weak because he did not grown up under its influence
B. He hoped to get the support of Catholic Europe against internal challenges
C. He was influenced by members of his family who had converted before
D. He was convinced of the superior technology of the Catholic Church
3. After suppressing the growing opposition against Mintewab and her faction for which he was
called to Gondar in1767, Ras Michael Sehul:
A. Returned to Tigray immediately
B. Stayed in Gondar deeply involved in the struggle for power and thereby became “king
maker” at Gondar (1769-1771)
C. Marched to Shewa to subdue the rebellious rulers of the province
D. Stayed in Gondar married to Mintewab but disengaged from politics
4. Which one of the following rulers of the “Gondarian Period” tried to carry out an extensive
reform of land tenure and taxation?
A. Fasiledes (r. 1632-1667) C. Iyassu I (r. 1682-1706)
B. Bakafa (r. 1721-1730) D. Yohannes I (r. 1667-1682)
5. Which one of the following was an external threat to Ethiopia during the Zemene Measfint?
A. The establishment of a naval base by the Ottomans at the port of Massawa
B. The establishment of cooling stations by the British and French on the Gulf of Aden
C. The expansion of Mohammed Ali along the Western border lands of Ethiopia
D. The revival of British and French missionary activities along the costal parts of Ethiopia
6. Emperor Tekele Giyorgis was known as “Fitsame Mengist” because:
A. He was crowned and removed from throne several times

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B. His reign witnessed wither to unseen devastating civil war

C. He was responsible for transferring power peacefully to the Yeju Daynasty
D. His reform led to the disintegration of the power of the central government

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UNIT TEN
CAPITALISM AND THE GROWTH OF DEMOCRACY
10.1. China and Japan in the 16th and 17th Centuries
10.1.1. China
Under the Han Dynasty (221 BC-206 AD), China was united in a single empire. It was ruled by
an emperor with absolute power. Under the emperor, it was ruled by a bureaucracy at the center
and in the provinces. The Chinese regarded those who lived outside their empire as
“Barbarians”.
A. The Ming Dynasty
It was at first powerful and effective. Painting, pottery and poetry reached high level. Its early
rulers were usually interested in the outside World. In the 15th C its government sent out a
serious of great voyages of exploration as far as East Africa.
B. The Ching Dynasty:
It was a non-Chinese dynasty from Manchuria. Manchuria is now part of China but in the past
it was outside the Chinese Empire. In1644, they took Beijing and a Manchu ruler became
Emperor of China. It was the foundation of the new Ching Dynasty.
The idea of Mandate of Heaven told them to accept any dynasty if it was strong enough. The
idea of Mandate of Heaven means any one either from China or out side China can rule China.
‘Heaven” gave a “mandate” or authority to a ruler (if a ruler ruled badly he will change by the
mandate of heaven).
Externally, the regime was at first powerful. China reached its greatest ever extent of territory.
There were clashes in the north between the Ching and expanding Tsarist Russian Empire.
Ching dynasty and its officials continued under Ming dynasty. Jesuits appeared in China and
theymade cannons, maps, astronomical and engineering works.
In the first half of the 19th century, the Ching dynasty was declined. From 1839-42, Britain
defeated China imposed imposed “unequal treaties”by force.
10.1.2. Japan
Its civilization was influenced by China, but they “Japanised” them. They had an emperor but
since the 12th C power was on the hands of army commanders called Shogun. The emperor was
performing religious rituals, it developed a feudal society.
Around 1490 a period of civil war between feudal lords was brokeout. Great feudal lords called
Daimyos. The feudal warriors were Samurai. Daimyos ruled their lands called Han.

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Tokugawa daimyo family was successful in the power struggle, head of them Ieyasu made
himself Shogun in 1603 and reunited Japan. He setup Tokugawa Shogunate (1603-1867),
becausc each succeeding Shogun from Tokugawa family.
Daimyos continued to administer their Hans (Fiefs), and have large numbers of Samurai
followers. Japan remained feudal. Tokugawa Shogun had effective power. Daimyos had to obey
and no more civil war. At the top of feudal society there were feudal ruling classes. These were
Shogun, Daimyos and Samurai.
Japan had a money economy and [Link] reached Japan in 16th C because to trade
and Catholic missionaries. By 1615 half million Japanese converted to Catholicism. Shogun
disliked conversions and feared Christian Daimyos and Samurai might support Spain against
Tokugawa government.
Tokugawa government then extended its policy in 1639 from prohibiting Christianity to
excluding all outside influences on Japan. It aimed to preserve feudal Japan and Tokugawa
power from outside influence (seclusion policy), i.e. isolation from outside world. But limited
contact was allowed to trade with Korea, China and Dutch. The Dutch were confined to Deshima
Island in Nagasaki harbor. The consequences of seclusion policy for Japan were however,
negative.
10.2. The English Revolution
Background
The last ruler of Tudor Dynasty, Queen Elizabeth I (1558-1603) was succeeded by James VI,
King of Scotland. Thus, he became James I as the first King of England of Scottish Stuart
dynasty.
From 1603 on, England and Scotland had the same ruler but separate countries in all respects.
England and Scotland did not become politically united, except in time of Cromwell (1707).
After1707 with a single parliament and government both called Great Britain (Britain).
Tudor Dynasty (1485-1603) had made English monarchy strong but not absolute becausec there
was a royal navy; king no regular, professional army and only small bureaucracy officials.
The monarchy was not absolute because of the existence of a representative national assembly;
Parliament. The parliament had 2 houses (assemblies).
1. House of Lords: not elected (heads of noble families and archbishops and bishops).
2. House of Commons: elected and represented the people.
 Voting in elections for House of Commons was not democratic. Large number of adult
males could vote but not all adult males.
 Respect and obedience towards gentry families and they took the lead in public affairs.

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 Gentry and a few bourgeois merchants and lawyers were elected members of House of
Commons.
Serious conflicts between the king and the parliament began during the reign of Charles I
(1625-49). Most serious disputes were about:
1. Foreign policy: England involved in unsuccessful wars against Spain and France.
2. Finance: the parliament did not vote sufficient money in taxation; the king collected money
without parliament’s approval (illegal ways).
3. Religion: growing suspicion from Charles and his French Catholic queen, Henrietta Maria,
taking England away from Protestantism and back to Catholicism.
Beginning of the Revolution
The revolution began in Scotland (1637). Charles imposed British Church Prayer Book for
Church services in Scotland. Charles called a meeting of parliament was Short Parliament,
because it was brief (April-May 1640) and it met in Nov. 1640 called Long Parliament because
it lasted until 1653.
Members of the parliament united against Charles. He was forced to accept laws limiting his
powers.
The first civil war (1642-46): the inhabitants of London, the navy and Scotish supported
parliament. The parliament won the war raising a new centralized force called New Model
Army and led by two generals, Thomas Fairfax and Oliver Cromwell.
A secular political movement had appeared in the mid-17th C called Leveller movement. In
1649, Levellers asked to the abolition of corruptionin parliamentary and judicial process,
toleration of religious differences, and transition of law.
Lower ranks of the army to force the army leadership to hold a political discussion called Putney
Debates (1647). In 1648 there came the second Civil War with the invasion of England by a
Scottish army. The New Model Army defeated Scots and English Royalists.
In December 1648 the army, excluded from parliament all members of the House of Commons
did not agree with the army’s program. The House of Commons who remained were called the
Rump, meaning remnant or left-overs. Rump and armystaged a short trial of the king but House
of Lords was abolished. England declared republiccalled Commonwealth, but it was not a
democratic state.
After the second civil war, Cromwell crushed Leveller movement. From 1648-53, Rump of
Long Parliament ruled England. In April 1653, Cromwell took soldiers into House of
Commons and dismissed the Rump, andended Long Parliament. Cromwell ruled England,
Scotland and Ireland through conquest in September 1658.

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After Cromwell’s death, General Mock commanded the army to restore the monarchy; Charles
II r. 1660-88). The son of Charles II, James II (1685-88) intended to undermine the Church of
England and made England Catholic.
William of Orange, Protestant leader of Dutch Republic became king as William III (1688-
1702). This was called Glorious Revolution because the succession was made without
bloodshed.
Parliamentary Supremacy and the Bill of Rights
King William II and Queen Mary (1689) became joint rulers of England, Parliament presented
to a declaration called Bill of Rights. The document assured people certain basic civil rights. It
stands with Magna Carta (1215) and Petition of Rights (1628). The Bill of Rights included
indubitable rights and liberties, settled succession to the throne, illegaly the king to keep a
standing army, to levy taxes without Parliament’s approval.
10.3. The Enlightenment
It means intellectual movement t in Europe and North America in 18th C. Its center was France,
because it becomes the intellectual and cultural center of Europe and the French had common
language.
Influential figures of Enlightenment included:
1. John Lock (1632-1704), an English philosopher. He held that men would use their minds
andfollow up reason. His theory of govovernment, establishment of government by people,
underlined that men possessed certain natural rights, chiefly the right to life, liberty, and
property. Citizen rights were protectedby means of an agreement called a Social Contract.
His works were profound influences on later political & educational theory&serve as an
impulse to 19th C romanticism.
2. Voltaire: remembered for his works in science, philosophy, and criticism against injustice,
despotic French government and criticism against the Catholic Church.
3. Rousseau: His book entitled Social Contract, declared that “Man is born free and
everywhere he is in chains”. He maintained that people have natural, alienable right to life,
liberty and property. People create government and grant it powers, and when dissatisfied,
they may change the government.
4. Montesquieu: wrote a book entitled the Sprit of Laws.
He proposed to prevent despotism by reorganizing government. He argued that governmental
powers be separated among 3 branches; executive, legislative, and judicial.
5. Diderot: He attacked French Old Regime abuses e.g. religious intolerance, unjust taxation
and governmental absolutism.

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6. Cesare Beccaria (Italian); He wanted reform of the criminal laws.

7. Adam Smith (Scottish): He founded political economy.
8. Benjamin Franklin (American): He contributed to science and involved in American
struggle for independence from Britain.
9. Newton (2nd half of 17th C): His work was how the universe operated by natural laws, which
had discovered by human reason.
10. Diderot‘s Encyclopedia expressed consensus of Enlightenment ideas. His work gave
treatment to science, arts, government, and politics, and the need for reform.
Voltaire, Montesquieu and Rousseau were best-known writers of the period.
11. Beccaria wrote against the use of torture and death penalty
Deism- existence of universe and its natural law needed existence of a Creator. Deism not
intervenes for miracles.
Deists rejected all dogmas and made their religion a matter mainly of ethics. Atheists thought
religion was good for keep them normal, hard working and content with their place in society.
Rousseau believed that a Republic was best form of government and also in democracy.
10.4. The American War of Independence
The Thirteen British colonies in North America later became indendent USA, extended from
Canada in north to Florida in south and Atlantic Ocean to Appalachian Mts.
All population of the 13 colonies was not European origin. In addition to Amerindians there
were slaves coming to America through Atlantic slave trade. There were class differences with
economic inequalities in the 13 colonies while they were under British rule. Each colony had an
elected assembly, but voting was not democratic.
On July 4, 1776, Continental Congress, representative of 13 colonies, adopted a democratic
document called Declaration of Independence. Thomas Jefferson was responsible for the
wording of this document. The Declaration proclaimed that 13 colonies were independent and
became USA. He outlines the basic principles that:
 All men are created equal and endowed unalienable rights were life, liberty and pursuit of
happiness.
 To secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, deriving their powers
from the consent of the governed (people).
Three factors contributed to the final success of the patriots.
1. Geographic advantage: 13 colonies were spread out over a large area, moving & supplying
of large British army’s difficult.

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2. The Role of George Washington: brilliant leadership of George Washington.

3. French aid.
After the patriot force won a victory at Saratoga (New York) French signed a treaty of alliance
with Americans in 1778. Spain and Holland also furnished some aid. American force led by
Lafayette trapped a British army under Cornwallis at Yorktown, Virginia. By Treaty of Paris
(1783), US gained control of the land from the Atlantic to Mississippi (Maine to Georgia). Spain
ruled Florida and the land west of Mississippi. Winning independence from England did not
solve all problems for the new American nation [Link] of a strong national government.
In 1787 meeting in Philadelphia resulted the Constitution of US. The constitution left powers to
individual states but authorized the new central government. (1) to levy and collect taxes, (2) to
raise and maintain an army and navy, (3) to declare war and make treaties, and (4) to regulate
trade between states and with foreign nations
It setup a strong federal government. George Washington became the first president.
The major results of the American war of independence included:
1. It created a new nation state.
2. It became the immediate cause for the French Revolution of 1789.
3. It was one of the influences leading to the struggle for liberation of the Spanish and
Portuguese empires in the American continents and the independence of Latin America.
10.5. The French Revolution
The period from mid-17th C to 1789 in France was called Old Regime. Its government was
absolute monarchy; no [Link] French society was divided into 3 estates (social groups).
 1st estate (the Catholic clergy)
 2nd estate (nobility) and
 3rd estate (bourgeois, petty bourgeois, wage workers and peasants).
The 1st and 2nd estates had more privileges than the 3rd estate.
In 2nd half of 18th C, there was increasing criticism of absolute monarchy and it was the long
term cause of the revolution. Its immediate cause was France’s participation in American War
of Independence (1778-83).
The Estates-General
It was national representative assembly (consisted of representatives elected by 3 estates).
Political crisis was made worse by economic crisis. Added to this, King Louis XVI (1774-92)
was incompetent and his wife, Marie Antoinette was very unpopular.

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On June 17, the 3rd estate (96% of French people) passed a resolution was an oath. The oath
would not end the meetings of National Assembly called the Tennis Court. On 14 July 1789,
people captured Bastille, which marked end of absolute regime. July 14 is celebrated
Anniversary of liberty. National Assembly decreed on August 4, 1789, abolition of feudal dues
and Church tax. Events of July and August 1789 showed the end of Old Regime.
The National Assembly decreed on Aug. 26, 1789, Rights of Man and Citizens were:
 Men are born free and equal with rights to liberty, property, security, and resistance to
oppression.
 All citizens are entitled to a voice in making the national laws.
 All persons are guaranteed equality before law, freedom from unlawful arrest and
freedom of speech, press and religion.
It said all political authority comes from people and laws and approved by elected representative
assembly. Division of estates had rejected; all Frenchmen were equal citizens. In 1790, it also
voted to put the Catholic Church in France under the control of the state. The measure was not
accepted by Pope in Rome and many Catholic clergy in France. This led to a quarrel between
Revolutionaries and Church, which supported counter-revolutionaries. In June 1790, the king
and his family fled from Paris to join counter-revolutionaries. But he was recognized before he
got to the frontier, stopped and brought back to Paris.
The National Assembly was not willing to abolish the monarchy. A mass demonstration in Paris
in favor of a republic was suppressed by bourgeois security force called National Guard. In Sep.
1791, new constitution had completed (constitutional monarchy). But it contradicted
Declaration of Aug. 26, 1789, being elected only to who has enough property; (Women & Slave)
had denied all political rights.
The National Assembly arranged elections for a new Legislative Assembly in Oct. 1791. The
new constitution did not last long and the monarchy overthrew on Aug. 10, 1792. The
Legislative Assembly dissolved itself for a new assembly called Convention, where its task was
to write a new constitution. At the war front, the revolution was saved for the movement. French
army won a victory against Austrian at the Battle of Valmy in Sep. 1792.
Political groups and parties had emerged (Jacobins and Girondins). Jacobins represented
middle and petty bourgeoisie where as Girondins that of big bourgeoisie. In 1973 the Jacobins
introduced a new and very democratic constitution. But it never did came into effect, because
food rationing was introduced and controls on prices and wages (Law of the Maximum)
enforced.
Jacobin revolutionary dictatorship, June 1793-July 1794, was the height of French Revolution
and its bloodiest stage. The end of Jacobin revolutionary dictatorship and the revolution became

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more conservative. It voted a new constitution (1795), it setup a regime called Directory (unable
to give stable, conservative, bourgeoisie republic), and it was corrupt, weak and unpopular.
Popular and successful general overthrew it in a military coup and took power was Napoleon
Bonaparte (1799).
Significance of the French Revolution
 It introduced democratic ideas were Liberty, Equality and Fraternity.
 It ended supreme rule by kings and strengthened the Middle-class.
 It abolished serfdom, slavery, inherited privileges and judicial torture.
 It intensified the spirit of Nationalism [Link] a patriotic song and national
holiday was proclaimed.
10.6. The Napoleonic Era (1799-1815) and Its Consequencesm
Military Dictatorship
Napoleon had won favor with the revolutionary government by a victory against English (at
Toulon when the British and French rebels against the revolutionary government in 1793). He
was given command of army fighting Austrians in Northern Italy (1796). Austria agreed to
surrender Austrian Netherlands (Belgium) to France and to permit Northern Italy divided into
little republics under France’s protection.
France lacked sea power to make a direct attack upon British Isles and to conquer Egypt and
Syria, but was not successful. In 1799 he overthrew Directory and proclaimed a new
constitution; his title was first Consul. Outward by France remained a republic, but actually it
was a military dictatorship.
A new alliance of Russia, Austriaand Britain had been formed to drive French from Italy,
Germany and Netherlands. In 1804, he became Emperor of France.
By 1810, French Empire extended to Belgium, Holland, West Germany, Northwest Italy and part
of Yugoslavia. Spain, Poland, the rest of Italy, Switzerland and a group of German states called
Confederation of the Rhine were not annexed to the Empire, under French Emperor’s control.
Austria, Prussia, Denmark and Finland had forced against the allies of France. Russian Czar
promised aid to Napoleon to the control of Europe. Britain remained undefeated, due to its island
position and command of the seas.
In 1805, the British fleet commanded by Lord Nelson crushed French fleet at the Battle of
Trafalgar, coast of Spain. Victory not only saved England from French invasion but gave
conquered Europe new hope.
In 1812, Napoleon invading Russia, but he failed by two things. These were the sprit of Russian
people and the cold of Russian winter. In 1813, at the Battle of Nations near Leipzig (German)

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he was defeated. A last campaign in 1815, on Waterloo (Belgium), British forces led by Duke of
Wellington, Arthur Wellesley and Prussians under General Blucher defeated him.
Major Effects of his rule
 He set up a centralized governmentt; taxes collected properly, roads, canals and bridges were built.
 He organized French law into a uniform code called Code of Napoleon.
 It set up a whole system of public services.
 By agreement with the Catholic Church, he established Church of France (1801).
10.7. The Industrial Revolution
It was firstly appeared in England in late 1700s because:
1. She had fine sea ports that lay close to harbors and markets on Europe’s mainland.
2. There were great coal mines and ample supplies of iron ore, both essential to industry.
3. British were protected by sea and by great navy in 18th and 19th C.
4. It had colonies across Atlantic and India (prosperous byraw materials and markets).
5. There were thousands of skilled workmen.
Industrial Revolution means: invention and use of machines in place of hard labor. The
machines of Industrial Revolution were operated by a new form of steam power. Steam power
produced by steam engines, which turned water into steam by burning coal. The first steam
engines were invented by Savry (1689) and Newcomer (1705-11). James Watt (1782-84)
improved steam engine. Steam power applied to land transport (railways). The first railway
locomotive was built in 1804 and it was improved by George Stephenson and Robert. The first
railways were Stockton and Darlington (1825) and Liverpool and Manchester (1830). By
1850, Britain had a network of railway and cheap transport. Growth of manufacturing caused
trade and population to increase.
Unit Review Questions
Choose the Best Answer from the Given Alternatives
1. What was the mandate of heaven in Chinese History?
A. Trust in just nature of administration by Confucian bureaucrats
B. A classical master piece of Chinese literature
C. Belief that China should be ruled only by the Han
D. Belief that it is only kings who had the support of the gods that ruled
2. Who was responsible for introducing the seclusion policy in Japan in the 17th C?
A. The Tokugawa Shoguns C. Christian Daimyas
B. The Franciscan Missionaries D. The Dutch East Indian Company
3. An important achievement of the Glorious Revolution of the 17th C England was the fact that it
was for the first time:
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A. Introduced the so called “Magna Carta” C. Introduced the so called “Bill of Rights”
B. Made the role of the parliament insignificant D. Restored the British monarchy of the Stuarts
4. Which one of the following was true about the 18th C Enlightenment?
A. It preached reason and betterment of Humanity
B. It advocated the strengthening of religion
C. It advocated radical political change
D. It supported and advanced equality of men and women
5. Why did France support the cause of the 13 British colonies of America during the
revolutionary period?
A. Because of the anti colonial stance of the French government at the time
B. Because of the age of long age rivalry between Great Britain and France
C. Because of the French wanted to replace Britain as a new colonial master of the continent
D. Because of the ideological commitment of the French revolutionaries against British
tyrants
6. Which of the following events of the French Revolution marked the end of absolutism in
France?
A. The killing of Louis XVI C. The Storming of the Bastile
B. The Tennis Court Oath D. The meeting of the Estate General
UNIT ELEVEN
PEOPLES AND STATES IN PRE-COLONIAL AFRICA (1000-1884)
11.1 North Africa
A. Mamluk Egypt
Mamluks were a self-preserving military aristocracy that ruled Egypt from about 1250-1517
virtually and upto 1805 nominally. The Mamluks were originated from white Turkish slaves and
came first to Egypt as mercenaries in the late 12th C. Mamluk is an Arabic word and its meaning
is “owned” or “slave”. Before the Mamluk’s rise to power in 1250, Egypt was ruled by the
Ayyaubid dynasty. The major cause for the rise of the Mamluks was the prevalence of an acute
power struggle with in the Ayyaubid family. The Ayyuabid sultan who employeed the regiment
of Mamluks was al-Malik al-Salih.
The immediate factor that enabled the Mamluks to seize power in Egypt was the Mongol
invasion of the Middle East. Egypt attained greatness and prosperity under the Mamluks. First,
Mamluk Egypt actively participated in the trans-Saharan trade. Secondly, the rulers of West
African empires passed through Cairo laden with gold on their pilgrimage to the Islamic
holyland. Thirdly, the Red Sea became the spice route and this valuable item passed to Europe
through Egypt. In 1275 the Mamluks annexed the two Christian kingdoms of Nubia called Alwa

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and Makuria and the Mamluks converted them to Islam. In 1516 the Ottoman Turks invaded
Egypt and the Mamluks ruled Egypt under Ottoman control.
B. The Funj Sultanate
The Funj Sultanate emerged in 1504 in Nubia, in the present day Sudan. At the beginning of the
16th C the Arabs in Nubia were challenged by cattle breeding nomads called the Funj, who
practiced their traditional religion. The Funj soon adopted Islam. In 1504, they established the
Funj sultanate with its centre at Sennar. Amara Dunqas was one of the renowned chiefs of Funj
who fought many battles against the Abdallabi state for supermacy in Nubia.
The Funj sultanate faced two rounds of attacks from the Christian Kingdom of Ethiopia. The first
was in 1620 during the reign of Emperor Susenyos (r. 1607-1632) which several villages of the
Funj sultante were destroyed and looted by the Christian army. The second expedition was
launched by Iyasu II (r. 1730-1755). In the 1730s Iyasu II was defeated by the Funj sultanate.
The Funj sultanate was survived until 1821 but in 1821 the Funj sultanate was conquered by
Muhammed Ali, sultan of Egypt.
C. The Almoravids
The Almoravid movement was organized by Sanhaja Berbers. At the beginning the movement
had a religious character. The leader of the movement was called Abdallah ibn Yasin. Abdallah
and his followers were called al Murabitun. Abdallah ibn Yasin brought the Berber
communities in the far western lands under his authority. Then, he led them northwards and
captured the city of Sijilmasa in 1056. The second branch, led by Abu Baker, headed
southwards against the empire of ancient Ghana. They captured the city of Audaghust in 1054.
In 1076 the Almoravids controlled Kumbi Saleh, the Capital of Ghana. The political capital of
Almoravids was at Marrakesh.
D. The Almohads
The Almohad movement was led by a man called IbnTumrat, who was born in the present day
Morocco in about 1075. The main purpose of the Almohad movement was to overthrow the
Almoravid regime. The Almohad Empire finally collapsed because of the following factors:
 The conquest of the vast territory made efficient and centralized administration very
difficult.
 The constant wars also drained the resources of the empire.
 The attempt to solve the economic problem by imposing heavy taxes did not succeed.
The military weakness of the Almohads: In 1212, the Almohad army was defeated by the
combined forces of the Spanish Christian Kingdoms.
11.2 Western Africa (Western Sudan)

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The region immediately to the south of the Sahara is part of Western Africa. The Arabs called
this Region as “Bilad al Sudan” meaning country of the blacks.
A. Ghana
Ghana was the oldest kingdom in Western Sudan. The Kingdom got its name from the title of the
kings known as Ghana, meaning “war chiefs”. Ghana was founded in the 4th C and reached the
height of its power in about 1000 A.D. Kumbi Saleh was the most important and the last capital
of Ghana. The main factor for the prosperity and greatness of Ghana was trade. Ghana was
located on the Trans-Saharan trade routes between North Africa and the forest belt. Ghanian
crafts men were skilled in iron works. The decline and fall of Ghana was caused by the invasion
of the Almoravids in the 11th C.
B. Mali
The kingdom of Mali was founded before 1000 A.D by the Kangaba people, one of the clans of
the Mandinka people. They were traders, mainly engaged in the gold trade of the region. They
took the gold of Wangara region to the markets of ancient Ghana. Sumanguru, king of Mali,
controlled the ancient capital of Ghana, Kumbi Saleh and the trade route of the region. Mali
attained greatness under Mansa Kankan Musa, commonly known as Mansa Musa ruled Mali
from 1312-1337. The decline and fall of Mali was the result of the over extension of the territory
of the empire.
C. Songhai
The Songhai fishing and trading people originated in the Dendi region of north western Nigeria.
Gao was a market town of Songhai. The territorial expansion of Songhai was most aggressively
advanced by Sunni Ali. Sunni Ali incorporated eastern Mali and he subjugated Djenne in 1471.
Sunni Ali was succeeded by Muhammed Ture of the Askia dynasty, who further extended
Songhai’s influence and made Tumbuktu again a thriving cultural centre. Moroccan forces
equipped with firearms in 1591 defeated Songhai.
D. Kanem-Bornu Empire
Kanem-Bornu was an African state in the Lake Chad region. The state of Kanem-Bornu was
founded by the Kanuri people, a mixed Negroid and Berber people. Njimi was the capital city
of Kanem-Bornu. The economy of the state was based on trans-Saharan trade. Kanem-Bornu
Empire under Ali Ghaji founded a new capital at Ngazargamu. Under Mai Idris Alooma the
empire was expanded. But in 1846 Kanem-Bornu was absorbed by the Wadai.
E. The Hausa City-States
Originally, the Hausa people lived in a small region in the southern edge of the Sahara desert.
Hausa city-states were called “Kasar Hausa” meaning country of the Hausa language. The most

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important Hausa city-states were Kano, Katsina, Zazzu, Gobri, Kebbi, Rano and Zamfara.
The Hausa city-states were prosperous. Several factors were responsible for their responsibility.
Firstly, Hausa land had rich deposits of iron ore and charcoal. Secondly, the region was endowed
with rich and fertile soil. Thirdly, Hausa land was located between the Sahel and the Sahara
desert in the north and the tropical forests in the south. Islam was introduced to the Hausa city-
states from Kanem-Bornu. In 1811 the Hausa city-states were failed by the Fulani Jihadists.
11.3 Equatorial, Eastern and South Eastern Africa
A. The Kingdom of Kongo
The Kingdom of Kongo was founded in the late 14th C by a Bantu people called Bakongoand
their king was called Manikongo. The capital of Kongo was Mbanzakongo, the present San
Salvador in northern Angola. The Bakongo people were clever smiths. They had been
formidable hunters and warriors. The major trade items were iron tools, pottery, sea salt, mats,
basketwork, copper and iron trinkets, weaving. The Portuguese had some contact with the
kingdom of Kongo since around 1482. In 1489 a Kongolese embassy was sent to the Portuguese
king and in 1491 Portuguese missionaries and crafts men visited the kingdom. Kongo
participated in slave raids in the neighbouring regions and in slave with the Portugueses, making
Kongo a significant supplier to the Atlantic slave trade. Arabs from the sultanet of Zanzibar in
East Africa reached the region west of Lake Tanganyika.
[Link]
It was located at present in a south-central African country. The civilization of great Zimbabwe
was made by the Shona people. One of the shrines named Dzimbadzemabwe which was house
of stone became the centre of the civilization. The remains of trade articles and coins of Syria,
Persian and Chinese origin excavated from the site of great Zimbabwe. The state also maintained
trade relations with the ports of East Africa such as Sofala and Kilwa.
C. Mwene Mutapa
Towards the end of the 15th C, Mututa founded the state of Mwene Mutapa. Mututa belonged to
the powerful Rozwi clan of the Shona people. In the 15th and 16th Cs, Mwene Mutapa dominated
the gold trade between the plateau and the Zambezi River. In the 16th C the Portugueses
established bases at Sena and Tete. Mwene Mutapa resisted Portuguese intrusion until the mid
17th C, when the empire was at last subjugated.
11.4. Southern Africa
The dominant people of South Africa were the Bantu.
A. The Khoi-Khoi (Hottentots)

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The Khoi-khoi was a pastoral people who inhabitted what is now southern and western South
Africa. In their language Khoi-Khoi means “men of men”. The Khoi-Khoi people were hunters
and 1.5 metre height. Later they abandoned hunting and started cattle rising. The Khoi-Khoi had
been under strong pressure from both the Dutch settlers (Boers) and the Bantu people.
B. The San (Bushmen)
Women gathered wild plants and fruits while men killed animals with light bows and poisoned-
tipped arrows. The San sometimes lived in caves or thatched shelters and wore short aprons and
sandals made of skins. Their language is characterized by click sounds. They have short height,
yellow and copper skin colour and kinky hair.
C. The Bantus
The Bantu of Southern Africa constitute five major linguistic groups. They are Venda, Sotho,
Tsongo, Nguni and Inhamban. The southern Bantu continued to lead an undisturbed life until
the 1780s, when they encountered the Dutch farmers known as Boers for the first time. The
Boers came to South Africa after the establishment of a small post for Dutch ships in 1652. The
post grew to a settlement which later became CapeColony. In the 1860s the Zulu kingdom of the
Bantus and many other Bantu clans were conquered by the British.
1.5. The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade
Portugal was the first European country that began the slave trade in Africa. Then Spain
followed. In Africa the slave trade was conducted for over 300 years. During these years the
Atlantic slave trade passed through three distinct phases. These are:
A. The First Phase ( Piratic Slave Trade)
In this phase the traders who hunted slaves in West Africa were individual merchants,
adventurers, navigators or sea robbers. In this phase European governments did not take part in
the slave trade. It covered from the 15th to the last quarter of the 16th C.
B. The Second Phase (Monopolistic and Triangular slave trade)
It began in the 1580s. In this phase the trade was conducted by monopolistic slave trading
companies, which were officially chartered by their respective governments. These companies
operated in a highly organized system which was assisted by regular armed forces. It was also
called triangular trade because the route of this trade linked Africa, Europe and America.
C. The Third Phase (Free Trade)
It began in the second half of the 17th C was called free trade. In 1689 the British government
took a legal action by instituting free [Link] increasing number of slave dealers incited a
fierce competition between the companies as well as among the individual traders.

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The Abolition of the Slave Trade

One of the leading of European nations to champion the abolitionist movement was Great
Britain. In 1807 Britain abolished the trade in slaves in her empire and pressure on other
European countries. The change in the British policy was the result of industrialization.
Consequences of the Slave Trade
More than 15 million young Africans were exported to the Americas. Therefore, Africa lost its
most valuable human resource.
 The markets of Africa were flooded with the industrialization of Europe and America.
 Possession of large number of firearms intensified war and conflict in Africa.
 It helped Europeans to open the way for the colonization of Africa.
Unit Review Questions
Choose the Best Answer from the Given Alternatives
1. The North African Islamic movement known as Almoravids was organized by:
A. Duya Traders B. Sanhaja Berbers C. Banu- Hila Arabs D. Mandika Craftsmen
2. The Collapse of the ancient kingdom of Ghana and Songhai came about as a result of:
A. Rivalry between Muslims and indigenous religious followers
B. Decline in rainfall and agriculture
C. Invasion by external power
D. Internal succession struggle
3. What was the major factor for the decline of Mali?
A. Power struggle between the decendants of Sundiata and Sumanguru
B. The decline of productivity because of the expansion of the Sahara
C. The failure to govern the outlying provinces in an effective way
D. Finacial bankruptcy of Mansa Musa’s useful piligrimage to Mecca
4. Where was the geographical location of the ancient kingdom of Ghana?
A. Between the present states of Nigeria and Cameron C. On the Southern edge of the Sahara desert
B. At the present site of modern state of Ghana D. At the present site of Mali and Mauritania
5. During the second phase of the Trans Atlantic Slave Trade business was dominated by?
A. Chartered slave trading companies C. State governments
B. Private Ship robbers D. African chiefs

Reference
Abir, Mordechai. Ethiopia and the Red Sea: The Rise and Decline of the Solomonic Dynasty
and MuslimEuropean Rivalry in the Region. Frankcass, 1980.

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____________. Ethiopia: The Era of The Prince; The Challenge of Islam and The Re-
unification of The Christian Empire 1769-1855. Institute of Asian & African Studies the
Hebrew University, 1968.
Alberto, Sbacchi. Ethiopia under Mussolini: Fascism and the Colonial Experience. 1985.
Alemayehu Haile et al. History of the Oromo to the Sixteenth Century. Finfinne: OCTB, 2006.
Andargachew Tiruneh. The Ethiopia Revolution 1974-1987: Transformation from Aristocracy
to Totalitarian Autocracy. Cambridge University Press, 1993.
Asmarom Legesse. Gada: Three Approaches to Study of African Society. London: Free Press.
Bahru Zewde. A History of Modern Ethiopia, 1855-1991. Addis Ababa University Press.
__________. A Short History of Ethiopia and the Horn.1998.
__________. Society, State and History, Selected Essays. Addis Ababa: AAU Pres, 2008.
Bender, M. L. and et al. Eds. The Languages of Ethiopia. London, 1976.
Clark, J.D. The Prehistoric Cultures of the Horn of Africa. Cambridge University Press, 1954.
Crabtree J Pam &Campana V. Douglas. Archaeology and Pre-history.
Gebru Tareke. Ethiopia Power and Protests: The Ethiopian Peasants Revolts in the 20th
Century. Cambridge University Press, 1991.
Gadaa Melbaa. Oromia. Minneapolis, 1999.
Haberland, Eike. “Notes on the History of Southern Ethiopian Peoples.” Paris, 1975.
Marcus, Harold G. A History of Ethiopia. University of California Press: Berkeley, 1992.
Mohammed Hassen. The Oromo of Ethiopia 1570-1860. Cambridge, 1990.
Pankhrust, Richard. 1997. The Ethiopian Borderlands: Essays in Regional History from Ancient
Times to the end of the 18th Century. Red Sea Press.
Rubenson, Sven. Survival of Ethiopian Independence. 1972.
Sergew Hable Selassie. Ancient and Medival Ethiopian History to 1270. Addis Ababa, 1972.
Shiferaw Bekele. Economic History of Modern Ethiopia: Imperial Era 1941-1974. Vol. I.
Dakar, 1995. Taddesse Tamrat. Church and State in Ethiopia, 1270-1527. Oxford, 1972.
Teshale Tibebu. The Making of Modern Ethiopia, 1855- 1974. The Red Sea Press, 1995.
Trimingham, [Link]. Islam in Ethiopia. London: Frankcass and Company LTD, 1965.

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PART II
UNIT ONE
STATES AND PEOPLES OF SOUTHERN ETHIOPIA IN THE 19th CENTURY
1. The Omotic States
Peoples lived around the Omo River and speak various languages. The political organization of
these states was based on a monarchical and traditional political system. There are thirty
different languages are classified under the Omotic family. The most important languages under
the Omotic language family are:
A. The Kingdom of Kaffa.
It was located south of the Gojeb River. The land was Kaffa and the people are Kaffecho. The
names of two dynasties in Kaffa were Matto and Minjo. The Matto dynasty ruled Kaffa before
1390. The first king of the Minjo dynasty was Minjilo and after whom, the ruling dynasty was
called Minjo.
In the 19th C, from 1821 -897, five prominent kings successively ruled Kaffa. They were:
A. Gahe Nhchochi (r.1821-1841), D. Gali Sarochi(r.1868-1890) or Galito
B. Kawe Erochi(r.1841-1843), E. Gaki Sharochi (r.1890-18970).
C. Kaji Sharochi (r.1843-1868),
During the reign of these kings, the kingdom developed its monarchical system and was
extended to south, southwest and northeast of kaffa.
The Kaffa kings held a royal title called tato. The tato was assisted by a state councilor called
Mikerecho. The land in the kingdom was considered as the property of the king. In Kaffa, watch
towers were secretly erected at high points to watch and detect the approach of the enemy.
The economy of Kaffa was based on agriculture and supplemented by trade. The taxes collectors
in Kaffa were called Tate-Kisho. Taxes were collected in kind. Long distance trade route linked
Bonga (the center of the kingdom). The most trade items were coffee, ivory, musk, slave gold.
Beads, salt bars and iron bars were used as medium of exchange.
The last king of Kaffa was Tato Gakisharochi (r. 1890-97). Kaffa was finally incorporated into
Menelik’s Empire in 1897.
B. The Kingdom of Yem
The Yem people occupied the west bank of Gibe River. Yem existed as political entity since the
14th C. In the 19th C, Yem was ruled by a dynasty called the Mowa. The title of the king called
ano. The kings were both religious and political heads of their people. The administration of the

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kingdom was hierarchically organized. The king was at the top of the social pyramid and below
the king there was a council of officials known as astesor. The astesor was chaired by an official
who had the title called waso. The kingdom of Yem divided into provinces and sub provinces.
The ruler of provinces and sub-provinces were erasho (rasho) and gena respectively.
The economy was based on agriculture and peasants paid tributes directly to the king. Trade and
artesian works (weaving and iron works) were auxiliary economic activities. The kingdom
finally conquered by the force of Menelik in 1894.
C. The Kingdom of Walayita
The state had a strong connection with the medieval state of Damot. The founder of this kingdom
was Motalami. Motalami founded a dynasty called Walayita Malla; set up at the beginning of
the14th C.
In the 15th C, the Walayita malla was ousted from power and replaced by a rival dynasty called
“Tigre”. The Tigre dynasty ruled Walayita until the end of 19th C. The kings of Walayita used
the royal title called Kawo. The “goqa” were the privileged warrior class of Walayita kingdom.
The economy of the kingdom was based on agriculture. All land in the kingdom was the property
of a king. The king had absolute power in the kingdom.
The last king of Walayita was Kawo Tona. Walayita was finally conquered by Menelik II in
1894 after a stiff resistance.
D. The Kingdom of Sheka
The kingdom was found to the east of Baro and west of Gojeb River or to west Kaffa kingdom.
Before the end of 19th c, the two known ruling dynasties were Batto and Bushaho. At the end of
16th C, the first Sheka Bushasho king migrated from neighboring Anfillo to Sheka. The
Bushasho dynasty of Sheka ruled from the end of 16th to 19th Cs.
Christianity is believed to have been introduced to Sheka in the late 16th C. In the 17th C Sheka
was conquered by Mecha Oromo. But it regained its independence at the beginning of the 19th C.
The kings of Sheka like Kaffa used the royal title “tato”. The kingdom had close economic,
political and historical relationships with Enarya, Kaffa and Anfillo. The five kings of Sheka in
19th C. where: Bedi Nechochi (r.1800-1805), Tachi Nechechi (r.1805-1810), Gali Goechi
(r.1820-1850), Deji Goechi(r.1850-1887), and Techi Goech i(r.1887-1898).
 Besides of the above states there were also another Omotic states like Dawuro, Konta, Gamo
and Gofa.
1.2 The Oromo Monarchies

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At the beginning of 19th c monarchical states emerged in the Gibe Valley. The Gibe basin was
occupied by the clan of Mecha Oromo during the Oromo population movement and expansion.
During their explanation the Mecha Oromo mainly led pastoral life and they were governed by
the gada system. At about 1800 the traditional gada system was transformed into monarchical
system of government. This was due to:
 Contact with the Omotic states which had a long tradition of monarchical government.
 The expansion of Oromo into wide area
 The long distance trade and the spread of Islam affected the system
 Frequent wars of individuals like Abba dulas.
The monarchical system of government first emerged in the 19th C, around the Gibe River and
Wollega. Five states emerged around Gibe River which came to be known as the Gibe
monarchies. These were Gera, Goma, Guma, Jimma and Limu-Enarya.
The earliest of these monarchical states was Limu-Enarya and reached the height of its power
during the reign of Abba- Bagibo or Ibsa (r.1825-61), because it controlled the long distance
trade and trade routes of the region. From the middle of 19th C Limu-Emarya declined and
Jimma Kaka under Abba Jifar became powerful. At about the same time, three Oromo
kingdoms emerged in the south west of Jimma. These were Gera, Goma, and Guma.
In the middle of 19th C, two Oromo states emerged in Wollega region (Leqa Neqemt and Leqa
Qellam).
Leqa Neqemt was founded by Bakare Godana. This state reached at the height of its power
during the reigns of Moroda and his son Kumsa. Kumsa was later baptized taking the Christian
name Gebre Egziabher. Kumsa peacefully submitted to Menelik.
Leqa Qellam, founded by Tulu, became powerful during the reign of his son Jote Tulu. The
main source of Leqa Qellam wealth and power was its gold trade and trade with neighboring
Sheikdoms of Aqoldi and Benishangul.
1.3 The Harar Emirates
The Harari possessed a highly organized system of government as the result of political
development of the past centuries. Harar was the most important trade Centre in the East. The
emirates had maintained close economic and political ties with Yemen and the Arabian
Peninsula through Zeila and Berbera port. Many foreigners lived in the city of Harar. Among
these, the most important were Arabs, Persians, Turks, Armenians and Greeks. But
The emirate had no direct relations with Europeans. The emirs were suspicious of Europeans
whom they did not allow to enter into their territory. Europeans who tried to enter Harar were
often imprisoned or killed. But in 1855, the British traveler Sir Richard Burton was able to stay

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in the city for ten days. Burton’s visit had strong impact on the emirates future. This traveler
disclosed the wealth of the city as well as the strategic importance of the emirate to the outside
world. In the consequence the first threat came from Egyptians, Mohammed Rauf Pasha
occupied Harar (1875-1885).
The city developed its own currency as early as the 17th C. The wealth made the emirate very
powerful and it extended its hegemony over the Oromo’s and Somalis. The city was the Centre
of Islamic religious study and training and possessed well developed handicrafts.
The sultanate of Adal was the most powerful in 15th and 16th Cs and much of the territory in the
East had been under the hegemony of this sultanate. In 1577 the pressure of the Oromo
expansion forced the sultanate of Adal shift to its center from Harar to Ausa (north east of the
Awash valley). A little before this time, Harar city was surrounded by a stone wall to resist the
Oromo pressure. This wall was built by Emir Nur Mujahidin (successor of Ahmed Gragn). The
shift of the Adalite political center had one important consequence. This was the emergence of
the Harar Emirate.
From 1577 to the middle of the 17th C on, the emirs of Harar paid annual tribute to the Imam of
Ausa. This tributary relation came to an end with the rise of Emir Ali Dawud and he declared the
independence of the Harar Emirate.
After 10 years of Egyptian occupation from 1875 to 1885, Harar regained independence in 1885.
But finally, Menelik of Shewa defeated the force of the last Emir Abdullahi at the Battle of
Chalenqo, on January 6, 1887 and conquered Harar.
1.4 The Sheikdoms of Asosa, Benishangul and Komosha
During the 19th C existed in the Ethio-Sudan border. The Main factor for the rise of these
Muslim states was the influence of Islam and border trade. Due to very rich in gold and other
natural resources attracted the Sudanese (Mahdists) and the Egyptians to develop a special
interest in the region. However, their attempts failed as the result of the incorporation of the
whole region in to Menelik’s Empire in 1880s and in 1890s.
1.5 The Shawan Kingdom.
Shawa was founded in 1695 by local aristocrat called Negasi Kirstos. The core area of the
Shawa state was a locality called Menz. After Negasi Kirstos Shawa was ruled by his successors;
Sibste (r.1703-1745), AmahYesus (r.1745-1775), Asfa Wossen (r.1775-1808) and Wosen
Seged (r.1808-1813).
Its distance Gondar allowed the Shawan rulers to exercise full authority in their kingdom. Thus,
in the middle of 18thC, Shawa ceased or discontinued to pay tribute to Gondar and became
independent from Gondarine rule.

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During the reign of Shale Selassie (r.1813-1847) Shawa reached the height. He was the first
Shawa ruler to adopt the title Negus for himself. The former rulers used the title like
Meridazmach, and Abeto. Shale Selassie was able to organize an effective administrative
system for his kingdom. The administration of Shawa was sub-divided into nine provinces,
namely, Minjar, Bulga,Yafat, Gidim, Tegulet, Meenze, Gishe, Moret, and Shawa-Meda.
The economy of Shawa was based on agriculture and trade. Territorial expansion of Shale
Selassie enabled the kingdom to access of ivory, coffee, gold, civet cat, and slaves. These trade
items were very important to get fire arms.
The economic prosperity and political stability of the kingdom attracted European interest in
Shawa. The first Europeans to approach the Shawan king Shale Selassie were the missionaries
Isenberg and Krapf (1837 and 1839) another European, the French Chemist Rochet
d’Hericourt (1843), British envoy, W.C. Harris (1841) came to Shawa and signed a Treaty of
Commerce and Friendship.
King Shale Selassie died in 1847and was succeeded by his son Haile Melekot. The reign of
Haile Melekot (r.1847-1856), marked the end of the autonomous status of Shawa. This was
because Emperor Tewodros II campaigned to Shawa in1856. However, Haile Melekot died a
little before Tewodros defeated the Shawa forces at the Battle of Bereket.
Tewodros captured Menelik, the son of Haile Melekot and brought him to his court where he
stayed for the coming ten years. In 1865, Menelik escaped from Meqdella royal prison and
established his power in Shawa. His first capital was at Ankober and with the expansion of his
domain; he shifted his center to Entoto until the founding of Addis Ababa.
1.6 Trade and Trade Routes.
In the 19th C different states and peoples of the Ethiopian region were interconnected by chains
of trade routes, consisted of two main trade routes:
The first trade routes divided into two major line started From Bonga (in Kaffa) to Jiren (in
Jamma), Seka (in Limu Enarya), Asendabo (in Horro guduru),Basso (in Gojjam)and Darita (in
Begemeder). From Darita the trade routes enter Gondar, the important trading center in the
northern region. At Gondar west ward to the Sudan through Metemma (Glabat branched into
two, Mettema (Galabat) and Adwa to Red Sea. The second major line of trade route connected
the Ethiopian region with Zeila and Berbera,
The second major trade route started from Jiren, Jimma and moved to Seka. From Seka it changed
its course towards the south east and continued to Sodoo and Rogge near Mount Yerer. This trade
route continued and passed through the town of Aliyu Amba, the most important trade center in
the Kingdom of Shawa. Then it run east ward to Harar, where it branched into two and proceeded
to Zeila and Berbera.

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Items of trade
 Imported items include: mirror, cowries shell, Copper, brass (ornament), spices, cotton
clothes, beads (gun sight), silk, silver Firearms cartridge etc.
 Export items include: ivory, musk (from civet), wax, gold, skin, hides, incense, coffee,
slaves (exported to Sudan and Middle East).
Slaves were acquired through:
 Slave raids, war prisoners, those unable to pay tribute or debt.
Medium of Exchange
Trade was mostly conducted through bartering (exchange what they have with what they don’t).
Salt bars (amole), iron bars, beads and pieces of cotton cloth (Abujadid) and
Maria Theresa dollar (Thaler) was introduced to the Ethiopia region at the end of 18th C.
Merchants
The active Muslim merchants of Oromo in the south western region called Afkala.
The active Muslim merchants in northern were also called Jabarti.
The Argobba merchants from Shawa were also active in the trade between Harar and northern
Somalia coast.
Participating in the long distance trade caused served hazards. It was very risky to cross some
rivers, gorges, mountains and desert, natural barriers, robbers (shiftas) and brigands (an armed
thief who is a member of a band). To challenge their problems merchants organized themselves
in caravan. A leader of the caravan trader was known as Negadras.
The contributions of the long distance trade were:
 Created strong economic relationships
 Promoted exchange of new ideas, cultures and technologies etc.
 Promoted political unity
 Promoted for emergence of states
Unit Review Questions
Choose the Best Answer from the Given Alternatives
1. The Emir of Harar, Nur, is considered to be a hero in Harar history because he:
A. expanded his territory and created the sultanate of Adal
B. succeeded in maintaining peace with the neighboring Somalia and Afar
C. founded the city of Harar which served as a capital and commercial center
D. constructed a wall around the city to protect his people from the Christian and Oromo threats

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2. What did all the five Oromo speaking states of the Gibe region have in common?
A. They were all ruled by members of the same family
B. Their rulers combined religious and political leadership
C. They were all deeply involved in long-distance trade
D. They maintained the Gada system even though they had become states
3. What was it that made the Sheikdoms of Benishangul, Asosa and Komosha important in the eyes
of Egyptians, the Mahdists as well as Meneik’s Shawa in the 19th C?
A. Their agricultural potential
B. Their wealth in natural products like gold
C. Their location along the Blue Nile
D. Their geographical location that made them easy accessible from all directions
4. Which one of the following is correct about the impact of long distance trade on Ethiopian Society?
A. It hastened the formation of republican states C. It was a major source of income to all peoples
B. It led to the spread of Protestantism in the south west D. It was a major of economic tie
5. Which of the following is correct about long-distance trade in 19th C Ethiopia?
A. The southwest Ethiopian region served as the main source of trade goods
B. The major northern trade routes were dominated by the Afkala and Safare
C. The major mechanism for transporting goods were human porters
D. The main export items from the region were spices and grains
6. Which of the following medieval states of southern Ethiopia have a shared tradition that mentions a
person called Motolami as their ruler?
A. Bizamo and Damot C. Walayita and Damot
B. Enarya and Walayita D. Bizamo and Walayita
7. One of the following factors was not responsible for the decline of the traditional Gada system of the
Oromo.
A. Oromo contacts with Omotic states C. Long distance trade and the spread of Islam
B. The expansion of the Oromo in to a wide area D. Their religious belief in waqa
8. The Shewan Kingdom made an extensive southward expansion before Menelik came to power during the
leadership of:
A. Amha yesus B. Sibstie C. Shale Sellasie D. Negasie Kirstos
9. Which one of the following combinations of a dynasty & a state is correct?
A. Mowa-Kaffa B. Matto- Walayit C. Malla-Yem D. Bushsho-Sheka

ANSWER
1) D 2) B. 3) B. 4) D. 5) A. 6) C. 7) D. 8) C. 9) D.

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UNIT TWO
DEVELOPMENT OF CAPITALISM, NATIONALISM AND COLONIALISM
I. Unification of Italy
During the first half of the 19th C, Italy was a disunited nations by the settlements reached at
Vienna congress (1815). Lombardy and Venetia ruled as Austrian provinces. Parma, Modena,
Lucca, and Tuscany were ruled under Local princes. The kingdom of the two Sicilies (Naples
and Sicily) ruled under Local rulers with the hegemony of Austria. The Papal States (Papacy)
were ruled under the Catholic Church. Rome was under the control of France troops. Piedmont
Sardinia became an Independent state.
Hindering Factors to the unification of Italy were:
 Austrian domination in the north and northeast of Italy.
 The opposition of the pope (Catholic Church).
 The Vienna congress (the existence of several states in Italy).
 Factors that contributed for Italian unification were:
 German unification
 Diplomatic and military efforts of Cavour, of Piedmont-Sardinia
 Influences of Napoleon
Napoleon of France established two republics in Italy namely Cisalpine and Ligurain.
 Italian nationalists followed different approaches in order to unify Italy such as:
 Educated Nationalists: They sought united Italy. Giuseppe Mazzini (1805-1872)
established a movement known as Young Italy. His followers aimed at to set up democratic
republic of Italy. He inspired the people through telling the contribution of Rome e.g.
Renaissance or rebirth (“Risorgimento”). By their efforts, Parma, Modena, Tuscany and
Papal state united with Piedmont-Sardinia. Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-1882) established a
force known as “Red Shirts” or “Thousands”. Under him Naples and the two Sicily were
united.
 The role of Piedmont-Sardinia: It was under the leadership of its Prime Minister Cavour
(1810-1861). It served as the center for the revolution.
 Foreign aid: With the help of France, Cavour gained Lombardy from Austria. In 1861 the
Kingdom of Italy declared in Turin. During the Austro-Prussia war (1866) Italy sided
Prussia and Austria defeated by Prussia. Then Venetia united with Piedmont-Sardinia.
During Franco-Prussia war (1870), France defeated by Prussian, then the French forces
withdrew from Rome. Following this, Rome united with Piedmont-Sardinia (Italy united)
II. Unification of Germany

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 Factors contributed to the unification of Germany were:

 The Napoleonic wars
 The Vienna congress (1815) attempted to restore the territories which were occupied by
Napoleon of France. It reduced the numbers of German states into 39 autonomous states and
organized them into an Austrian dominated German confederation.
 The development of liberalism and nationalism.
 The creation of German Confederation. It promoted closer ties among German states
 Custom union or economic union known as Zollverein had highly integrated German states
(1819). Because it avoid tariff barriers among the Germen states, which omitted Austria.
 The Revolution of 1848: The German liberals initiated a movement for a unified Germany.
 Diplomatic and military efforts of Otto Van Bismarck of Prussia.
 Obstacles to the unification were:
 Austrian domination the German confederation.
 French intervention through the Catholic Church.
 Political differences between north (autocratic and catholic) and south (liberal and
protestant).
 Economic differences between agrarian east and industrial west.
In order to achieve the German unification, Bismarck waged three wars against Denmark,
Austria and France:
1. Danish War (1864)
It was fought between Prussia aided by Austria and Denmark to return Schleswig and Holstein
from Denmark. Finally, the joint forces scored victory over Denmark and Prussia gained
Schleswig while Holstein ceded to Austria.
2. Austro-Prussian War (1866)
It was fought between Prussia aided by Italy and Austria to gain Holstein from Austria. Finally,
at the Battle of Sadawa, Prussia scored victory, and then Holstein given to Prussia and Italy also
gained Venetia from Austria. Prussia established German confederation which vanish Austria
in 1867.
3. Franco-Prussian war (1870-1871)
It was fought between Prussia assisted by Italy and France because both France and Prussia
desired to assign their throne in Spain. Then, Napoleon III of France declared war on Prussia,
but conversely French force defeated by Prussia at the Battle of Sedan (1870). As the result,
Napoleon III was made war prisoner and the second empire collapsed. German united and
Bismarck declared William I as emperor at Versailles (French Palace). By the Treaty of

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Frankfurt (1871), France ceded Alsace and Lorrain (iron rich provinces) to Germany. France
forced to pay war reparation (indemnity) to Germany. Italy also gained Rome from France.
III. The American Civil War (1861-1865)
Causes of the civil war
A. Unequal economic development between north (industrialized) and south (plantation
agrarian).
B. Political differences between;
 The north (unionist): had anti-slavery stand or abolitionist. It was led by Abraham
Lincoln and had federal army.
 The south (Separates) or slave owing society: They wanted slavery. Due to such political
disputes, elevens states in the south separated and established the Confederacy States of
America (C.S.A) in 1861 under the leader of Jefferson Davis.
The immediate cause of the civil war: was the election of Abraham Lincoln as the 16th
president of America in 1860.
Course of the war
Initially, between 1861and 1863, Confederacy States of America (C.S.A) scored victory over the
north. However, in 1863, Abraham Lincoln issued two laws; Emancipation proclamation
which declared to free slaves in the south and the Homestead law which gave plot of land in the
west for those who wanted farm lands. These laws greatly weekend the economic strength and
the power of the south and the military balance shifted to the north. In April 1865, Robert Lee
surrendered and on May 26, 1865 Jefferson Davis was captured by the unionist force led by
General Ulysses, S. Grant and William T. Sherman. Finally the war ended with the victory of
the unionist north because of the southern had shortage of man power, artillery, munitions, food
and medical supplies.
Major Effects of the Civil War
 Abraham Lincoln was shot dead by John Wilkes Booth (agent of the slave owners) in 1865.
 The south was defeated; Slavery abolished,
 Capitalism expanded in the USA very rapidly
 The unity of American states was maintained or the national unity preserved.
 High military casualties and social bitterness created between the north and South America.
 Agricultural (Economic) devastations to the south.
2.4 Nationalism and Multi National Empires.
Balkan Nationalism

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Nationalism had led to the emergence of unified independent states. It also led to the other
nationalities living under Empire states to claim their right to independence. In this sense,
nationalism had played a major role in the creation of self- governing entities. The Balkan
region is founded in the south and southeastern Europe and it was under the control of Ottoman
Turkey. The Balkan countries includes: Bulgaria, Albania, Rumania, Serbia, Montenegro,
Herzegovina, Greece, etc. The Eastern Question was a term used to describe the diplomatic
problems posed in Europe during the 19th and early 20thCs regarding the decline of the Ottoman
Empire in the Balkan region. European powers, Britain, Austria and Russia were deeply involved
in the Eastern Question, because of their interests, policies and rules of these countries. Due to
such political quarrels, Balkan countries came into conflicts from 1912-1913.
Austria-Hungary Empire
Another Multi-National Empire was Austria–Hungary also known as Dual Monarchy. The
official name of the state was shaped by the Ausgliech. The Ausgliech came into force when
passed as a constitutional law by the Hungarian parliament in March 1867. The Reichsart (the
imperial parliament) was only permitted to confirm the Ausgliech without amending it. The state
was ruled by Habsburg Monarchy from 1867to 1918 under Francis Joseph of Austria as prime
minister. Finally it disintegrated as the results of First World War.
The Crimean war (1854-56)
It was fought between Russia and Turkey helped by France, Britain and Italy (Piedmont-
Sardinia) for the preservation of Ottoman Turk Empire in Europe. Balkan nationalism, Black sea
and the Mediterranean Sea were basic causes of the Crimean war.
The Immediate Cause of the war
A. Dispute between France (Roman Catholic) and Russia (Greek Orthodox) monks over
controlling Holy places in Jerusalem. In the meantime, Turkish declared war on Russia (Tsar
Nicholas I).
B. Russia’s desire to control Moldavia, Walachia and Danube River.
The outcome of the war was to lead the new peace settlements at Paris. Thus, the peace terms
were:
1. No great powers to maintain war ships in the Black Sea.
2. Moldavia and Walachia were to be evacuated by the Russians and to be autonomous
principality while the remaining under Turkish suzerainty.
3. Danube River was to be open to all trading nations.
2.5 Colonization of Africa since the 19th Century

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There were two main factors for the growth of the desire for the colonization of Africa in the
middle of 1880s. The first was the British takeover of Egypt in 1882. Since the opening of Suez
Canal in 1869, Egypt had become the focus of British and French political and economic
interest, the canal was built by the French engineer Ferdinand de Lesseps. The second was the
direct involvement of German and King Leopold II of Belgium in the Colonization of Africa.
Then in order to solve the Congo issue and other crisis an international conference was held at
Berlin in 1884-85, which was arranged by Otto von Bismarck. In the conference of Berlin two
important resolutions were passed. The first was paved the way for African colonization or
“legalized” the partition of Africa. The second was about the right to trade on the Congo River.
Some Africans developed strong military institutions based on centralized political system, from
East and West Africa. Resistances in German East Africa, Tanzania (Maji-Maji rebellion in
1905- 1907), Samore’s struggle against the French expansion in West Africa in 1882-1898 were
exemplary cases. Samor’s clash with the French started in 1882 with the first armed conflict
which took place at Keniera. By 1900 with the exception of Ethiopia, Morocco (until 1912) and
Liberia the whole continent of Africa was virtually under European colonial rule.
Several factors accounted for the failure of African resistance:
 Africans were not united to challenge the European conquest.
 The Europeans had the advantage of modern fire arms which the Africans did not possess.
 Europeans signed descriptive treaties with Africans, like for instance, the Treaty of Wuchale.
Europeans employed different forms of colonial administration:
 The British indirect rule was designed by Lord Frederick Lugard. The British also
practiced a divide and rule policy, which was very important to weaken Africa resistance
against the British colonialism.
 The French direct rule. This policy was designed by the French Colonial Minister, Albert
Sarrout.
Unit Review Questions
Choose the Best Answer from the Given Alternatives
1. Which of the following was a core element in the strategy of Otto von Bismarck to bring about
Germany Unity?
A. Supporting foreign intervention to force the German states to seek help from Prussia
B. Conflict among German states to undermine resistance to unity
C. Economic subversion to weaken independence
D. Strong customs union among German states
2. What was the role of Giuseppe Garibaldi in the unification of Italy?
A. He organized and led a volunteer force that succeeded in liberating southern Italy from its
oppressive rulers

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B. He was instrumental in securing the diplomatic and military support of Napoleon III to the
Italian cause
C. He inspired Italian nationalist sentiment through his patriotic speeches and writing
D. He convinced the leaders of piedmont-Sardinia to support and lead the Italian nationalist
movement
3. What was the official declaration about the establishment of the united German Empire Made?
A. the French palace at Versailles
B. A medieval castle in Prussia
C. A palace near the Brandenburg gate
D. The historic Church of Wittenberg
4. Which one of the following is true about the American civil war?
A. It stimulated liberation movement in Latin America.
B. It eradicated racial discrimination in the U.S.
C. It contributed to the outbreak of a revolution in France.
D. It resulted in abolishing slavery in the US.
5. What made the so-called the ‘’Eastern Question” very critical at the end of the First World
War?
A. The conflicting interests of European powers over ottoman territories in the Balkan
Peninsula
B. The need to address the injustice that ethnic minorities in the Balkans suffered in the past
C. The revival of ottoman Turkey with an ever increasing interest to restore its hegemony in
the Balkans
D. The civil war among the several nationalities of the peninsula following the breakdown of
the Ottoman Empire
6. What was the important principle approved at the Berlin Conference that was designed to
facilitate the process of colonization in Africa
A. The principle of peaceful occupation of colonies
B. The principle of the white man’s burden
C. The principle of equitable distribution of colonies
D. The principle of effective occupation
7. What was the major difference between the British and French colonial administrative policies
in Africa?
A. the British employed non-local Africans in their administration while the French did not
B. the British employed local Africans in their administration while the French Mostly used
French officers
C. the British worked to turn Africans into citizens while the French sought to keep them as
subjects

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D. They provided military help to the Emperor to establish control over the rebel provinces of
Ogaden and Eritrea

ANSWERS
1) D 2) A . 3)A. 4) D. 5) A. 6) D. 7)B

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UNIT THREE
THE MAKING OF THE MODERN ETHIOPIAN EMPIRE, 1855-1935
3.1. The Rise of Modern Ethiopian Empire
3.1.1. Attempt at Reunification Through the Use of Force, 1855-1868.
The Reign of Emperor Tewodros (r. 1855-1868)
Before Kassa Hailu, the later emperor Tewodros, Ethiopia was under Zemene Mesafint or the era
of princes, which was characterized by:-
 Political instability or disorder and civil war.
 Decline of the power of the central government (decline of imperial power) and
regionalism.
Kasa Hailu chose Tewodros as his coronation name because of there was a legend included in
the medieval book entitled “Feakre Iyasus”. In this book, it was prophesied that a king by the
name Tewodros would come to rule and bring peace to the people after a period of troubles.
In 1848, at the Battle of Debarqi (Sudan), Kasa Hailu suffered the only serious defeat in early
career. This defeat in the hands of Egyptians shaped the attitude of the future Tewodros with
regard to foreign policy, discipline and modern fire arms.
Emperor Tewodros dreamed of restoring imperial power and began his imperial career with
implementation of two major policies, i.e. modernization and political reunification.
A. Modernization
He attempted to establish a national salaried army. In 1866/67, he established modern firearms at
Gafat, near Debre tabor.
B. Political Reunification
He tried to establish Central administration and Bringing about religious unity (his prior
concern). He declared Orthodox Tewahdo faith as state religion. He then expelled De Jacobins,
the leader of Catholics.
To achieve his dreams he fought with different Zemene Mesafint regional lords:-

Period Battle Fields Kassa Fought With Victorious

November 1852 Guramba Dejazemach Goshu of Gojjam Kassa Hailu

April 1853 Gorgora Bichen Biru Aligaz of Lasta and other three War Leaders Kassa Hailu

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June 1853 Ayshal Ras Ali II of Begemdir Kassa Hailu

February 1855 Deresege Dejazemach Wube of Semen and Tigray Kassa Hailu

In Feb. 1855, Kassa Hailu Crowned as Emperor Tewodros II with the hands of Abune Selama at
Deresege Mariam Church.
But the attempted reforms of Emperor Tewodros II were soon failed because he quarreled with
the:
 Clergy. To raise money, he took the Church land forcefully. He also intervened in the
internal matters of the Church. For instance, he reduced the number of priest (2) and
Deacons (3) in a church. In 1864, Tewodros imprisoned Abune Selama who died in prison
in 1867.
 Regional lords: Tewodros tried to follow centralization drive
 Britain: Tewodros imprisoned European missionaries. Thus, to release imprison
missionaries and punish Tewodros a British General, Sir Robert Napier directed by
Kassa Mircha of Tigray and Mestawit of Wollo reached at Meqdela (1868). At the Battle
of Eroghe, 1868 Tewodros’ force was defeated by Napier`s force. Then Tewodros
released missionaries. In 13 April, 1868, Tewodros suicide himself.
After his death the three contenders created-From Kassa Mircha of Tigray, Wagshum Gobeze
Gebre Medhen of Lasta, Menelik of Showa. Wagshum Gubeze took throne name Teke
Giorgis (1868-1871).
3.1.2. New Approach to Building Imperial Power, 1872-1889
The Reign of Yohannis IV (r. 1872-1889)
In 1871, Kassa Mircha scored victory over Tekle Giorgis at the Battle of Assem, Tigray. Then in
Jan. 1872, Kassa Mircha was crowned as Emperor Yohannis IV. He used federal approach or
recognized the vassal rulers. He recognized the kingship of Menelik of Shewa and Adal Tessema
(Negus Tekle Haymanot) of Gojjam and Kaffa (1881).
The Liche agreement, near Ankober (20 March, 1878)
It was signed between Emperor Yohannis and King Menelik of Shewa. The major terms include:
 Menelik agreed to pay annual tribute to Yohannis
 Menelik was to drop “king of kings” title or only assigned as King of Shawa.
 Menelik was to stop independent foreign relation.
 Yohannis accepted the control of Wollo by King Menelik.
 Both agreed to help each other against their common enemies.

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The agreement therefore, ended the independence of Shewa without bloodshed.

The Borumeda Council (May 1878) in Wollo
It was aimed to bring religious unity in Ethiopia. Yohannis declared Orthodox Tewahdo faith as
the official religion of the state. Muslims were forced to be converted into Christianity. People
who refused to convert into Christianity exiled to Gurage , Mettema , Arsi, Jimma, etc.
Ethiopian Muslims in Wollo under the leadership of Sheikh Talha of Argoba rebelled, but the
rebellion was crushed by Yohannis’ and Menilik’s forces.
3.1.3. Resistance to Egyptian and Mahdist Aggressions.
Egypt under Mohammed Ali (r. 1805 to 1952)
He came to Egypt as leader of Albanian contingent in Ottoman military force. His plans were:
 To establish strong economy and political system.
 To modernize Egypt and establish powerful Egypt.
 To create greater Egypt by conquering the Horn of Africa.
His expansion into Ethiopia was intended to control the source of Blue Nile and lucrative
(profitable) trade. In 1821, Sudan was occupied by Egyptians and began to serve as a
springboard for Egyptian attack on Ethiopian territories such as Semen, Dembiya, the Sheikdoms
of Asosa and Benishangul due to internal crisis of Ethiopia and the absence of a well-organized
national defense.
Egypt under Khedive Ismail Pasha (r. 1863-79)
Egyptian aggression on Ethiopia reached the highest stage during the periods of Emperor
Yohannis. The grand ambition of Egyptian aggression was on Northeast Africa, but mainly
targeted Ethiopia to:
 build greater Egypt in North-East Africa.
 pay back his debt ( he borrowed money from Britain )
 control the Nile drainage system
The pretexts which were advocated to European countries by Khedive Ismail’s expansion were:
 eradication of the slave trade
 extension of western civilization” into Africa
 the strategic significance of Egypt
Egypt encouraged a large scale invasion over Ethiopia in 1875:
 The Egyptians image of a weak and disunited Ethiopia (since Tewodros was defeated by
Napier’s force)

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 Absence of European opposition towards Egyptian expansion in the Horn of Africa

Egyptian aggression on Ethiopia designed by Werner Munzinger and he was the governor of
Massawa. He also advanced as far as Bogos (1872). In The ports of the Gulf Aden and Massawa
served as launching pads for the three front invasion of Ethiopia in 1875.
(1) Mohammed Rauf Pasha occupied the Muslim City State of Harar in October 1875.
(2) A Swiss-German named Werner Munzinger advanced to the center from the direction of
Tajura. But Munzinger himself killed by Afars (Nov.1875).
(3) A Danish colonel, Arendrup, moved into the interior Mereb Melash region from the port of
Massawa. But at the Battle of Gundet (1875), Egyptian forces were defeated by Emperor
Yohannis and Arrendrup himself killed.
To avenge their defeat, Ismail troops under the command of Mohammed Rattib Pasha and the
American General Loring invaded Ethiopian territories in the north. But At the Battle of Gura,
6-9 march 1876, Egyptian force totally defeated by Emperor Yohannis.
The Aftermath of Gura
Ethiopia’s military victories in the two battles destroyed Egyptian plan of expansion to Ethiopia.
Despite her equal concern for the peaceful resolution of the crisis, Egypt acted as a victor after
Gura. Egyptians requested the return of arms captured from Gundet and Gura as well as
repatriation of captives. Egyptians didn’t want to return occupied territories to Ethiopia. On his
part, Emperor Yohannis released Egyptian war prisoners, but not arms. Yohannis demanded war
indemnity from Egypt however, Ismail did not respond. Therefore, the first peace initiatives
spoiled.
Then after, Khedive Ismail sent the British General Gordon to Yohannis (1877) with the
intention to make peace negotiation. But, his mission was fruitless. This period from 1876-1884
is often known as period of “no peace no war”.
The Hewett (Adwa) Treaty, 3 June 1884
Since Egypt was the colony of Britain as of 1882, Britain Sent Rear Admiral William Hewett
to the court of Emperor Yohannis as a peace negotiator on behalf of Egypt. His mission was to
release (facilitate the safe evacuation of) the trapped Egyptian troops who were failed along the
Ethio-Sudan border, as the result of the Mahdist movement.
The terms of Hewett treaty contain:
1. Ethiopia got free transit through the port of Massawa or to import firearms and goods.
2. The restoration of Bogos to Ethiopia.
3. The evacuation of trapped Egyptian troops in Sudan through Massawa.

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The Outcomes of Adwa treaty

 Yohannis gained control of Bogos
 Egyptians withdrew from Ethiopia
 Yohannis created two enemies from Mahdists and Italy
To rescue the sandwiched Egyptian troops Ras Alula Engida was sent to western Ethiopia by
Emperor Yohannis. Alula accomplished his mission fighting and defeating Mahdists at the
Battle of Kufit (Jan. 1885). The treaty however resulted in a series of Mahdist attack in NW
Ethiopia. But in violation of the treaty Italy occupied Massawa (Feb. 1885) by British invitation
to stop French expansion in the Red sea region.
Negus Tekle Haymanot’s Gojjam forces were defeated by Mahdists (1887) at Sarwuha, north of
Lake Tana. Then, Mahdists invaded the Ethiopian territories even advanced as far as Gondar.
Yohannis then marched against Mahdist expansion, but he was defeated and beheaded at the
Battle of Matemma (9 March 1889).
Outcomes of the Battle of Mattema
 Menelik became Emperor of Ethiopia following the death of Yohannis IV.
 The death of the Emperor and subsequent political disturbances in Northern Ethiopia
created favorable condition to Italy’s expansion into Mereb Melash.
3.2 Imperial Expansion to the South, Southwest and Southeast
The Reign of Menelik II (r. 1889-1913)
The process of Ethiopian empire formation was completed under Emperor Menelik II. His
expansion was different from that of his predecessors in its intensity and unprecedented degree
of success. At the root of his expansion lay the traditional interest in land, tribute and control of
trade routes. Moreover, his territorial expansion coincided with the colonial expansion of
European powers in the Horn of Africa. To achieve the Ethiopian empire formation, Menelik
used two methods throughout his three phase expansion:
1. Peaceful Submission:
A. Before his coronation (1875-1889): Areas incorporated include Christian Gurage (Kistane),
Illubabor, Wollega (Leqa qellem and Naqamte), the Gibe Oromo states and the Oromo of Shewa.
B. After his coronation (1889-96): Example: Bale and Sidamo
C. After Adwa (1896-1900): -. Example: Ogaden
2. Forceful incorporation (subjugation):-
A. Before his coronation (1875-1889): - Example: Arsi was incorporated after the Battle of
Azule (1886), Harar incorporated after the battle of Chalenqo (1887) .Under the leadership of

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Hassen Enjamo, Muslim Gurage and Silte resisted but he was defeated by Menelik’s force in
1888.
B. After his coronation (1889-96). Example: After bloody war, Menelik’s force scored victory
over Kawo Tona (the last king of Wolayita) in 1894. This stage coincided with Great famine.
The Great famine or Kifu Qan (1888-92)
The immediate cause of the famine is attributed to a cattle disease, called rinderpest, imported
with infected cattle from India. The result of the epidemic disease claiming the life of large
numbers of Ethiopians, a great damage disrupting production and trade, great population
movement from north to south and northerners settled in the relatively little affected region of
southern Ethiopia.
C. After Adwa (1896-1900)
It aimed at to create buffer zone to colonial power. Thus, Menelik incorporated border areas
(Ogaden, Asossa, Benishangul, Borena and Kaffa, 1897).
Factors that facilitated Menelik’s expansion when he was the King of Shewa were:-
A. The Liche agreement (1878):-resolved the problem with Emperor Yohannis.
B. The Battle of Embabo (1882):- removed his strong rival, King Tekle Haymanot from South
western Ethiopia.
C. The Treaty of Commerce and Friendship (1883) signed with Italy:-His diplomatic relation
with Italy enabled him to get firearms.
In 1900, modern Ethiopian Empire formation completed.
3.3. Italian Aggression against Ethiopia and the Battle of Adwa.
During the second-half of the 19th c, a third and major source of aggression against Ethiopia was
Italy. Italian intentions and actions towards Ethiopia were unjust because they aimed at the
colonial control and exploitation of Ethiopia for the benefit of Italy.
3.3.1. First Strongholds of Italy in Ethiopia.
In 1869, an Italian private shipping Enterprise called Rubatino purchase the Port of Asab from
local rulers of Northern Ethiopia. The Italian Government took control of Assab from the
Rubatino Shipping Company in 1882. Then, in 1885 Italy occupied Massawa, and began
attempts to penetrate into the interior from the coast and also blocked the entrance of firearms
into Ethiopia. However, Ras Alula Aba Nega crushed the first serious blow to Italian colonial
advance in Ethiopia on 26 January 1887, at a place called Dogali. Following this, Italian sought
collaborators like King Menelik of Shewa. Italian Geographic society led by Antinori came to

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Ethiopia and camped at Let Marifia (1876). In 1883, Italian agent Antonelli made commercial
and friendship relation with Menelik of Shewa.
Convention of Neutrality (October 1887)
It was signed between Menelik and Italy. Italians sought Menelik’s neutrality in the event of war
between them and the emperor (they were trying to subvert Menelik against Yohannis). In return,
Italian promised to give 5000 rifles to Menelik. But Italian subversion activity failed because
Menelik did not want to fight against Yohannes.
Gerald Portal’s Mission (Nov. 1887)
The British Gerald Portal requested Yohannis the following points:-
1 .A war indemnity for Italy
2. Alula was asked apologize to Italy on his “unjust attack”
3. Secession of occupied coastal regions to Italy (Italians to remain on Saati and Wia).
4. The protectorate Italian right over Assawart and Habab.
But Portal’s mission failed because Yohannes did not accept these proposed terms of peace. On
1, January 1890, Italy declared Eritrea as its colony.
3.3.2. Italian Ambition over the rest of Ethiopia.
The Italian government followed the twin policies of persuasion and subversion in Ethiopia.
Persuasion: to induce Menelik to agree to Italian version of Article XVII.
Subversion: Through Mereb Convention of December 1891 (signed between Italy and Ras
Mengesha (Tigrean chief)). It was aimed to weaken Menelik’s power internally. But Ras
Mengesha and Ras Alula restored their loyalty to Menelik (1894).
In Eritrea peasant rebellion led by Dejjach Bahata Hagos led an uprising against Italy.
In 1895, at the Battles of Quatit and Senafe, Ras Mengesha fought and defeated Italian forces.
As revenge, the Italian army invaded the whole of Tigray, in September1995. Italy openly began
to use military means to realize the dream of becoming a colonial master over Ethiopia.
Wuchale Treaty (2 May 1889)
It was signed between Antonelli and emperor Menelik.
What were the reasons for emperor Meneliks to seek a treaty with Italy?
In that time Menelik did not yet established a firm imperial regime. Therefore, he couldn’t to
dislodge Italians. He feared subversive activity against him, especially from Ras Mengesha
Yohannis.

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The Wuchale Treaty had twenty articles, but the two very significant ones in terms of their
contribution to the subsequent Italo-Ethiopian conflicts were articles III and XVII.
Article III delimited the boundary between Italian-occupied regions of Mereb Melash and the
rest of Ethiopia. Italian added the phrase “effective occupation”; it is on the actual Italian
possession of Ethiopian territories.
Article XVII give birth the battle of Adwa. It had two contradictory versions:
The Amharic version stated that Ethiopia could use the service of Italy in her foreign relation
with Europe.
The Italian text contained an obligatory commitment of Ethiopia to use the good offices of
Italy for her relations with Europe; and thereby it denied Ethiopia her sovereignty.
Furthermore, Italy notified the great powers of Europe that, by, Article XVII of the Wuchale
Treaty, Ethiopia had come to an Italian protectorate.
The reaction of Emperor Menelik to article XVII was:
1. He wrote letter to king Umberto of Italy to correct Italian version but the king did not
correct it.
2. He abrogated Wuchale treaty (1893) and notified to European power.
3.3.3. The Battle of Adwa (1896)
Before the final decisive encounter at Adwa, the Italian and the Ethiopian troops fought at two
places. The first was fought on 7 December 1895 at Amba Alage in southern Tigray, between a
contingent of the Ethiopian vanguard force led by Fitawrari Gebeyehu and an Italian force
under the command of Major Toselli. The Italians were completely defeated and even the leader
Major Toseli himself was killed. Between 7-21 January, 1896; Maqale was under siege,
Empress Taytu advised to the troops to encircled (besiege) the fortifies and water. The event
was called the Siege of Maqale Then Italian lost access to water.
Factors for the Ethiopian victory at Adwa were:
 Italian faulty reading of maps, false information from local spies (Basha Awalom-a double
agent), underestimation of Ethiopian unity, wrong military strategy and poor leadership. Lack
of coordination among the different Italian brigades.
 Ethiopians had the advantage of strong unity, strong morale and commitment to the cause
of Ethiopia’s sovereignty. There was efficient co-ordination among the different troops of
regional lords. The moral support rendered by the clergy, women, minstrels (traditional
singers), etc., and the proper knowledge of topography also contributed a great deal to the
victory of Ethiopian troops.
The Consequences and Historical Significance of the Adwa Victory
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 The sovereign status of Ethiopia got international recognition.

 European legations were open in Addis Ababa; Italy (1896), Britain and France (1897),
the USA (1903), Germany (1905).
 Adwa has been a symbol of national pride.
 It became the symbol black dignity and inspired other Africans. Example: the Zulus in
southern Africa.
 A religious separatist movement called “Ethiopianism” emerged in South Africa.
 It inspired the Diasporas struggle against white dominations.
 The downfall of Crispi (prime minister of Italy)
 General Baratieri left the Italian army and ended up in prison.
 The Addis Ababa Treaty of 26 Oct. 1896 concluded the Italio- Ethiopian dispute;
 Italy agreed to the cancellation of the Wuchale Treaty and
 Italy recognized the complete independence of Ethiopia.
 Ethiopia agreed to the continuation of Italian colonial control over Eritrea (Mereb
Melash).
 Ethiopia agreed to release of Italian prisoners of war.
 It created among European colonialists precipitated the colonization of Sudan.
3.4. The Ethiopian Empire State in the Post-Adwa Period up to 1935
3.4.1. Socio-Economic conditions
The first three decades of the 20th C saw relatively better socio-Economic developments.
The Gebbar System
It was the basic means of surplus appropriation of the feudal class. It was a land holding peasant
who had to pay gibir or tribute to the state. The type of tribute varied from one region to another.
But, in most case, it was paid in kind and in the form of unpaid labor service.
One major development was the beginning of the introduction of land measurement known as
qalad. That action resulted in appropriation of much land by the state. It facilitated privatization
of land. It increased state revenue, and it classified land tax based on fertility rates. It pushed
poor peasants who could not afford to buy land or peasants driven away from their land were
forced to become landless. Peasants migrate to cities to become beggars. It seriously affected
agricultural productivity.
Slave Trade and Slavery
Slavery and slave trade brought foreign interference over the country. They were obstacle for
European capitalist investments and the markets they foresaw in Ethiopia. The system was
responsible for Ethiopia’s backwardness

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A Combination of internal and external challenges brought some changes to the two institutions
(Slavery and gebbar system). A year after Ethiopia’s admission into the League of Nations, on
31, March 1924 a decree which freed slaves and prohibited the purchase and sale of slaves was
enacted. Forced labor service was abolished in 1935. The same is true of the payment of honey
as tribute. Moreover, payment of tribute in cash was introduced at the rate of 30 birr per gasha.
The completion of state formation and Adwa victory led to the revival of external trade due to
the created peace and political stability. In the first half of the 20th C there were two major
outlets for Ethiopia’s external trade. These outlets were Djibouti (import outlet) and Gambella
(export outlet).
The first three decades of the 20th C are known to have been years during which the foundation
of modern Ethiopia was laid. Modern novelties introduced the motor car in 1904, printing
machinery in 1912, airplane 1929, telegraph and postal service and hospital were founded in
1910. Besides, some factories like those for timber, ammunition and food processing were
opened during the same decade. In 1908 the first modern school; Menelik II school was opened
in Addis Ababa. In Dire Dawa and Addis Ababa, the Alliance Francis schools were established
in 1912. In 1925 Tafari Mekonen School was founded. The school had French directors. In the
curriculum of the time there was greater emphasis in languages than in other subjects.
3.4.2. Political Conditions
Condition of Political Power
During the immediate post-Adwa years, the sovereign independence of the country was
recognized by the European, which was expressed into different ways:
A. Diplomatic Representation : European nations opened their legations in Addis Ababa
(Example: Italy in 1896, Britain and France in 1897, USA in 1903 and Russia in 1904)
B. Delimitation of Boundaries with Ethiopian: Boundary delimitation agreements were
made between Ethiopia and the three neighboring colonial powers between 1897 and
1908.
 In May 1897 Ethiopia’s boundary with British Somaliland was delimited.
 In July 1900 Ethiopia’s boundary with Italian colony of Eritrea was delimited
 In May 1902 Ethiopia’s boundary with Anglo-Egyptian Sudan was delimited
 In March 1907 Ethiopia’s boundary with British East Africa(Kenya) was delimited
 In March 1907 Ethiopia’s boundary with French Somaliland (Djibouti) was delimited
 In 1908 Ethiopia Ethiopia’s boundary with Italian Somaliland was delimited
Therefore, Ethiopia had secured her borders and gained international recognition for them.
Some of the major factors helped Addis Ababa to remain as permanent capital city of Ethiopia in
the post-Adwa days include:

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 Issue of land charters

 The introduction of the eucalyptus tree from Australia
 The rail way connection between Addis Ababa and the outside world since 1917
 The residence of foreign merchants in Addis Ababa increased
 The opening of foreign legations in Addis Ababa (diplomatic center).
Inception of political Rivalry and Foreign threat
One major factor that led to a power struggle in the palace was the issue of succession following
the illness of Menelik and the death of Ras Mekonen Wolde Mikael, nephew of Menelik, in
1906. Consequently, the Tripartite Treaty was signed by Britain, France and Italy in December
1906. The main objective of this treaty was to avoid possible conflict of interest among the
signatory powers and to shut off other rivals such as Germany from economic activities in
Ethiopia and needed economic influences in Ethiopia.
Measures taken by Menelik to Solve Internal and External Problems
In order to ensure the efficient running of the government and the political stability of his state in
the event of his death Menelik took the following measures:
 He wrote a letter to a signatory Powers of Tripartite Treaty via underlying the unity and
independence of his country.
 He established the first Council of Ministers (October 1907)
 In May 1909 Menelik designated heir to his throne (Lij Iyasu)
 He appointed Ras Bitwaded Tesema Nadew as regent to Lij Iyasu Michael.
The Challenge of Taytu
The Shewan nobility saw Taytu as a threat to their political supremacy in the central government
because:
 She arranged political shum-shirs (promotions and demotions) of Council of Ministers.
 She arranged political marriages; she build a power centered on her blood and matrimonial
relations because she feared succession to power of a ruler with no blood or marriage ties to
might affect her family’s role in future politics of the country.
The opponents of Taytu obtained the blessing of the bishop, Abuna Mathews, to remove Taytu.
In March 1910 Empress Taytu was removed from government affairs. She was restricted to
taking care of her dying husband.
Lij Iyasu 1913-1916: Reforms and the Coup D’état against Him
The death of Ras Tessema in 1911 gave Lij Iyasu the opportunity to exercise political authority
on his own. He exercised full political power from 1911to 1916. The only serious challenge to

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his power came from Ras Abate Buayalew (a Shawan noble) who opened war over the palace
guards, but failed. He was captured and imprisoned at Maqdala by the imperial guards.
Despite his weaknesses such as lack of responsibility, play-boy character and polygamous
marriages, he tried to give significant social and economic reforms:
 Ethiopian Muslims were given equal status in administrative hierarchy.
 He established a system of auditing government property
 He established formal a municipal police nicked named Terunbule.
 He established a separate Department of Education.
 He improved the traditional practice of Lebashay (method of criminal detection).
 He outlawed the Quragna system, where by the accused and the accuser would be
chained together until justice was given.
 He stopped the abuses of Asrat Safari, or Asrat (tithe).
The Challenge of Lij Iyasu
Internal opposition and external pressure led to the down fall of LijIyasu
The Internal opposition came from Shoan nobility because:
 He gave high position to his father Ras Mikael, as governor of Wollo and Tigray (1914),
Begemdir and Gojjam (1915).
 He threatened the political future of the Shoan Mekwanints
 His child act (character)and his Islamic approaches
The external opposition came from France, Italy and Britain because:
 He made himself a close friend of Ottoman Turkey, and Germany.
 Moral and material support to the leader of a Somali nationalist movement, Sayyid
Mohammed Abdullah Hassan.
Iyasu was deposed on 27 September 1916. He made an attempt to reserve the coup but he was
defeated at the Battle of Mieso, located on the way to Harar. His father, Negus Mikael, also
made a more determined attempt to reinstate his son to power. Negus Mikael scored a minor
victory in the initial encounter at the Battle of Tora Mesk on 17 October 1916. But he was
completely defeated and made captive at the decisive and bloody Battle of Segele near Sheno
town on 27 October, 1916. Iyasu remained a fugitive, until he was finally captured in Tigray in
1921 and imprisoned first at Fitche. In 1932, he attempted at escape but failed. Therefore, he
was transferred to Garamulata in the province of Hararge, where he died in prison in 1936. The
fall of Negus Mikael brought to an end the administrative autonomy of the province of Wollo.
The fall of Iyasu also marked the restoration of Shawan political supremacy.
The Diarchy or Dual Rule: 1917-30

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In Ethiopian politics the term Diarchy refers to the period of Dual rule by Empress Zewditu and
Ras Teferi Mekonnen between 1916 and 1930. The coup makers crowned the daughter of
Menelik, Zewditu, as Empress on 1 February 1917. Ras Teferi Mekonnen was made heir to the
throne. The selection of both Zewditu and Teferi was the direct outcome of the political crisis
since 1906. The Diarchy was characterized by power struggle between two political groups:

1. The Traditionalist Group

It was represented by Zewditu. It consisted of the old nobility, the church and the members of the
council of ministers. They defend the old religious, socio-economic and political systems. They
opposed modernization and foreign investment in Ethiopia as well as extensive diplomatic
relations.

2. The Progressive Group

It was represented by Teferi. It consisted of the young educated Ethiopians and the more
“enlightened” feudalist, the commercial strata and Mehal Safari (soldiers and civil servants
closely attached to the palace). They criticized the feudal order, heavy taxation, corruption and
slavery. Teferi encourage modern education.
To secure his future plan, Teferi saw the need to eliminate internal challenges:
In 1918 he removed the members of the Council of Ministers, except Fitawrari Habte Giorgis
(the war minister). Council of ministers were replaced by a new council called Crown Council
consisted mainly by Teferi’s choices.
In 1921 Lij Iyasu was captured.
In 1923 Ethiopia became member of the League of Nations and consequently declared anti-
slavery decrees.
In 1924 Teferi and his entourages had made impressive tour to expose themselves to Western
civilization.
In 1926 the natural death of Fitawurari Habte Giorgis Dinagde (war minister) and Abune
Mathews removed the most serious challenge to Ras Teferi.
In 1927 the unexpected surrender of Dejazmach Balcha Safo (governor of Sidamo) came.
In 1928 the commander of the palace guard Dejach Àba Wuqaw Biru was surrendered and
imprisoned. In the same year he convinced Empress Zewditu to crown him as Negus.
On 31 March 1930 the last challenge of Teferi came from Ras Gugsa Wolle, the ex-husband of
Zewditu and governor of Begemidir, who was defeated at the Battle of Anchim by the imperial
army commanded by Ras MullugetaYegezu (the then war minister). Ras Gugsa died at the battle
and two days later it was reported that Empress Zewditu also died.

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Finally, Negus Teferi was crowned as Emperor Haile-Sellassie I on 2 November, 1930.

3.4.3. The Emergence of the Absolute State, 1930-35.
Right after his coronation, Emperor Haile Sellassie embarked on laying the ground for an
absolutist state in Ethiopia. First, in 1931 he laid a legal basis for the absolutist state by issuing
the first written Constitution for Ethiopia. This was because the constitution confirmed the
emperor’s divine right to rule as well as the right to issue laws for his people by his own will.
The constitution established a bicameral parliament having a Senate, which was an upper
chamber of nobles and appointed by the Emperor, and the Chamber of Deputies where
members were elected by local notables from among the local feudal lords. The Emperor’s
absolute power also included the right to appoint and dismiss members of parliament and other
civil and military officials, to declare or end wars, and to grant land and honors.
The autonomous province of Wollo was given to his eldest son, Asfa Wossen and Begemdir to
Ras Kasa. Similarly, the local autonomy of Gojjam and Jimma came to an end in 1932 and in
1933 respectively. The regional rulers, Ras Hailu Tekele Haymanot of Gojjam and Abba Jobir
Abba Jiffar of Jimma were removed and the regions came under direct control of the central
government. The region whose autonomy remained intact was Tigray, which continued to be
ruled by two grandsons of Emperor Yohannes IV: Ras Seyoum Mengesha and Ras Gugsa Araya.
The absolutist state eliminated the old provincial kellas (custom posts) and replaced by centrally
controlled custom posts.
The absolutist state gave attention to modernization of its army. In 1930, Imperial bodyguard
(IBG) began operation trained by Belgian officers and in 1934 the Ethiopian government opened
the first officer training school at Holeta Genet by recruiting its teaching staff from Swedish
officers.
Unit Review Questions
Choose the Best Answer from the Given Alternatives
1. Which one of the following is true about the reforms of Tewodros?
A. Reunification was denounced by the majority of peasant rebellion.
B. Recognition of local dynasties suddenly disrupted the old practices.
C. Gafat became a central place for the manufacturing of canons.
D. The Ethiopian Orthodox Church opposed Tewodros for abandoning the faith.

2. Which of the following was a major focus of Tewodros reform efforts?

A. The abolition of class, ethnic and gender imbalance
B. The spread of literacy among the Orthodox clergy
C. The decentralization of power among the provincial nobles
D. Increasing the tax base of the state to establish an orderly government
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3. What was the source of the power struggle in the Ethiopian court in the period between 1908 and 1913?
A. The different within the Shewan nobility on what kind of policy they should follow with
regard to Lij Iyasu
B. The attempt by the provincial nobility to regain some of the power they lost to Menelik at the
height of his power
C. The incompatible visions on the pace of Ethiopia’s modernization between the conservatives
and progressives
D. The difference between Tayitu and the pro-Iyasu faction on who should exercise power at the
national level
4. Which of the following is true about Egyptian invasion of Ethiopia in the 1870s?
A. It failed in all areas and fronts.
B. It was confined to the borderlands of Ethiopia and Sudan.
C. It was conducted with extensive use of foreign mercenaries.
D. It was directly sponsored by Europeans.
5. Which of the following is correct about Yohannes administrative policies?
A. He sought to gain loyalty in exchange for administrative autonomy
B. He worked hard to replace secular administrators with religious leaders
C. He increased administrative efficiency by building road networks
D. He increase the states revenue by introducing the asrat system
6. Which one of the following is correct about the Battle of Dogali?
A. It forced Britain to realize that the Italians were not worthy allies and encouraged them to
enter into closer relationship with the French.
B. It led Italy to abandon its policy of annexing Ethiopia and rather focus on being good
neighbors with the country.
C. It forced Menelik to realize what the real intention of the Italians was and led to diplomatic
fallout between the two former friends.
D. It forced Italy to vigorously intensify its diplomatic and military preparations to undermine
Emperor Yohannes.
7. What did the Italian seek to achieve in the convention of Neutrality which they signed with
Menelik in 1887?
A. Assure Menelik of his neutrality in the event of war between Menelik and Yohannes
B. Prevent Menelik from coming to the aid of Yohannes in the event of war with the Italians
C. Transfer control of the port of Massawa to Menelik if and when they decided to abandon
D. To provide military help to Menelik in the event of attack by Yohannes

8. Which of the following is correct about the Wuchale treaty?

A. It was unilaterally abrogated by Ethiopia following the Italian defeat at the battle of Adwa.
B. It was modified to Italy’s advantage with the signing of the convention of October 1, 1889.

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C. Article III recognized Italian control of the Mereb Mellash with the exception of the ports of
Assab and Massawa
D. The Amharic version of Article XVII which noted that Ethiopia cannot make foreign contact
by itself contributed to the rise of Fascism
9. Which of the following is true about Ethiopia’s diplomatic struggle against Italy immediately
prior to the battle of Adwa?
A. All European countries openly opposed it
B. All European countries openly supported it
C. It enjoyed some degree of support from Russia and France
D. It was able to force Italy to renounce its claims to a protectorate over Ethiopia
10. What was the main motivation behind Egyptian attempts to expand into Ethiopia from the
1840s to the 1870s?
A. Domination of the entire Nile valley
B. Access to slaves and gold
C. Access to land for settlement
D. Spreading Islam
11. What was the immediate consequence of Ethiopian victory at Adwa?
A. Agreement by Italy to return some territories from their Eritrean colony to Ethiopia
B. The beginning of fresh preparations in Italy for military revenge against Ethiopia
C. The reaffirmation of the Treaty of Wuchale by the Treaty of Addis Ababa.
D. The signing of treaties that fixed the current boundaries of Ethiopia
12. Tewodros II faced opposition from the clergy because of his:
A. Declaration of the orthodox Tewahdo as official faith
B. attempt to put an end to the slave trade
C. Attempt to tax church land without exception
D. Encouragement of protestant missionaries

ANSWER
1) C. 2) D. 3) D. 4) A. 5) A. 6) D. 7) B. 8) B9) C.10) A. 11) D. 12) C.

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UNIT FOUR
THE FIRST WORLD WAR, 1914-1918
4.1. The First World War (WWI)
1. Basic Causes of the First World War were:
A. Imperialism and Rivalries for Colonies
The political and economic rivalries among the industrial nations were the result of development
of capitalism and industrialism. It gave rise to an intense economic competition among the
European nations. This led France, Britain, Germany and Italy to compete outside Europe for the
control of overseas colonial possessions. These developed countries also competed for raw
materials, new opportunities of investment as well as profitable market for their finished
products.
On several occasions before 1914 conflicting interests drew several European countries to the
brink of a large scale war. For Example:
. In 1882 France and Britain made conflict for the control of Egypt and in 1882 Egypt was
colonized by Britain.
. In the 1898 Fashoda crisis between France and Britain over Sudan the two parties reached the
verge of war. But war was averted by the decision of France to withdraw and finally Sudan
became under Anglo-Egyptian condominium rule in 1898 following the deafeat of Mahdists at
the Battle of Omdurman.
. In 1911 and 1912 Italy and Ottoman Turkey fought for the control of Libya and Italy colonized
Libya.
. In 1911/1912 Germany and France fought for the control of Morocco, the Agadir Crisis, later
France colonized Morocco.
B. Militarisms and Arms Race
European powers competed for armaments and military power. For example: France wanted to
avenge its defeat during the Franco-Prussian war of 1970-71 and want to regain the lost
provinces of Alsace and Lorraine from Germany.
. Germany built a strong navy that could compete with the British navy.
. Britain want to strength her Royal Navy because her economy depended on trade routes, then
she had built the most powerful battleship.
C. The Creation of Military Alliances

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In 1879 Austria-Hungary and Germany concluded a Treaty of Friendship called Dual Alliance,
after three years Italy joined it and created a strong military block called Triple Alliance.
In 1907 Brittan, France and Russia signed a military friendship called Triple Entente.
D. The Rise of Nationalism
The main factors for the rise of nationalism were:
-France lost her provinces of Alsace and Lorrain in the Franco-Prussian war of 1970-71.
-Nationalism and national discontent in the Balkan regions against the Ottoman Turks.
The first Balkan war of 1912 was fought between four Balkan countries against Ottoman
Turkey. The Balkan League countries defeated Ottoman Turkey and took Macedonia.
The second Balkan war in 1913 the Balkan countries fought against each other because of
territorial gain and Bulgaria was defeated.
. Serbia became bigger and stronger now wanted Bosnia from Austria-Hungary.
. Bulgaria lost all her gain from the first Balkan war.
The Balkan crisis of 1912-1913 brought Russia and Serbia closer together.
Immediate Cause of the War
On June 28, 1914 the Austrian crown prince Archduke Francis Ferdinand and his wife Sophie
were assassinated by Gavrilo Princip, a Serb nationalist at Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia.
4.2. The Course of the War
The war was fought between two major military blocks. These were:
Allied Powers: Britain bloc leader, France Russia until 1917, Belgium, Serbia, Italy joined
in1915, USA joined 1917, Japan and others.
Central Powers: Germany bloc leader, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria and Ottoman Turkey
The WWI was fought in different parts of the world but the main theater of the war was Europe.
The war was fought on two fronts, the western and the eastern fronts.
The Western Front
To achieve victory on this front Germany used the Von Schilieffen plan named after its author
Alferd Von Schilieffen. This plan indicated that Germany started the WWI in the western front
with a massive attack on France by giving through Belgium and Luxemburg because they
assumed Russia would mobilize slowly and Belgium would give little or no resistance. Contrary
to the plan the Belgians put up a heroic resistance and delayed German expansion.

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A month after the beginning of the war Germany was closed to Paris and the French government
evacuated Paris and moved to Bordeaux. Later the French army commanded by Joffre defeated
Germany at the Battle of Marene River. However, the advanced German troops advanced from
the south and the center and beaten the French troops.
In the east Russia moved faster than Germany had expected because Russia invaded East Prussia
from the south-east and Russia invaded the province of Galicia in Austria-Hungary. In August
1914 the Russians and Germans fronted one another at Tanenberg northeast Poland and
Germany defeated Russia at this battle.
During the period of 1914-1915 many battles were fought but no side could claim a conclusive
victory. By 1915 the war had reached a deadlock, because they built a long trench covered
nearly 600 miles which ran from the Belgian coast across northern France to the Swiss border.
In 1915 a significant event was happened because Italy joined on the side of the allied powers.
1. Italy changed its side to get her lost province from Austria-Hungary.
2. To get certain territories from the Ottoman Turkish Empire.
The Easter Front
The German army advanced to Russia and the Russian army advanced to Austria-Hungary. In
1915-1916 Russia faced heavy losses in battles against Austria-Hungary and Germany. The only
success of the allied powers was the conquest of German overseas colonies.
In 1916 Britain used offensive war to take the peninsula of Gallipoli (Turkey), the offensive
was aimed at taking Constantinople. But this campaign was failed because of a strong resistance
of Turkish army under Mustafa Kemal.
In 1916 the great fleet of Germany and Britain clashed once at the Battle of Jutland. The main
aim of the war was to control the trade routes to and from Europe. So they developed a war of
blockade. By using submarine Germany caused huge damage on the British ship until the mid-
1917.
In 1917 two significant events took place:
1. The popular revolution in Russia in March 1917 caused a disastrous defeat for the Russian
army and economic hardship. It led to the downfall of the Tsarist regime and the withdrawal of
Russia from WWI by signing the Treaty of Brest Litovsk with Germany on March 3, 1918.
2. The entrance of the USA into the war on the side of the allied powers on April 6, 1917. USA
entered to WWI because the German U-boats (submarine) sank many American passengers and
fright vessels which had many Americans on board.

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In 1918 the first united allied force commanded by Marshal Foch fought offensive war against
Germany. The Allied forces first defeated Bulgaria, Austo-Hungary, Turkey and finally
Germany. The allied powers defeated the central powers on November 11, 1918 at 11:00AM on
the 11 day of the 11 month (11,11,11,1918) Germany signed an armistice (ceasefire).
4.3. End of the War
4.3.1. Peace Treaties
A. The Paris Conference was held in 1919. The big four namely PM Lloyd George of Britain,
PM Vittorio Orland of Italy, premier Georges Clemenceau of France and president Woodrow
Wilson of USA participated in the conference.
P.M. Lloyd George of Britain proposed to maintain a balance of power in Europe without
weakening Germany too much. Orlando asked the allied powers to fulfill what they have
promised to Italy when she joined the war on their side. Clemenceau proposed imposition of
mind harsh term on Germany so as to prevent it from becoming strong military power again.
Woodrow Wilson endorsed world peace that would be realized by appealing his 14 points.
B. The Treaty of Versailles in June 1919, signed between the allied powers and Germany. So
Germany:
 lost her colonies in the pacific and Africa (her pacific colonies were given to Japan,
Australia and New Zealand ). German African colonies were given to Britain and France as
mandate territories.
 Alsace and Lorraine were given to France
 lost all land of Poland (Danzing Silcsia).
 lost small districts like Euopen, Morcsnet and Malmendy to Belgium.
 lost Schleswig to Denmark.
 reduced her army to 100,000 men.
 would not possess heavy artillery, tanks and aircrafts.
 forced to limit her navy in size, no of ships and could not have submarine.
 was forced to pay a financial compensation called reparation (6,600,000,000 dollar)
C. On September 10, 1919 the Treaty of Saint German was signed between the allies and
Austria.
D. On June 4, 1920 the Treaty of Trianon was signed between the allied powers and Hungary.
E. On Aug10, 1920 the Treaty of Sevres was signed between the allies and Ottoman Turky.
 Syria and Lebanon were given to France as mandate states.
 Iraq, Palestine and Trans-Jordan were given to Britain as mandate states.
4.3.2. The Birth of the League of Nations

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The formation of the League of Nations was the result of the effort of President Woodrow
Wilson of USA. The Objectives of the League were to ensure:
 international procedure and law
 the prevalence of justice
 the maintenance of peace of the world
Organs of the League of Nations
A. General assembly
B. Council
C. Permanent Court of Justice (Arbitration )
D. Secretariat

The League of Nations was failed because:

1. Unable to stop the Japanese aggression on Manchuria in1931.
2. Unable to stop the Italian aggression on Ethiopia in 1935/36.
3. The world big power; the USA was not a member.
4. Germany and the Soviet Russia were not at the beginning members of the League.
5. The League was dominated by France and Britain.
6. The General assembly had no effective power.
7. The league had no armed force
4.3.3. Other consequence of the war
 USA emerged as the most powerful country.
 8.5 million People were killed and about 21 million people were wounded.
 The aggregate expenditure of the belligerent nations was estimated at 35,000,000,000
dollars.
4.4. The Russian Socialist Revolution
Basic Causes of the Revolution
1. The accumulated grievances of the peasants and the working class because:
 The peasants had no equal status with the Russian upper class.
 Economic, social and political division and national oppression and lack of good
governance.
2. Lack of rule of law and inequalities prevailed in Russia.
On the eve of the March 1917 revolution different political groups were formed in Russia such as
liberal and moderate, social revolutionary, the Mensheviks and Bolsheviks.

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At the beginning the Mensheviks (minority) and Bolsheviks (the majority) as being members of
the first Marxism party in Russia together known as Russian Social Democratic Labor Party
(RSDLP). It was founded by Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov, Lenin in 1898. The RSDLP published
its own newspaper called Iskra (Spark). Later RSDLP split into Mensheviks and Bolsheviks
because of the issue of party organization. The Bolsheviks under Lenin insisted strong
centralization. The Mensheviks or minority supported loose democratic organization.
Immediate Causes of the Russian Revolution
1. The disastrous defeat of Russian army during the WWI.
On March 17, 1917 there were strikes and food riots in St. Petersburg later renamed Petrograd
and Leningrad.
2. Shortage of food and high food price aggravated the situation
Many different classes and social groups began to assert themselves; soldiers for peace, peasants
for land, workers for food, and improving of living and working conditions.
The above cause of the revolution led the outbreak of the March 17, 1917 revolution. On March
16, 1917 Tsar Nicolas II had abdicated his throne and the Romanov dynasty (1613-1917) came
to an end and a provisional government was set up.
The provisional government was first headed by Prince George Lvov and later by Alexander
Kerensky. The provisional government was a bourgeoisie. Although the bourgeoisie tried to
control political power, the battle for a revolution was fought by peasants, workers and soldiers.
Soldiers fought for peace, peasants for land and workers for food. Later the provisional
government did not satisfy need of the people. It led to outbreak of the second Russian
revolution called the October Revolution. This revolution led to the rise of the Bolsheviks.
The Bolsheviks declared “All power to the Soviets and land, peace and bread”. They transferred
the bourgeoisie revolution to a socialist revolution. They established a regime led by primer
Lenin and war minister Trotsky.
The Bolsheviks took the following measures:
1. Russia formally withdrew from WWI after the treaty of Brest Litovsk.
2. The land owners were expropriated and land distribution among peasants.
3. The Council of Soviets which included urban workers, soldiers and peasants was
established.
From 1918-1921 Bolsheviks faced and attacked from different directions (internal and external)
and they fought for existence.

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Internally all social groups and ex-Tsarist officials who were affected by the socialist revolution
joined hands to form an anti-Bolsheviks front known as White Russia. Anti-Bolsheviks (white
Russian) consisted of royalists, bourgeoisies and land lords. They opposed Russia’s withdrew
from WWI, the socialist revolution and the creation of Poland. Supporters of Bolsheviks (red
Russians) consisted of peasants and urban workers organized by Leon Trotsky. Finally the red
army defeated the white army. Factors for the defeat of the white army were:
1. The whites had no political program
2. Peasants and the workers who were disadvantaged in the past supported the red army
3. The ruthlessness and excesses of the white army made it extremely unpopular.
4. The presence of foreign army supporting the white army made them traitors.
Externally in 1919 Poland waged war against her former oppressor Russia, but this war came to
an end by the Treaty of Riga in 1921. From this treaty Bolsheviks accepted the independence of
Poland. By 1921 the Bolsheviks conceded the independence of Finland, Estonia, Lithuania, and
Latvia.
In order to solve economic problem the Bolsheviks introduced the new economic plan (NEP) in
1921. It restored smaller enterprise to their owners, allowed peasants to sell their grain for profit
and revive of commerce
Joseph Stalin strengthened factories and eliminated opposition; introduced a serious of
economic plans five year plan (1928-1932) and process a forceful collectivization of farmers but
it was opposed by Kulaks (rich farmers).
4.5. Resistance to Colonial Rule in Africa 1900-1939 and the Impact of WWI on the
Movement
By 1900 European colonizers did not completed the task of pacification in the parts of Africa.
During this period the African resistance was not [Link] Example: in some African
countries resistances were expressed in the so called Ethiopianism (means the formation of
separate black church in which religious practice learned from the missionaries were adjusted to
suit local conditions). One of the church revolts against the European administration and white
settlers was led by John Chilembwe in Nyasaland (Malawi) in 1915.
During WWI Africans in some colonies resisted forced conscription to army and labour services.
For Example: the Portuguese had suppressed a great revolt among the Shona speaking people of
portuguse east Africa.
WWI affected the people of Africa in many ways. For Example:
 More than a million Africans fought on the side of their colonial masters
 Africans returned home with rich experience and new ideas

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 changed fertile ground for African nationalism

During the interwar period (1919-1939) the colonial government introduced many political
reforms and changes. For Example:
 the rapid expansion of trade was observed
 mining and industrial activities were developed
 the expansion of roads, railways, postal services, and telegraph
 the building of schools and hospitals were observed and the number of educated African
increased
During the interwar period (1919-1939) African resistance to European colonialism was
centered on towns. However, the objective of African resistance during this period was not
for independence but for some reforms mainly economic and political rights for Africans. For
Example:
 the right to form trade unions
 provision of equal opportunities in the business
 an end racial segregation as well as land alienation
In the inter war period Africans formed a few political parties and associations for reform.
Anti-Colonial Struggle in Africa between the Two World Wars (1919-1939)
A. The Young Kikuyu Association in Kenya
The Kikuyu are one of the largest communities of Kenya. The young Kikuyu association was a
native association organized by African workers in urban areas and white farmlands. Their
common stand against British colonialism brought Africans together. The leader of the
association was Harry Thuku. The major demand was the return of lands expropriated by white
settlers. In 1922 Harry Thuku was imprisoned by the British.
B. The Bataka Association in Uganda
It was a native association established in the interwar period. The name Bataka was drawn from
the ancient history of the peoples of Buganda and Bataka was title used by clan heads that ruled
the people of Buganda. Kabakas means kings of the Bugandan kingdom. The association was
formed to oppose the kabakas and the British missionaries who declared protectorate over
Uganda in 1900. The Lukiko was representation of the people in the colonial assembly. The
Bataka association was the party of the common people and became most prominent, especially
in 1947-48.
C. African National Congress (ANC)
ANC was founded in 1912 in the republic of South Africa.

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D. The National Congress of British West Africa

It was founded as early as 1918 by a Gold Coast lawyer J.E Casely Hayford who later expanded
it to Nigeria in 1920. They demanded that Africans should participate in in the government to
have a saying in the local affairs.
E. The Wafd Party in Egypt
The word Wafd means literally means delegation. In 1919 the Wafdist leaders headed by Saad
Zaghlul Pasha led a delegation to the Versailles Treaty and demanded Egyptian independence.
In 1922 Egypt became independent from the British but the complete independence was
achieved in 1956.
F. The Neo-Dastour Party in Tunisia
The Neo-Daster party which was a successor of the Dastur party (party of the constitution) was
formed with the major goal of winning the independence of Tunisia from French colonial rule. It
was founded in 1934 under the leadership of Habib Bourgiba.
G. The Struggle of the Riff Communities in Morocco
This was an armed struggle carried out in Morocco against French and Spanish colonial rule. The
leader of this armed struggle was Abd el Kerim, in the 1920s. Abd el Kerim was able to form an
independent Riff republic in Morocco, but the combined military forces of France and Spain
destroyed his republic.
Unit Review Questions
Choose the Best Answer from the Given Alternatives
1. Which of the following is correct about the European alliance system that was developed in the
decades before the outbreak of WWI?
A. to resolve international disputes and avoid the outbreak of war
B. To allocate reparation money to the victorious nations in a fair fashion
C. It brought about stability to European politics until the Assassination of Franz Ferdinand
D. It was initially developed by Bismarck as a mechanism of isolating and keeping France weak
2. One of the following statements is wrong about the First World War
A. the war affected the people of Africa
B. It gave rise to the first communist state, the USSR
C. It was basically the result of economic and political rivalries among the great powers of Europe
D. Austria-Hungary competed for the control of overseas colonial possessions
3. The foundation of the League of Nations was the result of:
A. the Truman doctrine to support governments of central and Eastern Europe
B. The unreserved support of President Harry Truman of USA and his policy of containment
C. The tireless efforts of President Wilson of the USA and his famous 14 points

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D. The U.S Senate’s ratification of America’s membership into the League

4. Which of the following is correct about the October 1917 Revolution in Russia?
A. It was organized and led by the Mensheviks in Petrograd
B. It led to the overthrow of the Romanov dynasty from power
C. It brought to power a provisional government led by Kerensky
D. It led to the withdrawal of Russia from the WWI
5. Which of the following is TRUE about the former Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin?
A. It was transformed an agrarian to industrial state
B. It was progressively democratic
C. It was continuously at war with foreign enemies
D. It officially renounced the idea of exporting socialism
6. Although there several instances of African resistances against colonial imposition, the only
country to successfully repulse a European colonial invasion was:
A. Ethiopia at Adwa C. Tanzania in Maji-Maji
B. Sudan under the Mahdists D. West Africa under Samori Toure
7. Which of the following was true about African resistance against colonial rule during the inter-
war period?
A. It was mainly inspired by ideas from the Ethiopianist churches
B. It was mostly aimed at securing better economic and political rights
C. It was organized by Africans who had participated in WWI
D. It was primary based in the rural areas and led by chief

ANSWER
1) D. 2) A. 3) C 4) D. 5) A. 6) A. 7) B.

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UNIT FIVE
ITALIAN FASCIST AGGRESSION AGAINST ETHIOPIA, 1935-41.
5.1. Background and Causes of the Italo-Ethiopian war of 1935-1936.
5.1.2. The plans of Fascist Italy.
The factors for Italy’s aggression against Ethiopia since the early 1920s were:
 The desire to erase the shame full scare of Adwa in 1896.
 The desire to building a greater Italian colonial empire in Africa.
 Mussolini wanted to win prestige for himself through a military success
 Mussolini determined to restore ancient Roman power and glory to Italy
 To divert the attention of the Italian people from difficulties at home as a result of the World
Depression.
Mussolini attempted to conceal his plan presented himself as good friend of Ethiopia such as:
 In 1923 when Ethiopia applied for membership into the League of Nations, Italy did not oppose.
 When Ras Teferi made a tour to European countries in1924, he received a warm welcome in
Italy more than in any other European country.
 Italy signed a treaty of Peace and Friendship with Ethiopia in 1928.
However, behind their hidden plans, the Fascists were busy preparing the ground for the invasion
of Ethiopia. The preparation consisted of two main activities.
1. Subversive measures: carried by Italian governor of Eritrea (Corrado Zoli)- Bribe and
agitated the chiefs of Tigray, Wollo, Begemdir and Gojam.
2. Military preparation: placed armies and war supplies in Eritrea and Somalia.
The Hoare- Laval (1932) Agreement allowed taking Ethiopia by Britain and France and in
order to encourage not to ally with Germany.
The Walwal Incident (5 December 1934).
The Walwal incident was an army skirmish between Italian sodiers and Ethiopian troops escorting
Anglo-Ethiopian boundary commission around the water wells of Wal Wal on Dec. 5, 1934. In
the clash, it was the Ethiopian side which suffered more causality. Yet, the Italians demanded that
Ethiopian should make an official apology and pay compensation. Ethiopia tried its best to solve
the dispute by peaceful arbitration and appealed to the League of Nations. However, The League
proved ineffective because Britain and France, its dominant members, secretly agreed to sacrifice
Ethiopia so as not to lose Italy to Germany. Finally, Italy invaded Ethiopia by using the Walwal
incidentas a pretext on 3 October 1935.

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5.2. The Italo-Ethiopian War, 1935-36.

The fascist invasion of Ethiopia was carried out on two fronts:
5.2.1. The Northern Front
Intitally the Italian force commander in the north was General Emilode Bono, until he was
replaced by Pietro Badoglio.
Ethiopian counter-offensive in the North
The northern front was under Ras Kassa Hailu (the overall commander in the northern front). It
consisted of three sub-fronts.
The East, Amba Aradom front (Right Flank) which was under Ras Mulugeta Yegezu, minister
of war (lost his life when he fighting).
The Temben front (center Flank) which was under Ras Seyoum Mengesha (ruler of Tigray),
and Ras Kassa Hailu
The West, Shire front (left Flank) was under Ras Imiru Haile Selassie, governor of Gojjam (he
performed relatively better).
Ras Imiru ambushed and destroyed a force of Italian troops and Eritrean askaris under Major
Luigi Criniti (Italy) at the strategic pass of Dembeguna.
5.2.2. The Southern Front
Italian force commander in the South was General Rodolfo Graziani. Garaziani’s first attack
was directed against Qorahe in the Ogaden. Qorahe was a strategically situated place for moves
against Jijiga and Harar towns.
Ethiopian counter-offensive in the South
The Southern front was mainly led by Ras Desta Damitew (South), Dejjazmach Mekonnen
Endalkachew, Dejjazmach Nesibu Zeamanuel (South east) and Dejjazmach Balcha Safo.
The Battle of Machew (31 March 1936)
It was the last and decisive battle led by the emperor. Fresh force of the Ethiopian army
(Imperial Bodyguard) about 6000 men was fought. It resulted in the emperor’s defeat after 13
continuous hours. In April 1936 the Italian aggressive force entered Dessie without any problem.
On 2 May 1936, Emperor Haile Selassie, his royal family, and some notable officials left Addis
Ababa for Europe via Djibouti to appeal to the League of Nations. Finally, under Marshal
Pietro Badoglio, Italians made a triumphal entry into Addis Ababa on 5 May 1936. A few days
after their enrty into Addis Ababa, the Italians took control of Harar under Marshal Rodolfo
Graziani.
5.2.3. Italian Victory
Several factors responsible for the Italian victory:
1. Superiority of the fascist army both numerically and technically.

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Italy used 400 air planes (extreme Bombers) and internationally outlawed poison gas.
2. Ethiopian forces had faced shortage of logistics (lack of roads, radio communication and
maps).
3. The arms embargo weakened the Ethiopian armed forces.
4. Differences and Dissatisfaction with in the Ethiopian army due to the emperor’s policy of
centralization.
5. Ethiopian Old commanders’ were with little knowledge of modern warfare, and had no war
experience after Adwa. They stayed in comfort and peace without hardship for about 40 year
since 1896.
5.3. Fascist Occupation and Patriotic Resistance Movement, 1936-41
5.3.1. Colonial Administration
Italy merged Ethiopia with Eritrea and Italian Somaliland and formed Italian East AfricaEmpire
which was divided into six regions with their respective capitals
-Eritrea and Tigray- Asmara
-Addis Ababa (Shewa) - Addis Ababa
-Amhara (Begemdir, Wollo, Gojam and North Shewa) - Gondar
-Dire Dawa and Harar - Harar
-Oromo-Sidama - Jimma
-Italian Somaliland (including Ogaden) - Mogadishu
Addis Ababa deserved the capital of the empire. Some of the viceroys of Italian East-African
Empire were Marshal Petro Badoglio, Marshal Rodolfo Grazziani, Amador Umberto
d’Aosta or Duck of Aosta (was more liberal).
Italian occupation in Ethiopia was largely confined to the urban centers because the rural areas
were centers of national liberation struggle.
During five years of occupations, the fascists accomplished several services and infrastructures,
like:
 Electricity and supply of pure water
 Built the Merkato to serve as a commercial centre.
 Built cotton and cement factories of Dire Dawa
 Built edible oil factories and flour mills in many other towns
 Built road and housing constructions, opening light scale manufactures and businesses.

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 In the cities, they introduced new life-style.

5.3.2. The patriotic Resistance.
The Resistance had two distinct phase and stages;
The first phase (lasted up until February 1937).
It was led by the high ranking nobility; prominent among them were Ras Desta Damtew, Ras
Imiru Haile Sellassie and the two sons of Ras Kassa Hailu, Abera and Asfawossen.
Ras Imiru Haile Sellassie in Gore established an organization with his soldiers and officers called
“The Black Lion”. The organization military leaders were Lieutenant Colonels Belay Haileab,
Kifle Nesibu and Ketemma Beshah.
Ras Desta led the patriotic resistance after the battle of Dolo Odo and Genale Dorya. He then
retreated into the Gurage region around Butajjira until his defeat at Gogeti –a village in Gurage
where Italians caught him in February 1937.
The two sons of Ras Kassa, Abera and Asfawosen planned an abortive attack on Addis Ababa in
the summer 1936, operated into four directions:
1. Abera and Asfaw-North direction 3. Ras Abebe Aregay- Northwest direction
2. Balcha Safo- South direction 4. Dejazmach Fiqremariam Yinedu- East direction
The Bishop of Wollo, Abuna Petros, an outspoken anti-fascist patriot, was a moving sprit
behind the plan. Unfortunately, the attack was poorly planned and lacked effective coordination
and timing. The Abuna Petros was caught and publicly executed. Balcha was killed at fighting at
the place of his memorial hospital located.
The Second Phase (From 19 February 1937 on)
Country-wide anti-fascist resistance characterized this phase’s resistance. It was carried out on
guerilla warfare, especially strong in Showa, Gojam and Begemdir. Famous resistance leaders
are Abebe Argay, Bekele Woya, Geresu Duki, Haile Mariam Mamo-from shewa, Belay
Zeleke-from Gojjam, Amoraw Wubeneh from Gondar, Takele Wolde Hawariat. The two
exceptional were Zerai Deres and Abdissa Aga in Italy. Abortive attempt to kill Marshal
Grazziani (viceroy) by Abraham Debouch and Moges Asgidom resulted in mass massacre of
Ethiopians; approximately 30,000 Ethiopians were slaughtered in three days.
The Patriots employed various tactics:
- Ambush of enemy convoys
- Cutting communication line.
-Timly striking (conditions favorable) led by locally notable persons

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The Ethiopian women’s in the patriotic resistance movement were Shewareged Gedle of Addis
Alem, Kebedech Seyoum of Shawa, Shewanesh Abera of Lasta, Abebech Cherqos of Gondar
and Lekyelesh Beyan of Jirru.
Problems of patriotic resistance
- Lack of sufficient supplies and logistics. - Competition and rivalry among the leader.
- Defections to the fascist. Example: Ras Hailu Tekle Haymanot of Gojjam, Dejjach Ayalew
Biru of Semen, Haile Selassie Gugsa of Tigray and AbbaJobir of Jimma.
- They had no strong uniting political organization.
5.4. The War of Liberation and Ethiopian Independence.
Italy’s entry into the Second World War on the side of Germany facilitated the liberation of
Ethiopia. Until that time, Mussolini had stayed neutral and carefully watched the balance of
power in the conflict. In that time, Italy had 200,000 troops stationed in her East Africa Empire.
Britain feared that, with the help of Hitler’s army, Italy would expand in east Africa and take
away its colonies. To avoid this, Britain had to act quickly and drive out Italian forces from East
Africa. This led to the British East African campaign, which finally served the cause of the
liberation of Ethiopia.
British military assistance to Ethiopia arrived through British colony of the Sudan. And the
Soba military school was opened to train Ethiopian officers in the Sudan. The British army
under General William Platt made an offensive against fascist forces in Eritrea. The British
force from the Sudan accompanied the Emperor into Gojjam. This was the Gedon Force under
its commanders, Colonel Dan Sanford and Major Orde Charles Wingate. The third major
British Force was organized in Kenya, under the commander of General Cunningham. General
Cunningham made a quick advance into with the Somaliland and then to Harar and forced the
Italians to surrender. Thus, General Cunningham and the patriotic forces drove fascist troops out
of Addis Ababa on 6 April 1941. A month later, on 5, May, Emperor Haile Selassie victorious
re-entered Addis Ababa, Ethiopia was liberated after five years of fascist rule.
Unit Review Questions
Choose the Best Answer from the Given Alternatives
1. Which of the following describes best the Ethio-Italian relations before 1935?
A. the Addis Ababa treaty ended signs of Italian colonial interest in Ethiopia
B. They both adopted a hostile relation in the areas of international relations
C. the Italian government adopt a policy of Friendly relations with Ethiopia
D. Italy opposed Ethiopia’s membership to the League of Nations in 1923

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2. Why did the Italians invest heavily in road building during their occupation of Ethiopia?
Because they wanted to:
A. Improve the living standards of the people C. encourage the flow of tourist
B. encourage rural-urban migration D. facilitate the movement of troops
3. Why does the Italian occupation of Ethiopia not qualify as successful colonization of the
country?
A. the Italians stayed in the country only for five years
B. Italian occupation was never recognized internationally
C. Haile Selassie successfully avoided capture by the Italians
D. Ethiopians never surrendered or stopped active resistance against the occupier
4. During the year of Italian occupation, the fascist authority largely was limited to the urban
centers. This was because:
A. the rural areas had high infrastructure than the urban centers
B. the towns were inhabited by pro-Italian collaborators and bandas
C. there was a strong and wide spread guerilla movement in the urban area
D. the rural areas were home to a strong guerilla movement
5. Britain and France showed a pro-Italian stand in the dispute between Ethiopia and Italy
following the Wal Wal incident mainly to:
A. avoid the possibility of Italy becoming an ally of Germany
B. to respect the charter of the League of Nations
C. keep the promise they made to Italy in the Tripartite
D. satisfy the wishes of their peoples which was pro-Italian
6. Which of the following was a characteristic of the Ethiopian resistance movement after
February 1937?
A. It succeeded in developing a pan-Ethiopian organization to lead the movement
B. The leadership of the movement was exclusively made up of the lower nobility and
peasants
C. The center of the movement shifted from the province of shewa to the border provinces
D. There was a shift in strategy from conventional warfare to guerrilla warfare
7. All of the following EXCEPT one account for the defeat of the Ethiopian army in 1935/36 by
the Italian forces. Which one?
A. The flight of the Emperor from the country
B. Internal divisions within the Ethiopian army
C. Poor leadership qualities of Ethiopian commanders
D. The poor supply system of the Ethiopian army
8. Which of the following is a correct list of patriotic leaders who fought the Italian Occupation?
A. Geresu Duki, Bekele weya, Amoraw wubneh, Jegema kello
B. Hailu Tekele Haymanot, Bekele weya, Jegema kello, Belay zelek

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C. Amoraw Wubneh, Geresu Duki, Belay Zeleke, Hailu Tekele Haymanot

D. Amoraw wubneh, Bekele Weya, Desta Dametew, Hailu Tekele Haymanot
9. Which of the following is true about the Black Lion Organization?
A. It continued the resistance struggle until the Italians were ousted
B. It was mainly composed of graduates of Holeta Military Academy
C. It actively engaged in fighting around the town of Gore, Illubabor.
D. It was formed long before Emperor Haile Selassie left the country.

ANSWER
1) C. 2) D. 3) D. 4) D 5) A. 6) D. 7) B. 8) A 9) B.

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UNIT SIX
THE SECOND WORLD WAR, 1939-1945
6.1. The World Moves to War
Causes of the Second World War
I. Basic Causes of the Second World War
1. The Treaty of Versailles that signed after the end of the WWI in 1919 was not fair. This
treaty benefited or brought considerable gain for the victorious countries like Britain and
France and dissatisfied and humiliated the defeated countries like Germany.
2. The League of Nations which was founded to solve conflicts after WWI was not effective.
3. The emergence of nationalist governments such as Nazis in Germany, Fascism in Italy and
military government in Japan.
Factor for the Rise to Power of Fascists in Italy were:
1. The accumulated war debts, economic depression and unemployment. This problem caused
widespread political and social unrest in Italy.
2. Workers, peasants and soldiers were dissatisfied with the government’s plan.
The Fascist party was founded in 1922. The leader of the fascist party was Benito Mussolini
(1883-1945), who had fought in the WWI as a corporal. Before the war he was socialist, but after
the war he became ardent nationalist. In the inter war period, Mussolini developed a new idea
about government which he called Fascism. Fascism was originated from the Latin word fasce
which means bundle of sticks bound together with an axe.
Fascism was the political movement that propagated the unity of all social groups under the
control of national state. It was a system of dictatorship based on sectarian interest. It was
extremely nationalistic. Fascists believed that national goals could be advanced by means of war
and conquest
How could Mussolini rise to power in Italy?
He used all discontent and fear for their political end and promised to restore Italian greatness.
He also promised job security and other benefits. He defended against communists. This helped
the fascist party won popular support in 1922 and King Emanual III appointed Mussolini as
PM. By the 1924 election fascists won the majority seats in the Italian parliament and then
Mussolini called himself Il Duce or the leader.
Factors for the Rise of the Nazi Party in Germany
Nazi was the German version of fascism. Because of the defeat of Germany at WWI Emperor
Wilhelm II left to Holland. A new government was established with a constitutional assembly in

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the town of Weimar. This republic was known as the Weimar republic after the town the
constituent assembly held its meeting.
The Weimar republic had to deal with a range of problems.
a. Severe economic setback because at the Treaty of Versailles Germany had to pay 6.6 billion
dollar to the Allied powers.
b. When the Weimer republic was unable to pay war reparation payment, France occupied the
rich coal and steel province of Ruhr area in Germany.
c. Inflation as a result of printing of more money
During this troubled years several parties was emerged. One of these parties was Nazi (National
Socialist German Worker’s Party). Its leader was Adolf Hitler (1889-1945). He joined the party
in Munich and organized a private army known as stroomtroopers (SA) or the Brown Shirts.
Many of its members were war vetrans and street hooligans.
In November 1923 Hitler and his Brown Shirts staged a coup d’etat in Munich called the
Munich Putsch but it was failed and Hitler was captured and sentenced for 5 years
imprisonment. In 1924, Adolf Hitler spent only however 264 days incarcerated in Landsberg
after being convicted of treason following the Beer Hall Putsch in Munich the previous year.
During his imprisonment, Hitler dictated and then wrote his book Mein Kampf (My Struggle)
with assistance from his deputy, Rudolf Hess. In this this book he wrote that Germans were
Aryan Master Race who deserved to rule the world. He also blamed the Jews and the
communists for the German defeat during WWI
How did Hitler rise to power?
The Weimar republic was affected by the world economic crisis called Great Depression (1929-
1933). The Immediate cause of the depression was the Wall Street stock market crash in the
USA in October 1929. The outcomes of this depression in Germany include:
a. It stopped foreign loan especially US loan to Germany
b. Workers lost their jobs
c. Many enterprises went bankrupt. These factors brought the rise of Hitler and his own party.
Until 1932 the Nazis were a minority in the Reichstag (the German parliament). For instance, in
1928 they won only 12 seats and in 1932 they won 230 seats. But the Nazis did not achieve a
majority vote. During this time the Weimer republic president General Von Hindenburg
appointed Hitler as Chancellor (head of government).
In 1933 Hitler arranged a new election, after the election the Nazis obtained the majority seat in
the Reichstag and Hitler became a leader (Fuhrer).
The Rise of a Military Clique in Japan

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In the early 1930s a military clique came to power in Japan. Japan conquered Manchuria in 1931
and set up a puppet government called Manchukuo. Later Japan withdrew from the League of
Nations on May 27, 1933. The Sino-Japanese war was broke out between Japan and China
from 1937-1945.
After the Nazi party came to power in Germany it took the following measures:
 In 1935 the introduction of national military service was begun in Germany by violating the
Treaty of Versailles, which limed the ground force of Germany only to100, 000 men.
 In March 1936 Germany occupied the demiliteralized zone of the Rhineland.
 In March 1938 Germany annexed Austria. For a long time Hitler dreamed of an
‘’Anschluss’’ i.e the annexation of Austria. He dreamed Austria must return to its mother
country (Germany).
 In 1938/1939 Czechoslovakia became the target for Hitler’s policy of expansion, particularly
Sudetenland, where about 3 million German spekers lived and an economic and heavily
fortified region in Czechoslovakia. The crisis in Czechoslovakia marked the last phase in the
move towards the Second World War.
In an effort to avert the war between Hitler and Czechoslovakia for the claim of Sudetenland, the
British PM Neville Chamberlin agreed to meet Hitler to discuss the problem. The issue was
discussed at the Munich Conference in September 1938. In the Munich conference
Chamberlin, Hitler, Mussolini, and Edward Daladier of France were participated.
At this conference, Britain and France followed the Policy of Appeasement or satisfying
Hitler’s demands that were:
 Germany was allowed to annex the Sudetenland and Hitler must respect the rest of
Czechoslovakia as independent.
 Hitler promised to settle future disputes by peaceful means
The policy of appeasement was ineffective rather encouraged Hitler to continue with his plan of
aggressive expansion. But six months after the Munich conference Hitler sent his army to
Czechoslovakia and occupied the western part of the country. In eastern Czechoslovakia a
German puppet state called Slovakia was set up and Hitler annexed Memel from Lithuania.
The Formation of Military Blocs
In 1936 Mussolini announced the formation of Rome-Berlin Axis in the same year Japan signed
the anti-commentern (Communist) pact and they called it Axis powers.
On August 23, 1939 Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact was signed between Hitler and Joseph
Stalin (leader of the Soviet Union), because Chamberlin refused to accept Stalin’s free hands in

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eastern Europe particularly in the Baltic state (Estonia, Latvia and Luthinia) and Poland.
According to this agreement:
 They agreed to be neutral if one of them would be at war with the third power
 They agreed to divide eastern Europe into their sphere of influence
 Poland was to be partitioned into west and east
 Finland and the Baltic republic of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania were recognized as part of
the Soviet spheres of influence.
II. Immediate Cause of the War
The immediate cause of the WWII was German invasion of Poland on September 1, 1939.
After two days Britain and France declared war on Germany.
6.2. Military Aspects of the War
A. Blitzkrieg (Lighting war in the East)
The key principle in this strategy was to win quick and decisive victory through the coordinal
attack of the German air force and fast moving ground force to Poland.
By this strategy Germany invaded Poland within a month and German troops entered to the
Polish capital Warsaw and Germany controlled about 30,000 sq. miles and Germany annexed
[Link] Soviets advanced quickly into Eastern Poland and controlled 77,000 sq. mile of
Eastern Poland. At about the same time the Soviets also forced the Baltic States (Estonia, Latvia
and Lithuania) and later the Soviets incorporated the Baltic States into the USSR (1939-1940).
Moreover, the Soviets fought a difficult but finally victorious war with Finland and annexed
some Finnish territory.
B. Sitzkrieg or Sitting War or Phoney War in the West
For about seven months after the surrender of Poland no real fighting on the western front this
is known as sitzkrieg or phoney war.
The phoney war came to an end on 29 April 1940 when Germany invaded Denmark and
Norway. Denmark surrendered after only a few hours but the Norewgian resistance took the
Germans longer to overcome. The next victims of German invasion in the western front were the
Netherlands, Belgium and France. On May 10, 1940 the Netherlands was attacked. At the same
time, the Germans attacked Belgium and France along the Meuse River and through the
Ardennes hills, which Britain and France believed wrongly, to be impossible terrain for tanks.
German Victory on the Western Front
Britain and France moved into Belgium to defend the German line of attack but Germany broken
into France through the Ardennes, the allied forces retreated to Dunkirk, in northern France. The

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rapid success of German forces in the western front prompted Mussolini to declare war on
France and Britain on June 10, 1940.
On June 14, 1940 Paris was surrendered by Germany and France signed an armistice with
Germany and which came to effect on June 22, 1940. According to the armistice Germany
occupied northern France. In southern France a puppet government was set up under Marshal
Henri Petain in the town of Vichy, hence the Vichy government.
The Battle of Britain (Operation Sea Lion)
After the fall of France, Hitler gave open attack on Britain by air because Hitler aimed at
weakening Britain’s defense capacity by destroying the British Royal Air Force (RAF). During
this period Britain was led by Winston Churchill who had replaced Chamberlain in May 1940.
The battle of Britain had two phases;
A. The first phase was started in early August 1940 when Luftwaffe (German Air Force)
began bombing in the day light. This strategy was failed because the British RAF used the
new detection instrument called Radar or RDF (radio direction finding) to locate the
attacker. The use of this instrument forced Germany to lose about 120 planes.
B. The Second Phase was started in early October 1940 Germany changed its strategy from day
light to night bombing. Hitler went to destroy British industrial production and terrify the
population but the Luftwaffe was unable to paralyze production and break the moral of the
British people. So the battle of Britain was the first major defeat of Hitler after the outbreak
of the Second World War.
German Invasion of the Soviet Union (Operation Barbarosa)
After the German Air Force failed in the battle of Britain, Hitler decided on the invasion of the
Soviet Union. The main objectives of this invasion were:
i. To get the Lebensraum or living space for the German population.
ii. To take wheat of the Ukraine and the oilfield of the Caucasus.
On June 22, 1941 Germany attacked the Soviet Union and the Soviets responded with the so-
called scorched earth policy (distruction of everything that could be used by enemy).
In November 1941 Germany advanced very fast and penetrated about 960 km deep into the
Soviet Union and Kiev, the capital of Ukrain was captured. Leningrad, one of the major cities,
was cut off from any land connection with the rest of the Soviet Union and put under siege. The
Germans were at the outskirts of Moscow. But, in December 1941 when the Russian winter set
in, the Germans were prevented from taking Moscow and Leningrad. Therefore, Hitler’s
blizkrieg failed to bring the desired results in Russia.

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The Attack on Pearl Harbour (War in the Pacific)

Since the conquest of Manchuria in 1931 by Japan, the Japanese had been engaged to achieve
their ultimate goals;
[Link] extend their occupation in Asia and the Pacific
[Link] establish a Greater East Asia Co-prosperity Sphere.
In 1937 Japan launched a full scale invasion over China (Sino-Japanese war) and in March
1940 Japan dominated government was established in part of China. The invasion of China
resulted USA extended loan to China and stopped the export of scrap iron to Japan. This action
led to the formation of Berlin, Rome and Tokyo Triangle (Axis Power).
In July 1941 Japan extended its control over the southern part of Indo-china. This resulted in
USA’s denial of the import of oil and other essential raw materials to Japan
On October 7, 1941 Japan bomber launched a surprise attack on the American naval base at
Pearl Harbour in Hawaii. Japan sank 19 American ships, 188 planes, 2400 people killed and
1,100 or more wounded. The following day USA declared war on Japan and on October 11,
1941 Germany and Italy declared war on USA.
The World at War
The Pearl Harbour incident made the war fully a world war because USA entered into the war.
In August 1942 the war was fought in several theaters situated in Eastern Europe, North Africa
and the Meditteranian, Burma, China and the Atlantic and the Pacific.
In the winter of 1941-1942 Soviet forces opened a counter offensive and pushed the Germans
back some distance from Moscow. But, in the summer of 1942 the Germans opened a new
offensive against the Soviet Union in the South. In November 1942 the Soviets launched a
major counter attack against the German fighting forces in and near Stalingrad. On February 1,
1943 the Germans were forced to surrender. This brought an end to the Battle of Stalingrad and
liberated the Soviet cities and territory. This battle was the turning point in the course of WWII.
The War in North Africa (Operation the Desert)
The German forces commanded by General Erwin Rommel had dominated the desert war since
1941. In 1942 they had nearly taken Egypt. In late October 1942 the British and the Common
Wealth troops under General Bernard Montgomery (British) launched a major attack against
Rommel’s troops. Allied forces landed in Algeria and Morocco in November 1942. Fierce battles
continued in the Sahara desert and Tunisia which came to an end with the victory of the allies.

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In May 1943 the axis forces in North Africa surrendered to the Allied powers. In July 1943 Italy
was invaded by the Allied powers. Victor Emmanuel III, king of Italy, deposed Mussolini and
appointed Marshal Petro Badoglio as prime minister of Italy.
The War in the Pacific
The US forces in life and death struggled against Japan.
In 1942 at the Battle of Midway Island the Japanese army was suffered. On August 6, 1945
USA dropped the first atomic bomb on the Japan city of Hiroshima. On August 9, 1945 USA
drop the second atomic bomb on the Japan city of Nagasaki. 80, 000 people in Hiroshima and
40,000 people in Nagasaki were killed. On August15, 1945 Japan’s Emperor Hirohito signed
unconditional surrender of Japan and officially ended WWII.
End of the War
The landing of US, British and Canadian forces at Normandy (North France) or the invasion of
Normandy on June 6,1944 was the major breakthrough in the Allied reconquest of Europe
Known as “operation overlord” .Under the commandership of the American General Dwight
Eisenhower organized 150, 000 troops, 53, 000 ships and 12, 000 planes invaded Normandy.
Within a month and half France almost liberated and General Charles de Gaulle became the
leader of free France and entered Paris on August 25, 1944.
On 16 April, 1944 Marshal Zhukov, commander of the Russian proved a final attack on Berlin.
Adolf Hitler committed suicide a week after the capitulation of Berlin on May 2, 1945. On May
7, 1945 Karl Doenitz, the successor of Hitler authorized German surrender to the Allies. On
May 8, 1945 became VE (victory in Europe) which marked the end of the war in Europe.
6.3. Consequences of the war
Compared to WWI, the WWII caused far more damages on material property and human life
because:
1. WWII was fought in several areas.
2. There were mass killings in concentration camps; the most infamous were Auschwitz,
Dachau, Buchenwald, Belsen, and Nurdhusen. In these camps many died of starvation and
disease. Others were victims of cruel experiments conducted by Nazi doctors. Jews usually
killed with poison gas.
3. Air raids, starvation and disease made civilian causalities and material distruction. Example:
among 70 million people fought in the war 50 million might have died. Roads, railways, and
industrial centers such as Ruhr were destroyed ( two thousand billion dollars cost).
4. Holocaust (wholesale or mass murder) of European Jews by the order of Hitler and the Nazi
officials, among 12 million people 6 million were Jews.

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5. It helped to accelerate the struggle of national liberation from colonialism in Asia and Africa.
6. The development of new international alignment. E.g. United Nations Organization.
7. USA and USSR became super powers of the world.
6.4. The United Nations organization (UNO)
The formation of the United Nations Organization directly related to the WWII. In 1941
Winston Churchill, prime minister of Britain and USA president Franklin Delano Roosevelt
discussed the issue of world organization. At this time Roosevelt was not ready to pledge the
USA to join such an organization.
In 1943 at Tehran or Iran Submit Britain, USA and USSR supported the idea of UNO.
In October, 1943 at the Moscow Conference the foreign ministers of the three allied powers
(USA, Britain and Soviet) agreed on the international organization.
In 1944 at Dumbarton Oaks in Washington discussed the structure of UNO. USA, Russia,
Britain, France and China and reserved permanent seat (veto power) in the United Nations
In 1945 at the Yalta Conference the big three; USA, USSR and Britain agreed the permanent
member of the Security Council should have the right of veto power.
The last conference held at San Francisco in April 1945, the 50 allied nations drafted the UN
charter and signed in June 1945 by 51 founding members.
The head quarter of UNO is situated at New York in USA.

Organs of the United Nations Organization

UNO has six branches of government. These are:
1. General Assembly
It is made up of the representatives of the UN member countries regarding their size have one
vote. They meet once annually but in time of crisis additional meeting can be called. The main
responsibilities are:
 Admission of new members
 Expulsion of the members
 Supervision of the budget
 Appointment of the United Nations Secretariat
 Maintaining peace and security
2. The Security Council

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It is made up of 10 non-permanent members serving for two years and five permanent seats i.e
USA, Russia, Britain, France and China. The permanent members have the right of veto power.
Initially, six non-permanent members were elected by the General Assembly every two years.
By the 1965 Charter amendement however, the non-permanent members raised from 6 to 10.
Its main responsibilities are:
 To maintain peace and security
 Investigate any dispute on member nations
 To take diplomatic and economic sanctions
 Has a power to mobilize an armed force under UNO
 Control the election of Secretariat General
3. International Court of Justice
The seat of the court is at The Hague in the Netherlands. The court has fifteen judges jointly
chosen by the General Assembly and the Security Council. It is the principal judicial organ of the
United Nations. The office languages are English and France.
4. The Secretariat
The Secretariat carries out the day-to-day work of the UN as mandated by the General Assembly
and the Organization's other main organs. The Secretary-General is the head of the Secretariat,
which has tens of thousands of UN staff members working at duty stations all over the world. It
is appointed by the General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council for a
period of 5 year, with a possibility to be re-appointed for a second 5 year term (total of 10 years.)
The list of Secretaries-General, with the date of their term in office, is:
 Trygve Lie, from Norway, 1946-1952.
 Dag Hammarskjöld, from Sweden, 1953-1961. He died in air crash in Congo in 1961.
 U Thant, from Burma (now Myanmar), 1961-1971.
 Kurt Waldheim, from Austria, 1972-1981.
 Javier Perez de Cuellar, from Peru, 1982-1991.
 Boutros Boutros-Ghali, from Egypt, 1992-1996
 Kofi A. Annan, from Ghana, 1997-2006.
 Ban Ki-moon, from Republic of Korea, 2007-2016.
 António Guterres, from Portugal, January 2017-present.
4. The Trusteeship Council
The Trusteeship Council, one of the main organs of the UN, was established to supervise the
administration of trust territories as they transitioned from colonies to sovereign nations. The

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Council suspended its activities in 1994, when the Pacific Island of Palau, the last of the original
11 trust territories, gained its independence.
6. Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)
The ECOSOC, under the overall authority of the General Assembly, coordinates the economic
and social work of the United Nations and the UN family of organizations. It responsibility is
thus, to deal with specific issue such as trade, drug, pollution, human right and status of women.
The body has several specialized agencies mainly:
 ILO (International Labour Organization)
 WHO (World Health Organization)
 UNHCR( UN High Commissioner for Refugees )
 UNICEF (UN International Children Emergency fund )
 FAO (Food and Agricultural Organization)
 UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization)
 IMF (International Monetary Fund)
 World bank

Unit Review Questions

Choose the Best Answer from the Given Alternatives
1. What was the connection between the Great Depression of late 1929 in to the early 1930s and the
outbreak of World War II?
A. Governments wanted war to boost productivity and employment
B. Hardships caused by the depression carried to power extremist groups with aggressive
agendas
C. The joblessness created by the depression created a vast reserve of men to deploy in the war
D. There was no connection at all between the two
2. Which of the following is correct about the policy of appeasement pursued by France and Britain
in the inter war period?
A. While it failed to satisfy Hitler, it succeeded in gaining the friendship of Mussolini to the
allies
B. It convinced Hitler that the two powers would go to war over Eastern European issues
C. It was principally designed to prevent Hitler from aligning himself with Italy and Japan
D. Rather than satisfy Hitler, it encouraged him to continue to make additional demands
3. Which of the following is correct about the Soviet-Nazi pact of August 1939? It
A. ended the anti-German alliance of which Russia was a member
B. prepared the way for the partition of Poland between the two countries

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C. turned the two countries in to close political and military partners

D. forced Prime Minister Chamberlain to abandon his policy of appeasement
4. What precipitated Mussolini to declare war on Britain and France in June 1940?
A. The rapid military gains of the Germans in the western front
B. The collapse of the military alliance between Britain and Italy
C. The decision of Russia to join the war on the side of the Allies
D. The strong resistance that the Germans faced in the eastern front
5. The USA and USSR emerged as super powers after WWII because both:
A. managed to develop atomic bombs
B. had the only veto rights in the Security Council
C. built their economies by lending money to the Europeans
D. were the founding members of the UN
6. What was the key features of the ‘’Blitzkrieg’’ strategy Germany used against Poland during
WWII?
A. The imposition of a blockade against Poland’s ports like Danzing
B. The rapid and coordinated deployment of the Luftwaffe and ground forces
C. The weakening of the Polish army by bombarding its supply lines
D. Making military expeditions in the Western and Eastern Fronts simultaneously using merely
infantry troops.
ANSWERS
1) B. 2) D. 3) B. 4) A. 5) A. 6) B.

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UNIT SEVEN
MAJOR REGIONAL AND GLOBAL DEVELOPMENTS SINCE THE END OF THE
SECOND WORLD WAR
7.1. The Emergence of Antagonistic Super Powers: the USA versus the USSR
World War II was mainly fought in Europe. This resulted in greater destruction in human and
material resources. The greater powers like Britain, France and Germany were seriously affected
by the war
Why did USA become a super power after WWII?
1. Before WWII USA followed the policy of isolation. This policy was based on the
assumption that the USA could live in peace.
2. USA was not a battle ground of WWII, except the Island of Hawaii.
3. USA had served a supplier of war materials such as food and manufactured goods for the
allied powers. As a result its agriculture and industry were expanded.
4. In 1945 the USA had developed the atomic bomb, the most destructive military weapon.
Why USSR did became a super power in the world after WWII?
1. USSR had suffered greatly from WWII. It lost 20 million of its people, but the Soviet war
economy had been changed in peace time economy. Example: reconstruction and
resettlement were policy of priority.
2. In 1949 USSR built the atomic bomb
How did the USA and USSR evolve into antagonistic Super powers?
They had followed antagonidtic political and economic philosophies (different ideology); USA
followed capitalism or free market economy whereas USSR followed communism or socialism
or command economic system.
7.2 Division of the World into East and West and the Cold War
After the end of the Second World War the world was divided into the capitalist west and the
socialist east blocs.
Winston Churchil, the former prime minister of Britain, commented in 1946 by saying that an
“iron curtain” was drawn between the European East and West.
 The Socialist East Bloc
They supported socialist or communist ideology. Nearly all the countries liberated from Nazi
Germany and Fascist Italian rule in Eastern and Central Europe became socialist states. These
countries were Poland, Hungary, Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Romania, Czechoslovakia, Albania, East

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Germany, China, Cuba, North Korea, and Vietnam. Each of them took the official label of
“People’s Democratic States” or “Satellite State “. Later Yugoslavia and China shook off
dependence on USSR. The leader of the socialist or communist camp was USSR.
 The Capitalist West Bloc
It was made up of the capitalist nations of the world. The major states were USA, Britain,
France, West Germany, Canada, Italy etc. The leader of the capitalist camp was USA
Since the end of the Second World War the East (the socialist camp) and the West (the capitalist
camp) became rivals. This was a persistent struggle between the two camps to expand their
ideology and sphere of influence.
In 1947 in order to spread the capitalist ideology in different part of the world the USA proposed
the following plans.
 President Harry Truman announced the Policy of Containment or the Truman Doctrine
(stopping the spread of communist ideology).
The main aim of the Truman doctrine was to stop the spread of communism in Western Europe.
For this success USA gave financial aid to Greece and Turkey.
 In June 1947 George C. Marshal (US secretary of state) announced the USA plan to rebuild
Europe. According to the Marshal plan the USA would provide money and equipment for
both the capitalist and socialist countries. The invitation included the Soviet Union.
The Cold War
The main features of the Cold War were the following:
A. A war of words (strong propaganda war)
B. Ideological struggle
C. Weapons race (competition to build more and more destructive weapons)
D. Competition in espionage (spying)
E. Economic conflicts ( rivalries)
F. Expansion in Europe and else where by all means, short of armed fighting
G. Building military alliance
H. Building military bases in different parts of the world
1. The Formation of Military Alliances
A. In 1949 the capitalist countries formed a military alliance called the North Atlantic Treaty
Organization (NATO). The founding members of NATO included Belgium, Britain,
Canada, Denmark, Norway, France, Iceland, Italy, the Netherlands, Luxemburg and USA.
NATO was formed precipitated by two [Link] crisis were the crisis of Czechoslovakia

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in 1948, because Czechoslovakia was taken over by communists and it became a Soviet
satellite.
B. The Berlin Blockade of 1948/1949: This was imposed by Stalin to force the Western power
out of their occupied zones of Berlin. Because Berlin was divided into four zones of
occupation (among France, USA, Britain and USSR).
In 1955 the Socialists formed a military alliance called Warsaw Pact, because it was held in the
polish capital Warsaw. The founding members of Warsow Act were USSR, Albania, Bulgaria,
Hungary, East Germany (Germany Democratic Republic), Poland, Rumania, and
Czechoslovakia.
2. Competition of More and More Destructive Weapons (Arms Race)
A. Atomic bomb competition between the West and the east
 In 1945 America developed the first atomic bomb
 In 1949 USSR developed the first atomic bomb
B. Rocket powered missiles competition
 In October 14, 1957 the Soviets put an artificial satellite called sputnik into the orbit.
 On January 31, 1958 USA sent its artificial satellite in the orbit.
3. Strong Economic Rivalry (Formation of Economic Alliance)
During the Cold War strong economic rivalries were formed between the capitalist west and the
socialist east.
A. The Capitalist west formed the European Economic Community (E.E.C) in 1957. The
original founders of the E.E.C were France, Italy, West Germany, Belgium, Holland, and
Luxemburg. Later Britain joined. Later the E.E.C developed into the European Union.
B. The European communist states had also built earlier in1949 the Council for Mutual
Economic Assistance (Comecon).
4. Competition for Military Bases
Military bases were built by the USA and the USSR at different strategic sites all over the
world to safeguard their respective spheres of influence.
The Soviet Prime Minister Nikita Khrushchev, before he was removed from power in 1966, the
Soviets adopted a new policy towards the west. This policy was known as “Peaceful Co-
existence”. To Nikita Khrushchev, peaceful co-existence meant that the Soviets would compete
with the west, but would avoid war. Detente was the west’s equivalent for the Soviet term,
peaceful co-existence.

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The first positive move towards détente (peaceful co-existence) was the conclusion of the Non-
Proliferation Treaty in 1968. Its main aim was preventing the expansion of nuclear weapons.
In November 1969 a disarmament negotiation known as Strategic Arms Limitation Talks
(SALT) was opened and after a long delay SALT was concluded in 1972.
The cold war came to an end when the two successive summit meetings (1986/1987) between
President Ronald Reagan of USA and President Michael Gorbachov of USSR. The cold war
was ended with the victory of the capitalist bloc.
7.3. The Indian Independence Movement
India (Pakistan and India) was a British colony. In 1885 the Indian National Congress was
founded and struggled for national independence.
Between the two world wars Indians waged a struggle for national independence but the British
worked to sow differences between Muslims and Hindus that was aimed at weakening the
struggle of Indians for self-rule.
In 1906 the Muslim League had split away from the Indian National Congress. While, the
Muslim League stood for the right of Muslims in Pakistan, the Indian National Congress stood
for the right of Indian Hindus.
During the inter war period non-violent form of struggles were used against the British by the
Indian National Congress under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi, who used civil
disobedience campaign against the British colonial rule.
During the WWII the Indian national independence was temporarily weakened because the
leaders of the National Congress such as Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru were
arrested. On May14, 1945 at Simla conference the British made a reform and introduced self-
rule by considering the interests of religious communities in India. But, Gandhi, Nehru and Patel
from Indian National Congress and Mohammed Ali Jinnah from the Muslim League rejected
the British proposal.
The last British viceroy to India, Lord Louis Mountbatten, and the British government agreed
to give independence. On January 26, 1947 India became an independent state but split into
India and [Link] first prime minister of India was Jawaharlal Nehru and the first
president of Pakistan was Mohammed Ali Jinnah. After independence Pakistan officially
declared as an Islamic state and India became a secular state.
After independence, due to religious differences between Muslims and Hindus, conflicts led to
chaos, property distruction and beating and killing of people in both states. Mahatma Gandhi
advised tolerance for both religious communities. But, fanatics (extremists) did not listen to him
and a Hindu fanatic murdered Gandhi in1948.

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7.4. Indonesian: From Dutch Colony to an Independent Nation

Indonesia, in the pacific region of the Spiece Islands, was a colony of the Netherlands (Dutch or
Holland). During the inter-war period (1918-1939) the Indonesian Nation Struggle for
Independence grew strong. The colonial parliament called the Volkraad (People’s Council)
was established by the Dutch as a reform.
In 1931 Sukarno formed the National Party called Indonesian Party. But, the Japanese
occupation of Indonesia during the Second World War stopped the Indonesian independence
struggle against the Dutch. Indonesians fought against Japanese occupation troops during the
Second World War.
In 1945 Indonesia was liberated from the Japanese by its own nationalists. But, the Dutch again
came to Indonesia hoping to restore their rule.
Military operations between the Dutch and the Indonesians ended in August 1950. A transitional
government called the “Netherlands Indonesian Union” was formed in 1950. The Union
Government was dissolved and in May 1956 Indonesia became independent republic. The first
president of independent Indonesia became Sukarno. Hence, Indonesia became the land of
Muslims.
Indonesia (Sukarno), India (Jewahral Nehru), Egypt (Gemal Abdil Naser) and Yugoslavia
(Marshal Tito) became a moving force in the Non-Aliened Movement.
7.5. The Arab Israel Conflicts
Before WWI Palestine was an Ottoman Turkish colony. After WWI, Palestine was made a
mandate territory under the British administration. At this time Palestine had a Jewish minority,
though the great majorities were Arabs. But, later the Jewish population in Palestine grew as a
result of massive immigration of Jews due to the efforts made by Zionism. The Zionism was a
movement that began in the 19th c, and then grew steadly mainly through the efforts of a
European Jew named Theodore Herzl. The main objective of this movement was to create a
national state for Jews in Palestine.
In 1915, during WWI, Britain promised Palestine to the Arabs. In 1917 the Balfour Declaration
Britain promised to give Palestine to the the Jews. Between the two world wars the Jews settlers
in Palestine grow it led to the Arab Jews conflict.
The basic causess of the conflict were:
 The rivalries of Jews and Arab nationalists
 The importance of Middle East as the strategic value
 Source of oil

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After WWII the relationship between Palestinian Arabs and the Jewish grew in scope and
intensity because of the increase in Jews immigration into Palestine. The British government
could not stop the immigration.
In 1947 the British government announced its plan to give up its mandate and passed the
problem to the United Nations. The Security Council voted the partition of Palestine into Jew
state and an Arab state and the city of Jerusalem was to be an internalitioal city under the United
Nations supervision.
On May14, 1948 Britain withdrew from Palestine. Later the Jews in Palestine declared the
establishment of the Jewish republic called Israel with its capital in Tel Aviv. This event marked
the beginning of bloody conflicts between the Arabs and Israel.
A. The First Arab-Israel War (1948)
The cause of the conflict was the establishment of Israel as an independent state. The war was
fought between five Arab states namely Egypt, Syria, Lebanon, Trans-Jordan and Iraq who made
an attack on Israel in 1948.
In1948 the Israel army defeated the Arab countries. After the war Israel occupied half of
Jerusalem and the northwestern coastal strip along the Mediteranian Sea. Trans-Jordan occupied
the Palestinian land called West Bank and changed its name into Jordan.
Around 75, 000 Palestine Arabs left their country. Later the Palestine refugees fought to regain
their homeland as Fedayeen or militias under a Mufti but it was not successful→ it turned to al-
Fatah (guerrilla group) →Black September (terrorist organization).
Finally in 1964 various Palestinian groups formed the Palestinian Liberation Organization
(PLO). The most famous and long year leader of PLO was Yasir Arafat.
B. The Second Arab-Israel War of 1956 (Suez War)
The Suez Crisis began when Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser nationalized the British
and French-owned Suez Canal. Israel attacked Egypt in 1956. When Israel attacked Egypt,
Britain and France joined the war on the side of Israel. The war came to an end when USA, the
Soviet Union and UN pressure forced Britain and France to stop the war against Egypt. Israel
defeated Egypt and Israel occupied the territory of Sinai from Egypt.
C. The Third Arab-Israel War (the Six Days War ) of 1967
The third Arab Israel war was fought from June 5-10, 1967 between four Arab countries namely
Egypt, Iraq, Jordan and Syria against Israel. During the war USA, Britain and the Federal
Republic of Germany (West Germany) assisted Israel and USSR assisted the Arab countries.
Israel defeated the Arab countries and controlled West Bank from Jordan, the Golan Heights
from Syria and Gaza strip and Sinai Peninsula from Egypt.

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D. The Fourth Arab- Israel War (the Yom Kippur War) of 1973
In October 1973 Egypt under Anwar Sadat and Syria opened war against Israel during a Jewish
religious holiday called Yom Kippur. Egypt and Syria launched a massive surprise attack against
the outnumbered and unprepared Israel Defense Force. Yet nonetheless, Israel won the war.
Within three weeks a ceasefire was arranged.
In 1973 President Sadat signed the Camp David (near Washington) agreement with Israeli
Prime Minister Menachem Begin, witnessed by US President Jimmy Carter (as mediator).
Sadat gave a full recognition to the state of Israel. Egypt was the first Arab country that
recognized Israel as an independent state. The Arabs did not achieve their objective to liberate
Palestine and they continued struggle as intifada.
N.B: Intifada was a sustained series of protests and violent riots carried out by Palestinians in the
Palestinian Territories and Israel.
7.6. The Vietnam War
Vietnam was one part of the French colonies in Indo-China (now Vietnam, Laos, and
Cambodia) since the 1880s. During the Second World War French Indo-China was occupied by
the Japanese. The French were driven out. But, the Vietnamise under the leadership of Ho Chi
Minh started a peasant based resistance movement against the Japanese.
In 1945 Japan was defeated by the allied powers in WWII and Vietnam became independent.
But the allied forces and France did not recognize the absolute independence of Vietnam and
they intended to put Vietnam under the rule of Emperor Bao Dai. However, the Viet Minh
(League for the Independence of Vietnam) rejected the idea and demanded a total independent
Republic of Vietnam.
From 1946-1954 the Vietminh fought against the French. This war was known as “dirty war”.
The dirty war came to an end when France was defeated by Vietnam at the Battle of Dien Bien
Phu in May 1954.
In July 1954 an international conference was held in Geneva, Switzerland. At this conference
USA, USSR, Britain and Communist China were participated. France formally accepted the end
of its rule over the whole of Indo-China. Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam became separate
independent states. Vietnam would be temporarily divided into Nort and South at the 17th
parallel, pending elections within two years to choose a president and reunite the country. A
communist state in northern Vietnam was formed under the leadership Ho Chi Minh in 1955
supported by USSR. On the other hand, a pro-western government in Southern Vietnam under
Ngo Dinh Diem was formed supported by USA.

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After the Geneva conference however, the South Vietnamese and America refused to sign the
Geneva agreement.
In 1960 a group of South Vietnam communists known as Vietcong (with the support of Northern
Vietnam) had set up a guerilla fighting group against the pro-western government of Ngo Dinh
Diem. This led to a civil war between the Vietcongs and South Vietnam.
In 1962 the USA directly participated in the conflict because she feared that communist ideology
might spread to South Vietnam. In 1964 around 40% of South Vietnam had fallen under the
control of the Vietcongs. Later the American president Lyndon Johnson requested for all
necessary stepe including the use of armed forces against Ho Chi Minh. In 1969 the Policy of
Vietnamization (means reduced American troops) was introduced by US president Richard
Nixon because of:
 Heavy losses of American troops in the war and
 Strong opposition of American pubic
In 1974 the government of South Vietnam was collapsed and Vietnam became united as a
communist country.
7.7. The Chinese Socialist Revolution
From 1644 -1911, China was a feudal empire under the Manchu (Ching) dynasty. After a period
of civil war the Kuomintang (KMT) or Nationalist Party and the Communist Party took power
in alliance in 1926.
The Kuomintang (KMT) was a bourgeoise nationalist party and its head was Dr. Sun Yat-Sen
(1866-1925). On Sun’s death, Chiang Kai-Shek became the leader of KMT. The Chinese
Communist Party (CPC) was founded in 1921 and its leader was Mao Zedong.
In 1927 Chiang Kai-Shek dissolved the KMT-CPC alliance and started attack on communists.
This led the communists made Long March to Yenan for safety. The Long March covered a
journey of over 9,000 kms. Out of 100,000 persons involved in the journey three quarters
perished (75, 000).
In 1931 Japan attacked northeastern China and took the northern province of Manchuria. In 1937
Japan invaded proper China which resulted in the Sino-Japanese war. During the Sino-Japanese
war of 1937-1945 the Kuomintang under Chiang Kai-Shek and the Communists under Mao
Zedong formed an alliance to fight against the Japanese invaders. After Japan surrendered to the
allied powers, the communists and the KMT fought each other to control power in China.
However, the Kuomintang had many advantages such as:
1. The Kuomintang fighting force outnumbered the communist force in a three to one ratio.
2. The Kuomintang had USA assistance.

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3. The USSR recognized the Kuomintang government as the only legal authority in China.
In 1946 a civil war was started between the KMT and the CPC when the Kuomintang army
started a massive attack against the communist stronghold in northern China. But, the
Kuomintang did not last long because of:
 Bad economic conditions.
 The Kuomintang government suffered from inflation, corruption, and poor military
strategy.
In January1949 the communists, captured the capital Beijing and declared a communist republic.
Chiang kai Shek fled to Taiwan (Formosa) and formed a national government at Taipei.
From 1953-1957 China had carried out its first five years plan. This period was known as
“transition to socialism.” It emphasized on heavy industry and collectivization of farmers. The
government nationalized banks, enterprises, industries and commerce. The private ownership of
enterprises was abolished.
In 1958 China introduced the second five years plan. This plan was known as “the Great Leap
Forward.”Large farm areas were organized into rural cooperatives called communes. The
members of communes were organized into production brigades. However, the second five year
plan or Great Leap Forward failed because of:
 Food shortage
 Mismanagement and peasant resistance to the commune
 Famine from 1958-1962
Although there was disaster in agriculture, China made significant progress in industrialization.
In the 1960s Mao introduced another disasterous policy called the Great Proletarian Cultural
Revolution. It started in 1966 and it led to economic and political disruption on a big scale
before being called off. Enemies and opponents of the communist government were jailed and
killed. They made cautious experiment in market economy
The foreign policy of the communist government was active and vigorous. In 1950 China
intervened in the Korean War and occupied Tibet (a mountainous land between India and china).
Chinese friendly relation with the Soviet Union did not last long because Khrushchev denounced
Stalin’s personality Cult in 1955, because Mao believed that the communist party of the Soviet
Union had turned away from socialism and doing as revisionism.
Revisionism: For Mao revisionism meant that the Soviet Union was going back to capitalism.
He claimed that his own idea which was to be labeled as Maoism was the most modern and
correct forms of Marxism-Leninism.

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Unit Review Questions

Choose the Best Answer from the Given Alternatives
1. What was the source of the antagonistic relationship between the USA and USSR in the post-
WWII Period?
A. Belief on both sides that the political and social order of the other threatened its own security
B. Americans instance that the USSR share responsibility for starting the war
C. Belief on both sides that one had cheated the other in the settlements following the war
D. Soviet instance on the partition of Germany
2. What was the idea behind the Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty of 1968?
A. That nuclear weapons should not be possessed by non-western countries
B. That nuclear weapons should not be used in any kind of military conflict
C. That country already possessing nuclear weapons should begin to dismantle them
D. That nuclear weapons should not expand beyond those countries that already possessed them
3. What did the idea of “civil disobedience” mean in the peaceful struggle against British colonial
rule in India?
A. That Indians should disobey the British in the most civilized manner
B. That the struggle against the British should focus on the civilian population
C. That Indians should refuse to carry out orders from the British without involving in violence
D. That individual Indians should disobey their British employers as long as there was in civilian areas
4. What was the decision of the United Nations General Assembly on Palestine when the case of
Palestine was first presented to the UN in 1947?
A. That Palestine should be renamed Israel and should be jointly run by Arabs and Jews
B. That there should be a united Palestine run by a government elected by the majority
C. That Palestine should be partitioned in to independent states, one Arab and the other Jewish
D. That a state should not be allowed to be established on the basis of a movement like Zionism

5. Why did Britain and France support Israel’s invasion of Egypt in 1956? Because they:
A. Feared the pro-Russian policies of Nasser’s government
B. Believed that Israel was unnecessarily provoked by Egypt
C. Disliked Egypt’s support for nationalist movements in Africa
D. Were angered by Nasser’s decision to nationalize the Suez Canal
6. Why the USA did gave support to France against the Vietnamese in the Indo-China war?
A. It believed that rapid independence for Asia was detrimental to its interests
B. It wanted to get a revenge for its defeat in the hands of the nationalists
C. It wanted to support a member of NATO alliance which was in difficulty
D. It believe that the spread of communism would threaten US interest in the region
7. Which one of the following was an element of the so-called Cultural Revolution in China?

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A. Fighting against revisionism C. Revising school curricula teach more science

B. Improving relation with the west D. Promoting gender Equality
8. Which of the following is true about super power politics after WWII?
A. The status was accorded only to the USA, the USSR, and the UK.
B. Five super powers had emerged each with a veto power at the Security Council
C. China was among the leading super powers.
D. Soviet Union effectively became super power in 1949.
9. Which of the following was the result of the 1967 Arab-Israeli War?
A. The shift of Gamal Abdel Nasser’s Policy from Arab Nationalism to Arab Socialism
B. Israeli occupation of strategic lands from Egypt and Syria
C. Divisions within the Arab states on the question of recognizing Israel
D. Egyptian recognition of Israel and abandonment of hostility towardsit

ANSWER
1) A. 2) C. 3) C. 4) C. 5) D 6) D 7) A. 8) D. 9)
B.

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UNIT EIGHT
ETHIOPIA FROM AUTOCRACY TO REVOLUTION, 1941-1991
8.1. Restoration of the Monarchy
After the defeat of the Italian fascists by the combined forces of the Ethiopian patriots and the
British, Emperor Haile selasie re-entered Addis Ababa on May 5, 1941 and restored imperial
power. However, the power of the emperor was limited by the British government. This was
ecause Britain replaced Italian occupied territories of the Horn of Africa (Ethiopia, Eritrea and
Italian Somaliland) as Occupied Enemy Territory Administration (OETA).
After the restoration of the monarchy Britain controlled the finance, the army and foreign affairs
of the Ethiopian government. But the emperor wanted to regain a complete independent power of
the [Link] achieve complete independence, Emperor Haileselase signed two significant
agreements with the British government.
1. The First Anglo-Ethiopian Agreement on January 31, 1942
Britain recognized Ethiopia as a sovereign state. However, it allowed the British to have final
authority over Ethiopia’s foreign relations, administration, finance and the military. The British
reasoned that a pro-Nazi Vichy government still colonized Djibouti. The British officials had
rights in the Ogaden, French Somaliland (Djibouti) border areas and the Addis Ababa Djibouti
railway.
2. The Second Anglo-Ethiopian Agreement in December 1944
The British combined the Ogaden with former Italian Somaliland and began to administer the
whole area taking Mogadishu as a centre. In 1940 the British proposed to unite the five Somali
inhabited areas (Ogaden, Djibouti, British Somaliland, Italian Somaliland and Northern Kenya)
to form a single state called ‘Greater Somalia’. By this agreement the British recognized the
Ogaden and the reserved area as integral parts of Ethiopia. The British requested only to remain
in the Ogaden and the reserved areas for more two years until the end of WWII. They also made
some agreements on:
- The right to recruit non-British foreign personnel.
- To use the Djibouti-Addis Ababa railway line as an outlet.
- The British agreed to train an Ethiopian military force to replace British army.
However, in 1948 the UNO placed Italian Somaliland under the Italian trusteeship. This caused
the British interest to create Greater Somalia to fail. In 1955 the British restored the Haud and the
reserved area to Ethiopia.
Period of American Influence

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An official contact between Ethiopia and USA began in 1943 when Ethiopia requested the USA
for military aid as well as other experts and legal advisors. In 1945 Emperor Haile Selassie met
President Roosevelt in Egypt and asked for support in the struggle to regain the Ogaden and
Eritrea
Why did America decided to ally with Haile Selassie’s Ethiopia?
A. The USA felt the strategic importance of the Red Sea and in particular the Radio Marina in
Eritrea (Qagnew station). More than 300 US military personnel deployed there and it was
serving as an important link in the US global communication network.
B. In 1948 Britain decided to bring an end to her administration in Eritrea.
C. Ethiopia stand in the Korean War on the side of America. During the Korean war of 1950-
1953 the emperor showed willingness to provide troops to fight under the United Nations
Organization.
In 1953 Ethiopia and USA signed an agreement to administer the Qagnew station. Two
additional agreements were also signed between Ethiopia and USA.
1. Point Four Agreement in 1952
USA assisted Ethiopia on the fields of education, public health, agriculture, tourism, public
administration training, and awarding of scholarship.
2. Military Assistance and Advisory Group (MAAG) in1953
The USA assisted Ethiopia in all divisions of the Ethiopian military units. In 1970 about 60% of
the US military aid of Africa was given to Ethiopia. MAAG trained institution of the Ethiopian
armed forces.
In general, the main fields of the American supports were:
1. In the field of civil aviation. In 1945 Trans-continental and Western Airline (TWA) was
established.
2. Imperial Highway authority was established in 1957 and USA gave loan to repair old roads
and construction of new roads in Ethiopia.
3. American Peace Corps volunteer teachers came in the 1960s and accepted teaching
assignment in the high schools.
In the late 1960s and early 1970s anti-American ideas were grown in Ethiopia because the
students looked USA as an imperialist state which supported the regime of Emperor Haile
Selassie. This led the USA to shift its foreign relation from Ethiopia to Egypt whose president
was Anwar Sadat.
8.2. Consolidation of Autocratic Power

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Building of Autocratic Control in Central Administration

In order to build autocratic control in central administration the emperor’s main criterion for the
selection of administration post was loyality to the emperor. To ensure loyalty of the emperor,
the emperor made marriage alliances with several educated Ethiopians, men of noble
backgrounds, having in service of the royal palace, and the exiles who were loyal to the emperor.
Most of the high ranking officials and ministers of the government frequently visited the emperor
in his palace to report all matters.
How Haile Selassie did build his absolute state?
To build his absolute state he assigned different aristocrats loyal to him. For example: The order
of the emperor was made effective through the minister of pen. The minister had the traditional
title of Tsehafi Tezaz (literally, scribe). The most prominent political figure who held the post of
Tsehafi Tizaz from 1941-1955 was Tsehafe Tezaz Wolde Giorgis Wolde Yohannes.
Opposition to Tsehafi Tizaz Wolde Giorgis was organized by Mekonen Habte Wold, minister
of finance.
Prime Minister Mekonen Endalkachew was a nominal figure head from 1943-1957. Later he
was appointed president of the senate by the Emperor.
Aklilu Habtwold was minister of pen in 1958. In1961 he assumed real power as prime minister
and Tsehafi Tezaz but he had no much power as Wolde Giorgis.
The emperor also assigned the aristocrats to post away from the centre. Example: Asrate Kassa,
the son of Ras Kassa Hailu, was appointed as governor of Eritrea. Lij Endalkachew Mekonen
(son of Mekonen Endalkachew) and Lij Mikael Imiru (son of Ras Imiru Haile Selassie) were
assigned as ambassadors. Abiy Abebe was minister of war and Yilma Deresa was minister of
finance. Ras Kassa Hailu, Ras Seyoum Mengesha, Ras Mesfin Seleshi and Ras Imru Haile
Selassie were made members of the crown council. Emperor Haileselasie had full control over
the fiscal (financial) system.
Provisional Administration
The country was divided into 12 administrative provinces →later 13 by splitting Harerghe into
two and created Bale →then the federation of Eritrea led to the total provinces of Ethiopia to 14.
Besides there were 99 sub-provinces (awraja), 1328 sub-districts, 444 districts (Warada).
Except Tigray and Eritrea all provinces were administered by the members of the royal family.
The 1955 Revised Constitution

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The 1931 constitution was revised in 1955 mainly due to the Federation of Eritrea with
Ethiopia: Eritrea had more progressive constitution which was written by the United Nations
Organization (UNO) in 1950.
The 1955 revised constitution gave special right to the crown of Emperor Haile Selassie. About
a quarter of its article concerned with the issue of imperial succession. It gave human and
democratic right such as freedom of speech and freedom of press but was made ineffective. It
was made to creat a false positive image of Ethiopia to the outside world.
There was a bicameral parliament which had two chambers; House of Senate and Chamber of
Deputies. While the president of the Senate was appointed by the emperor, the president of the
Chamber of Deputies was elected by the members (the legislative).
The parliament had no right to elect the prime minister and the council of ministers, who
remained accountable to the emperor and chosen by him. The prime ministers were not effective
until the failed coup d’état of 1960.
Modern Military Forces and Security
After the liberation of Ethiopia, Emperor Haile Selassie had a desire of establishing a standing
army.
1. Holeta Military Academy
It was established in 1934 on the eve of the Italian fascist invasion. It was staffed by five
Swedish officers; the first class of 120 cadets did not complete their studies due to the Second
Italo-Ethiopian War. Students were recruited from elementary education and later non-
commissioned officers with long years of services.
2. Hailesellasie Military Academy
It was opened in Harar in 1957 with the staff of Indian instructors. Secondary school and fresh
man students of the University College of Addis Ababa were recruited to join in the academy.
The Imperial Air Force was set up in 1947 and the Norwegians helped the formation of the
Imperial Navy after the federation of Eritrea with Ethiopia.
In 1942 the Ethiopian police force was at first organized largely along British lines. Later, the
Germans and Israelis assisted it.
In the countryside the Nech lebash also was established after liberation. The Territorial Army
was however, established in 1959 to replace the Netch Lebash to control any political opposition
by peasants.
Major Weaknesses of the Autocratic Government were:
1. absence of democratic rights
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2. lack of modernization in all sectors

3. irresponsibility in the use of government power
4. backward socio-economic conditions
5. dependency on foreign assistance
6. absence of agrarian reforms
7. absence of saving for fast development
Socio-Economic Conditions, Land Tenure and Agriculture
In 1941 a decree that regularized provincial administration was issued. This decree stated that all
government employees were to be paid salaries from the state. In 1942 another proclamation was
issued which established a uniform rate of taxation to be paid in official currency.
In 1944 a proclamation was issued to raise the amount of land tax and required payments to be
made in money instead of the former asrat (paid in kind).
In 1947 education tax and in 1959 health tax were introduced.
The post liberation period witnessed a remarkable acceleration of land privatization in central
and southern Ethiopia. Privatization then resulted in the spread of tenancy, particularly in the
southern Ethiopian provinces.
The failed military coup detat of 1960 demonistrated, among other things, the quick need for
agrarian reform. As a result from 1961- 1971 a series of laws were introduced in the parliament.
Trade and Industry
After liberation the state assumed a larger role in business. The government established big firms
to carry out the business of export and import. In 1952, the General Ethiopian Transport
Company popularly known as Anbesa was established.
Regarding industry, the government policy was to establish import substitution factories. Despite
government’s policy, which offered security to foreign investors, capitalist manufacturing
production was very small. It focused only on light industries such as food, textiles, beverages,
leather and wood products.
The most important enterprise was the manufacturing industry established by the Dutch
Company (HVA). In 1954 it set up two major centres of sugar production, the first at Wonji and
the second at Metehara.
In general, the post 1941 Ethiopian economy was showing relative progress but at a very slow
pace. Socio-economic conditions had backwardness and under development. The per capital
income was among the lowest in the world. More than 90% of the population was illiterate and
subsistence agriculture was the dominant feature of the economy.

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The Ethio-Eritrean Federation and Union

Eritrea became an Italian colony on January1, 1890. When the emperor was rising the flag of
Ethiopia in Addis Ababa on May 5, 1941, the people of Asmara holding the demonstration
calling for the reunification of Eritrea with Ethiopia. The leaders of the demonstration announced
the formation of the unionist party.
With the coming of Britain, Eritrea advanced political development; Example: the right of
freedom of speech and press and the right to form political parties.
With a short period of time different political parties were formed. But these political parties
were founded on ethnic and religious basis.
1. The Liberal Progressive Party led by Ras Tessma Asmerom. They wanted to unite highland
Eritrea with Tigray.
2. In 1946 the Muslim League was formed demanding independence for Muslim inhabited
lowland Eritrea or union with the Sudan. Between January and February 1947 the Unionist
Party, the Liberal Progressive Party and the Muslim League were duly registered.
3. The Pro-Italian party was formed in 1947. This party wanted the return of Italian colonial
rule under the cover of UN Trusteeship. It was dominated by Italians and half-castes.
In 1947 the four power commission of enquiry represented by USA, USSR, Britain and
France was sent to Eritrea to determine the future of Eritrean people.
In1948 an assessment of people’s opinion was held in Asmera on the future of Eritrea. 50%
stood for independence. While others voted for unity with Ethiopia and a few choose union with
the Sudan.
Therefore, the commission could not decide and referred a matter to the UN general assembly
[Link] 1950 the United Nations appointed a commission of five men to decide the fate of
Eritrea. Hence,
 Guatemala and Pakistan opted for independence
 South Africa and Burma recommended federation of Eritrea with Ethiopia
 Norway favored Eritrean union with Ethiopia
In 1952 UN supported the majority vote; decided federation of Eritrea with Ethiopia. In1952 the
first election was held and the unionist party emerged as a largest party; it had got 32
parliament seats out of 68 seats. The founder of the party Tedla Bahiru became the chief
executive of Eritrea.

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The emperor and his representatives were against Eritrean separate identities under federal
system. In1955 Tedla Bahiru resigned under the pressure of the emperor and was replaced by
Asrate Kassa (the Shoan aristocrat and the son of Ras Kasa Hailu).
In November 1962, the Eritrean assembly voted itself out of existence by ending the federal
arrangement and Eritrea became one of the province of [Link] led to internal and external
opposition.
In 1958 Eritreans in exile had already founded the Eritrean Liberation Movement (ELM) in
Cairo. In 1961 the Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF) was established by the Eritrean exiles in
the Middle East. It received aid from Iraq and Syria. It started to launch armed attack in
September 1961 under the leadership of Idris Awate in the western lowland of Eritrea. But ELF
soon in division with in itself and three groups emerged.
In 1972 the Eritrean Liberation Front and Popular Liberation Force (ELF-PLF) merged
and in 1973 the Eritrean People’s Liberation Front (EPLF) was formed.
The last years of emperor Haile Selasse’s reign witnessed two organizations competing for
recognition as leader of the Eritrean separatist movement: ELF (Eritrean Liberation Front) in
Arabic designation called Jabha (Front) and EPLF (Eritrean People’s Liberation Front) in
Arabic Shaabiya (Popular).
From1972-1974 ELF and EPLF carried out a relentless struggle for supermacy in Eritrea and
EPLF defeated ELF.
Early Oppositions against Emperor Haile Selassie’s Government
In 1936, some prominent men among the aristocrats boldly opposed the Emperor’s decision to
go into exile to appeal to the League of Nations.
In 1941 the emperor was restored to his throne with the support of the Ethiopian patriots and the
British. The Emperor favoured the exiles and and even some collaborators (bandas) but ignoring
and marginalizing the genuine patriots.
A. Blatta Takele Wolde Hawariat
He was one of the most famous patriots of the occupation period. He started a plot against the
emperor soon after liberation. But, his plot was known by the government and he was
imprisoned and later freed in 1945. From 1946-1954 Takele was also imprisoned because he was
involved in another plot against the Emperor. On his release in 1954 Takele was given high
government post (vice minister of the interior and Afe Negus). In 1969 he organized a group of
armed men to assassinate the emperor but he was killed in shoot out with the police.
B. Dejazmach Belay Zeleke

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He was another famous patriot in the struggle against the fascists in his home base in eastern
Gojjam. The emperor did not appreciate his popularity throughout Gojjam and Ethiopia at
[Link] emperor wanted to remove him from his home [Link] this effect the emperor gave to
him two choices; to be governor general of one of the provinces in the southern Ethiopia with the
title of Ras or governor of Bichena awraja. But, Belay chose the governorship of Bichena
Awraja.
Why Belay Zeleke opposed the emperor?
1. The emperor rewarded him only the title of Dejazmach and made him governor of Bichana
Awraja.
2. He lost Motta and parts of Debremarkos districts which had been under his control. Belay
made a fatal mistake and he became shifta. In February 1944 the combined forces from the
rest of Gojjam and the central government invaded his district and after three months of
fighting he surrendered and brought to Addis Ababa. A few months later he brokeout a
prison but he was captured on the way to Gojjam and he was publicly hanged.
C. Bitwoded Negash Bezabeh
He was a grandson of Nigus Teklehaymanot of Gojjam. He was a renewed patriot during the
Italian occupation period. He reached the rank of vice minister and appointed president of the
senate. In 1951 he led a plot against the emperor but the plotters were caught while carrying on
secret meeting to assassinate the emperor. Negash Bezabih and his collaborators were caught and
sentenced to various terms of imprisonment
D. The Weyane Rebellion of 1942-1943
Causes of the Weyane Rebellion
1. The officials were corrupted and they used unnecessary force and fraud in the process of tax
collection. The militia stationed between Korem and Quiha were poorly paid and as a result
turned to looting, rape and destruction. Peasants were forced to provide provisions to tax
assessors and their followers.
2. The aged old conflict between the Raya and Azabo ethnic group and the government.
The rebellion cropped up when the state appointed its own administrators in the region. The
Weyane rebellion was led by Blatta Haile Mariam Redda and spread over a wide area between
1942 and 1943.
The government assigned the former patriot leader Abebe Aregay and crushed the rebellion with
the support of British air force.
8.3. Challenge to the Regime
1. The Failed Coup d’etat of 1960

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It was organized by two brothers; General Mengistu Neway (commander of the Imperial Body
Guard) and Girmame Neway (M.A degrees in social science in the USA)
When the coup started the rebels made their intention public by stating the backwardness of the
country in contrast to the newly independent African states and the ineffectiveness of the regime
to bring real progress in the country.
On December14, 1960 the coup makers declared the end of Hailesellasie’s government. Prince
Asfawosen Haileselase was made the mouth-piece of the rebels. Ras Imru Haile Selassie
(closed relative of the emperor) was appointed as head of government. Hence, Constitutional
monarchy was declared.
Why did the 1960 coup d’etat fail?
The rebels failed to put other leading officials, nobles and army generals under control. They
failed to get the supports of other military units (such as Air Force and ground force).
With the two day fighting, the loyalists (Air Force and Ground Forces were supporters of the
Emperor but the Police force led by General Tsege Dibu and the Imperial Body Gaurd
supported the rebels) won over the coup. Colonel Workineh Gebeyehu from the Imperial Body
Guard was also a known commander of the coup by supporting General Mengistu Neway.
The Neway brothers shot the hostages, 18 in number in Genete Le’ul place. Germame was killed
on the way of mount Zequala and Mingistu was badly wounded and captured. Mengistu was later
brought to trial and hanged. The coup d’etat was later supported only by the university students.
2. Peasants Rebellions
The Bale Peasant Rebellion
The Bale peasant rebellion had deep rooted social and political causes. Mal-administration, land
alienation, heavy taxation, national operations and religious bias were causes of the rebellion.
Shortage of land because between 1942 and 1970 the government guaranteed more than
4,828,560 hectare land to dignitaries, military and civil servants. As a result of the 1963 land re-
measurement policy landowners were able to possess land more than double their lawful
possessions. Discontents were rife among pastoralists of the province. Example: Delo and Wabe
districts.
There was also difficult traditional relation between Christian officials and Muslim pastoralists.
Example: Fitawrary Worku Enqusellassie, governor of Bale, continued antagonizing the
Muslim local population.
In addition to the regular tax paid on their livestock, pastoralists were required to pay for
pasturing their animals on what were regarded as state land. The police and militia that were sent
to collect taxes usually looted and raped and committed all sorts of injustice.

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Externally the Somalian republic’s expansion policy that considered Bale as parts of its terra
irredenta (unredeemed territory or a territory claimed by Somalia) encouraged the rebellion.
In September 1963 the rebellion was started in the village of Afkar in the district of El-Kere
under Kahin Abdi. The group burned government posts. Similar groups simultaneously did the
same thing in wabe and Delo. In Wabe the rebellion was carried out by Haji Ishaha
Mohammed Dadi and in Delo it was carried out by Balambaras Waqo Lugo. Both of them
were supported by the government of Somalia. In 1965 under the leadership of Waqu Gutu and
Waqu Lugo, they started organized resistance against Emperor Haile Selasse’s regime.
Consequences of the Bale peasant Rebellion
1. The army created great suffering to the peasants when they destroyed villages, animals, and
crops.
2. The government cancelled all arrears in the land tax up to 1967.
3. The state elevated some of the local gentry to higher administration [Link] Gutu was
given the title of Grazmach and hectares of land.
The Gojjam Peasants Rebellion
Cause of the Gojjam Peasants Rsebillon
1. The corrupt rule of Dejazmach Tsehayu Enquuselassie, who had been Governor-General of
Gojjam province since 1960, had been the main source of political dissatisfaction.
2. The policy of the emperor appointing officials outside Gojjam created resentment among the
local gentry.
3. The governor-general issued a decree that required all citizens to have their guns registered
up on payment.
4. The 1967 income tax proclamation ignited the rebellion.
The rebellion was started in Damot and Mota districts. On October 7, 1968 the two districts of
the rebellion meet at Azwari River and took solemn oath of unity and action. And they expelled
all government official, bycotteed government court and destroyed property.
On March 1968 60% of East Gojjam including Bichena, Debre Markos and Bahr Dar had gone
against the regime. On April 7, 1968 they presented the problem to the emperor both orally and
in written. They asked better government, education, health, transport facilities and tax assessing
but the emperor rejected the appeal. The last commission was sent to Gojjam includeing
Dejazmach Kifle Ergetu (Minister of the Interior) and Dejazmach Kifle Dadi (crown
councillor) who arrived at Debre Markos on July 5, 1968. They stated that the provincial official
had lost their trust and confidence of the people.

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On July 23, 1969 Dejazmach Tsehayu was transferred to Kaffa and Dejazmach Dereje
Mekonnen replaced him. On September 7, 1968 all farmers were made free from all penalities
for past failure to pay tax. In February 1969 all resistance had been broken down and the
situation was fairly calm. Finally, in May 1969 the Emperor visited Gojjam.
The Ethiopian Student Movement
In the first newspaper was “news and views” and the first students association was the university
student union, established in 1959.
Causes of the Ethiopian Student Movement
1. The absence of the political parties and strong indigenous class of traders and enterpreneurs.
2. The social respect given to educated few and the rate of illiteracy
3. The campus life gave student leaders the opportunity to discuss national issues. Example:
lack of democratic right, backwardness of the country, the wide spread of corruption in the
government and the inequalities.
How the student movement was aggravated?
The Ethiopian student movement was aggravated by the following ways:
1. They criticized the regime in the form of traditional poetry.
2. The arrival of young men from English speaking African countries to the University as
scholarship students influenced on the political awareness Ethiopian University students.
3. The 1960 coup d’tetat undermined the popularity of the emperor.
4. In1961 several colleges under the central government formed Haile Selassie I university.
5. Since 1965 the Ethiopian University Student Service (EUSS) was begun.
6. The famine of wollo and Tigray from 1972-1974.
7. Process of the Movement
In 1965 the university students stage a demonstration in front of the parliament, shouting the
revolutionary slogan called “Land to the Tiller”. In1967 the students’ News Paper “News and
Views” was replaced by “Struggle”. This newspaper became the organ of spreading new
political views. It had strong stand against the USA government. In the November 1969 issue of
struggle, an article was published on the nationalities problem was written by Walelign
Mokonen. He supported cultural and linguistic independence of nationalities. He also challenged
the imperial government.
In December 1969 the president of university student union of Adiss Abeba (USUAA), Tilahun
Gizaw was killed by government agents. The university students struggle spread into high
schools through Ethiopian students abroad in Europe and the USA. Their Journals “Tatek” and”
challenge” were brought into Ethiopia and put into circulation secretly.

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The university students’ movement however, was not organized as a political party to cause the
final downfall of the monarchy.
Ethio-Somalian Conflict
On June 1, 1960 the British and Italian Somalilands were united and emerged independent. The
new republic was ambitious to build “Greater Somalia” and adopted a flag with a five pointed
star symbolizing the five territories (Italian Somaliland, French Somaliland (Djibouti), the
Ogaden in Ethiopia, the British Somaliland and the northern frontier districts of Kenya (NFD)
which Greater Somalia wanted to posses.
In 1963 the British government sought to unite the Northern Frontier District of Kenya with
Somalia but failed.
In order to create a Greater Somalia the Somalia leader appealed to the UN security council but
did not gain any positive response then shift and appealed to the Organization of African Unity (
OAU) and also it was not fruitful finally they appealed to the Muslim League.
In July 1967 a government change took place in the Somali Republic and the former Prime
Minister Ali Shermark became president and the northern politician Ibrahim Egal became
prime minister. This led to good relation between Ethiopia and Somalia. But on October 21,
1969 General Siyad Barre took over political control through coup d’etat and revived the policy
of uniting all Somalis as one and he changed the policy of “Greater Somalia to “Western
Somalia”.
8.4. Popular Revolution and fall of the Monarchy
Major Causes of the popular revolution of Ethiopia in 1974
1. The government’s failure to introduce reforms to achieve economic, political and social
progress.
2. Lack of human and democratic rights, maladministration, grievances, poverty and corruption.
Immediate Causes of the revolution
 The first revolt was took place in the army in January 1974. Soldiers who stationed in
Negele Borena mutinied because of bad conditions of their life.
 The famine of Wollo in 1973-1974. The famine was exposed by a BBC journalist Jonathan
Dimbilby.
 The rise in petroleum price led taxi drivers strike in the capital want to strike.
 There was a countrywide strike of teachers who opposed the implementation of the
educational reform program known as the Educational Sector Review (to teach students
through payment).
 Soldiers in different army divisions joined the popular unrest.

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On February 28, 1974 Aklilu Habte Wold who had been prime minister since 1961 resigned.
The Emperor replaced Lij Endalkachew Mekonen as Prime minister. Endalkachew’s cabinet
promised to initiate constitutional reform. The government withdrew the educational sector
review, reduced the price of petroleum and increased salaries for soldiers.
In the mean time, soldiers had set up a committee known as Coordinating Committee of the
Armed Force, Police and the Territorial Army. The committee began taking measures
independently.
In late April 1974 the committee arrested Aklilu Habtewold and many other government officials
and high ranking military officers. In June 1974 the committee made a call to military units
through out the country to send their representatives (excluding officers above the rank of major)
to Addis Ababa.
On n June 28, 1974 a meeting was held at the headquarters of the fourth division in Addis Ababa
and Derg (committee) was formed. General Aman Mikael Andom was appointed as Chairman
of the Derg. Major Mengistu Haile Mariam became vice chairman and Major Atnafu Abate
became second Vice chairman of the Derg.
On August 1, 1974 the Derg arrested and imprisoned Lij Endalkachew Mekonen and appointed
Lij Mikeal Emiru as prime minister. Ultimately, on September 12, 1974 Emperor Haile Selassie
was deposed from power.
8.5. The Military Dictatorship (1974-1991)
Consolidation of Military Dictatorship and Measures Taken
After the end of the monarchy the Derg proclaimed a Provisional Military Administrative
Council (PMAC). Several measures were taken by the Derg.
 Imprisonment of the top military and civil official of the Haile Selassie’s regime.
 Banning of all anti-government strikes and demonstrations.
 Repression of all protest.
 Redistribution of land to the peasants and confiscation of extra-houses in urban areas.
 Execution of 52 renowned officials and functionaries of the old regime.
 Conduct of the development through cooperative campaign or Ediget Behibret Zemecha.
 The proclamation of Ethiopian socialism.
 Nationalization of banks, insurances, industries and commercial companies.
 Elimination of opponents
All political parties organized in the capital including All Ethiopian Socialis Movement
(Meison) collaborated with the Derg but the Ethiopian Peoples Revolutionary Party (EPRP)

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opposed the Derg and started White Terror against Meison and Derg members. The Derg’s
counter attack against the white terror was called the Red Terror.
The main challenge of the Derg was the invasion of Somalia in August 1977. After a long
preparation Siyad Barre, the leader of Somalia began to attack against Ethiopia. In 1977 the
Somali regular army was in control of large parts of eastern Ethiopia. But Ethiopia defeated
Somalia in March 1978 with the support of the Soviet Union, Cuba, and South Yemen. After the
victory over Somalia the Derg had three main issues (tasks):
1. The total elimination of EPRP from towns by the use of red terror in an organized manner
through what it called the “Disclosure Campaign”.
2. The task of communist party formation. In September 1984 the Workers Party of Ethiopia
(WPE), was established and Mengistu Haile Mariam became the secretary general of the
party.
3. The suppression of opposition groups and freedom fighters in the northern parts of Ethiopia.
A. Ethiopian Democratic Union (EDU)
It emerged after the downfall of the monarchy. Its leader was Ras Mengesha Seyoum. Its
members were mainly northern aristocrats and high ranking officials. EDU had fought against
both the Derg and the Tigray People’s Liberation Front (TPLF) but it was crushed by TPLF and
was totally driven out of Tigray.
B. Eritrean People Liberation Front (EPLF)
At the end of 1977 about 95% of Eritrea was controlled by EPLF; only the remaining 5% was
under the control of the Derg. After the victory over Somalia the Derg started a massive attack
against EPLF by Red Star campaign. But the Derg did not succeed in expelling the EPLF from
its strong base at Nakfa in northern Eritrea.
C. The Tigray Peoples Liberation Front (TPLF)
It was founded by a small group of university students in [Link] began their struggle in
Dedebit, in the lowland of Adiyabo western Tigray. The TPLF had got support from EPLF and
eliminated EDU. Then after TPLF fought against the EPRP and drove it away from Tigray. One
of its earliest engagements with the Derg army was against the forces dispatched under the so
called Raza Campaign. In this engagement, the TPLF ambushed the Derg force and forced it to
surrender. In 1982 the TPLF controlled the major parts of Tigray.
The failure of the Red Star campaign was a turning point in the struggle between the Derg and
the northern insurgents. In 1984 the Derg celebrated the inauguration of the Workers Party of
Ethiopia and the 10th anniversary of the military government. The anniversary coincided with a
severe famine that hit Ethiopia as a whole.

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Factors for the Decline of the Military Government

1. The famine of Tigray and Wollo in 1984
2. The massive resettlement program of peasants in Tigray and Wollo to the south-western
parts of Ethiopia
This created favorable condition for the rise and growth of several movements fighting for
national self-determination. The Oromo Liberation Front (OLF), the Sidama Liberation Font
(SLM), Oromo Islamic Front (OIF), Afar Liberation Front (ALF), Benishangul Liberation Front
(BLF), and Gambella Liberation Front (GLF).
3. The collapse of the Soviet Union and communist regimes in Eastern Europe.
4. The coup d’etat of May16, 1989 to overthrow Mengistu which resulted in the elimination
of high ranking officers of Derg
In February 1989 the TPLF fighters scored a remarkable victory on the Derg army at Enda
Selassie (western Tigray). The victory of Enda Selassie had two consequences.
1. Withdraw of the Derg troops from the whole of Tigray.
2. Cursing blow for the fighting moral of the Derg army.
Fall of the Military Dictatorship
After TPLF controlled the whole of Tigray, it changed its strategy to liberate the whole parts of
Ethiopia. The TPLF made a necessary organization front; Ethiopian People Revolutionary
Democratic Front (EPRDF)) with the Amhara People Democratic Movement (APDM) and the
Oromo Peoples Democratic Organization (OPDO).This coalition force drove the Derg army out
of Gondar, Gojjam, Wollo, Shoa and Addis Ababa.
On May 21, 1991 Mengistu flee to Harare (Zimbabwe). On May 28,s 1991 EPRDF forces
entered Addis Ababa. After the downfall of the military dictatorship a transitional government
was set up under Meles Zenawi. In 1993 Eritrea separated from Ethiopia and it became an
independent state.
Unit Review Questions
Choose the Best Answer from the Given Alternatives
1. Which of the following was among the conditions imposed on Haile Selassie by the British for
the restoration of Ethiopian independence in 1941?
A. British protectorate over the whole country
B. Restoration of property seized from the Italians
C. British save over financial, military and foreign affairs
D. Pardon for Italian prisoners and their local collaborators

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2. The main reason why Emperor Haile Selassie I was forced to think about revising the Ethiopian
Constitution in 1955 was:
A. The death of his son and successor Leul Mekonneon
B. The federation of Eritrea with Ethiopia
C. The beginning of diplomatic relations with the USA
D. The establishment of the OAU
3. Which one of the following entities established a manufacturing industry in Ethiopia in the
1950s?
A. CADU B. Point Four C. MIDROC D. HVA
4. Who were the main actors who actively struggled against the monarchy in the 1960s and up to
the 1974 popular revolution?
A. The university students with their slogan “land to the Tiller”
B. The army members who suffered from low salary
C. The civil servants who were denied land ownership in rural areas
D. The middle class bureaucrats who lacked their share of power
5. Which of the following sectors of the security forces in Ethiopia supported the coup makers in
1960?
A. The army and the police C. The police and central security
B. The army and the central security D. The imperial body guard and the
police
6. What did Girmame and Mengistu Neway organize a coup against the Emperor in 1960
A. To create a modern army that would withstand the eminent threat from Somalia
B. To establish a constitutional monarchy that would speed up Ethiopia’s development
C. To radically transform Ethiopia’s society by adopting an Ethiopian form of socialism
D. To punish the Emperor for confiscating their family’s land in the south
7. Which one of the following was NOT the root cause of the oppositions against Haile Selassie’s
government?
A. National operation C. the popular revolution of 1974
B. Absence of democratic right D. economic and social inequalities
8. Which of the following is true about the Ethio-Eritrean federation and subsequent union?
A. The federation was demanded by the unionist party.
B. The federation was formed on the basis of a referendum.
C. The union enabled Eritreans to enjoy democratic rights.
[Link] federation required Eritrea to adopt the Ethiopian flag.
9. Which of the following was not among the measures taken by the Derg in and after 1974?
A. Execution of top officials C. Repression of all forms of protests
B. Nationalization of rural land D. Abolishing religion

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ANSWER

1) C. 2) B. 3) D 4) A. 5) D 6) B 7) C. 8) D. 9) D

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UNIT NINE
AFRICAN NATIONAL LIBERATION MOVEMENT AND INDEPENDENCE SINCE 1945
9.1. Pan- Africanism Since 1945
The term pan Africanism expresses two main ideas.
1. It is an expression of a desire for African unity.
2. It aims at fomenting a sense of unity among all black peoples of the world, whose
ancestors originally came from Africa.
The origin of the idea of pan Africanism was from outside Africa in the New world (America
and Caribbean) by the people of African descent.
The term pan is the Greek origin and means “All” hence pan Africanism means “all African”
The main objective of pan Africanism was the liberation of Africa from colonialism. They
wanted to have equality with other race and justices for black people.
The first pan-African conference was held in London in 1900. It was organized by a Trinidad
(West Indies) lawyer Henry Sylvester Williams. The participants of the conference came
mainly from America and the West Indies.
Before 1945, four other pan African conferences were held. The second congress was held in
Paris in 1919, the third in London and Brussels in 1921, the fourth in London and Lisbon in
1923 and the fifth in New York in 1927.
The two famous leaders of pan Africanism during that period were Dr. William E. Burghadt
Du Bois (1869-1963) and Marcus Garvey (1887-1940). Du Bois was an African American
scholars and writer. He became an organizerer and preacher of pan Africanism. He came to be
known as the father of pan-Africanism.
What was the major point of difference between Du Bois and Marcus Garvey?
Garvey was a Jamaican who moved and lived in USA and was the founder of the Universal
Negro Improvement Association in 1914. He insisted that the only future for blacks in America
and the West Indies was to return to Africa and hence organized a “back to Africa movement”
Du Bois maintained that blacks outside Africa should struggle for the respect of their right in the
country they lived in.
The year 1945 marked the beginning of the new chapter in the history of the pan-African
movement because the sixth pan African congress was held in Manchester. This conference
was important in two respects.

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1. For the first time in the history of pan-Africanism, Africans from the continent participated
in a Pan-African conference. Many of them were students in Europe and America such as
Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana and Jomo Kenyatta of Kenya.
2. The conference seriously demanded the independence of Africa. Attendants of this
conference expressed their determination to resort violent means unless the demand for
independence is seriously considered.
The decision of this conference provided a slogan which brought Africans together in the
struggle for independence United Africa.
After 1945, however there was a division in the opinion over creating a united single Africa.
Some nationalist leaders considered the creation of nation state (United States of Africa) as the
first step towards creating larger united Africa. Among this group of leaders were Julius
Nyerere, the president of Tanzania and Kwame Nkrumah, the president of Ghana. There
developed also an opposite idea to the above one. According to these nationalists first
independent sovereign states should be created before the establishment of united Africa.
9.2. National Liberation Movements
The national liberation movements took mainly two courses; violent and non-violent forms of
liberation movements.
1. West Africa
Both Britain and France had colonies in West Africa. The independence movement was achieved
fairly and smoothly because:
A. West Africa had no white settlers.
B. The nationalist movement in West Africa had long history and better experience.
C. The effect of WWII hastened African independence.
British West Africa
Britain was well disposed towards garanting independence to her colonies; nationalist struggle
and conflicts become bitter. The nationalist agitation in British West Africa was especially strong
in Gold Coast (Ghana) and Nigeria. This was because the nationalists in these two British
colonies had ablest leaders, Namadi Azikwe of Nigeria and Kwame Nkrumah of Gold Coast.
Between 1945 and 1954 bitter clashes between African nationalists and the British was observed
mainly in Gold Coast and Nigeria. Later, many West African countries achieved independence.
On March 6, 1957 the Gold Coast achieved independence and adopting a new name Ghana and
Ghana became the first sub-Saharan African country that achieved independence from the
British. On October 1, 1960 Nigeria became independent; On April 27, 1961 Sierra Leone
became independent; On February18, 1964 Gambia became independent.

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French West Africa

After 1945, France was aware of the need to grant more political and civil rights to its colonial
people of French West Africa. The French introduced reforms but not independence to French
colonies. Some of the French reforms were:
 The colonies had only right as parts of association with France itself.
 Each colony in French West Africa was allowed to elect a territorial assembly. But the
colonies did not have legislative power.
In 1958 General Charles De Gaulle became French president and a new French constitution
was issued. This constitution changed French union to French community. The community
would have an executive council consists of French president, ministers and prime minister. It
had responsible for issues of common interest to the communities such as defence, foreign affairs
and economic policies. Each colony of French West Africa would hold a referendum on the new
constitution. The referendum had two choices;
1. Voting ‘Yes’ and became autonomous republic with in the French communitY.
2. Voting ‘No’ and became independent outside the French community.
By this opportunity almost all French colonies of west Africa choose Yes and only Guinea-
Konakry voting No and became independent under the leadership of Sekou Toure (grandson of
Samouri Toure).
But, later the French West African colonies began to demand full independence. In November
1960 all French West African colonies achieved full independence. Cameroon, Togo, Dahome
(Benin), Niger, Upper Volta (Burkina Faso), ivory coast, Chad, Ubangi Shari ( central African
Republic), Middle Congo(Republic of Congo Brazzaville), Gabon,Senegal,French Sudan ( Mali),
and Mauritania had become independent states.
In 1960 about 17 African countries achieved their independence. Hence, the year 1960 is
considered as African Year.
Algeria
Algeria was a French colony since 1830. Algeria gained its independence through violent armed
struggle because of the existence of large number of white settlers in Algeria known as colons
(colonist). About 1million colons lived in Algeria.
Why the Algerians did fought a long war for freedom against French colonialism?
Because the French policy of assimilation which exercised strong influence up on many
Algerians, including Frahat Abbas believed that Algerians were parts of France.

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The Algerian war of independence had began in November 1954 under Ben Bella and his
comrades set up an organization called Revolutionary Committee for Unity and Action to
fight for independence (National Liberation Front or FLN). The FLN was supported by
Egypt, Morocco, Tunisia, and the Arab League. In 1958 the FLN established itself in Algeria as
a high organized force.
In 1959 Charles de Gaulle offered the Algerians three choices; “integration, absolute
independence or independence in cooperation with France”. The FLN made it clear that they
were fighting for absolute independence.
On March 18, 1962 France and FLN signed the Evian agreement which ended the Algerian
war. On July 1, 1962 Algeria became independent and Ben Bella became the first president of
independent Algeria.
Kenya
The British colony of Kenya was another example of violent liberation struggle as a result of a
large numbers of white settlers. A national movement in Kenya was started as early as the 1920s
when the first political organization, the Kikuyu Central Association was emerged.
In the post war years, the problem of land shortage together with other grievances gave rise to a
violent struggle known as the Mau Mau Movement. The rebels used violence as a means of
independence. They killed many white settlers. The rebellion was finally crushed in 1960.
After the Mau Mau rebellion was crushed, the Kenyan African National Union (KANU) was
emerged led by Jomo Kenyata and demanded the independence of Kenya.
After a serious of negotiations and preparations Kenya achieved independence in 1963 and Jomo
Kenyatta became the first Kenyan president.
Other African countries also achieved their independence either through violent or non-violent
struggles. For example: Egypt in 1956, Tunisia in 1956, Morocco in 1956, Sudan in 1956; Italian
Somaliland in 1960 and Djibouti in 1977.
The process of independence continued until the early 1990s when Namibia became
independent and the apartheid rule in the Republic of South Africa was destroyed.
Portuguese Colonies
The independence movement of the Portuguese colonies of Angola, Mozambique and Guinea-
Bissau were other examples of violent struggle for the liberation in Africa.
The main problem of the liberation struggle of Angola and Mozambique was not the existence of
white settlers, but the problem was that Portugal was ruled under the dictatorial leaders like
Antonio Salazar and Macello Ceatano. The liberation movements in Portuguese colonies were

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begun in the early 1960s (Angola early as 1960, Portuguese Guinea in 1963, and Mozambique in
1964).
In Angola the struggle was led by the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola
(MPLA) and its leader was Agostino Neto. The liberation movement was supported by Marxists
who organized the freedom fighters and obtained foreign assistance from Guinea-Konakry.
In 1975 Angola became independent from the Portugueses. But after independence power
struggle broke out between MPLA and its opponents the National Front for the Liberation of
Angola (FNLA) and National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA).
In Mozambique the struggle for the liberation of Mozambique was led by Front for the
Liberation of Mozambique (FRELIMO) under the leadership of Eduardo Moldlane and after
his death Samora Machel succeeded him. The movement was supported by Marxists and
obtained foreign assistance from Tanzania and Zambia. In June 1975 Mozambique achieved its
independence under Samora Machel’s FRELIMO.
9.3. The Organization of African Unity
The idea of forming the organization for Africa unity (OAU) was the result of Pan-African
movement because the aim of pan-Africanism movement was the desired for African unity.
Ghana became the first black African country to gain independence after WWII and its first
leader was Kwame Nkrumah.
How the OAU did come to exist?
 In April 1958 Nkrumah invited all independent African countries to an all-African peoples
conference at Accra. Eight independent African countries (Ghana, Egypt, Sudan, Tunisia,
Morocco, Libya, Liberia, and Ethiopia) participated in the conference.
The Accra conference was important because:
 The representatives of nationalist movements from 28 non-independent African states
attended this conference.
 Many of the resolutions of the conference became corner stone for OAU that was established
five years later.
The main objective of the Accra conference was to set up the organization for African unity. But
there was no consensus among African states. This led to the emergence of two groups of states
with different ideas.
1. The Casablanca Group: the member countries were Ghana, Guinea-Konakry, Mali,
Algeria, Egypt, and Morocco. It was led by Kwame Nkrumah and they were regarded as
Anti- western (anti-Imperialist).

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2. The Monrovia Group: the member countries were Sierra Leone, Liberia, Nigeria, Togo,
Ethiopia and Libya. They were considered as pro-western.
The main points of difference between the Monrovia and Casablanca groups were:
1. Their attitude towards the ex- colonial powers. The Casablanca groups were anti- western
where as the Monrovia groups were pro-western.
2. The issue of united Africa under one government and one head of state. The Casablanca
group advocated the creation of a single African state by uniting African states. But the
Monrovia group wanted functional cooperation among African states rather than integration.
The OAU was formed in Addis Ababa in May 1963. 31 independent states signed the charter of
the organization. The purposes of the OAU were:
 To promote the unity and solidarity of African states.
 To coordinate and intensify their cooperation and efforts.
 To achieve a better life for the peoples of African.
 To eradicate all forms of colonialism from the continent.
The functions of the OAU were performed by various organs, commissions, and committees.
 The Assembly of the Head of States and Governments: the highest organ of the OAU
and they met at least once a year
 The Council of Ministers: met twice a year and prepared agenda for annual meeting of
the head of state and government.
 The Secretariat- the most important organ, its office was in Addis Ababa and the first
general secretariat of the OAU was the Guinean, Diallo Telli.
In the early years of its establishment the OAU showed both successes and failures.
Successes of the OAU
 It assisted the liberation movements of the Non-independent states.
 Several border disputes had been settled through the efforts of the OAU. Example: the
Nigerian crisis in 1967, four states (Ivory Coast, Tanzania, Zambia, and Gabon)
recognized the separatist state of Biafra was solved.
Failures of the OAU
 Differences of opinion among member states on methods to be used in accomplishing the
tasks of the organization. Example: different attitudes towards ex-colonial powers and the
state structure and difference in official languages used by African states.
 Many states were members of other non-African organizations. Example: in North Africa
many states belonged to the Arab League and their interest was to fight against Israel.
 Its commission like social, economic, and related problem was not achieved its objective

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At 36th OAU summit held in Algiers in 2000, the head of African states and governments
decided to transform the OAU to the African Union (AU). In 2001 AU was established in
Durban, South Africa and its headquarters became Addis Ababa.
9.4. Contemporary Africa
The major political problems of African states after the independence were:
1. Between 1960s and 1970s and later, the major political problem in many African countries
have been lack of political stability, irresponsible and undemocratic governance, one party
rule, corruption, poverty, injustices, coup d’état and revolution (For instance between
1963and 1969 five violent change of government occurred in Dahomy, now Benin).
2. In many countries leaders were either assassinated or overthrown. For example:
 In October 1962, Habib Borgiba president of Tunisia barely escaped from death.
 In August 1963, President Fulbert Youlou of Congo Brazzaville was overthrown.
 In 1965 president Ben Bella of Algeria overthrew.
 In January 1966, a coup of Nigeria destroyed the lives of many political leaders.
 In February 1966, Kwame Nkrumah was overthrown by a coup d’etat.
 In September 1969 King Idris of Libya was removed from power by Colonel Muamer
Gadafi.
 In February 1971 an army officer Idia Amin Dada took power in Uganda after overthrow
Milton Obote.
The main problems of these political shake ups in many African countries after independence
were:
1. In some countries the colonial powers quickly withdrew before Africans got enough
experience in self-governance.
2. The political system and organ of government left behind by the ex-colonial powers was really
unsuitable for and an unworkable in Africa.
3. Ethnic conflicts have grown into bloody civil wars and genocides became African problems
after liberation. For example: Congo-Kinshasa in 1960, in Nigeria in 1967, and Rwanda in
1994.
4. The economy inherited by independent African states was another source of problem. The
major economic problems were
 Lack of diversity or single crop products or Mono crop products.
 Its economy mainly depends on agriculture and use traditional methods and techniques.
 Rapid population growth, lack of food, poverty, unemployment and crimes.
5. The problem of environmental degradation aggravated by backward agricultural techniques,
periodic drought, HIV/AIDS pandemic and desertification are the main Problems of Africa.

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Unit Review Questions

Choose the Best Answer from the Given Alternatives
1. Which one of the following is correct about Pan - Africanism?
A. It ended with the collapse of Marcus Gravy’s back to Africa movement
B. The original founders of the movement were Marcus Garvey and Kwame Nkrumah
C. It failed to achieve anyone of the major ideas articulated by its founders
[Link] ideas were first articulated by members of the African diaspora in the USA and the
Caribbean
2. Why the 1945 Manchester Conference is considered an important land mark in the history of
Pan-Africanism? Because it:
A. Called for the end of colonial rule in Africa
B. Approved a plan for the political union of African countries
C. Was the first time that such a conference was held in Europe?
D. Rejected the use of violent means in achieving independence
3. Which colonies in Africa achieved their independence through peaceful means?
A. Those who were ruled by France C. Those with small population size
B. Those with no mineral resources D. Those that had no white settlers
4. Which of the following combinations of a European colonizer and its African possession is
correct?
A. the Cape peninsula---Germany C. The Nile Valley---France
B. The Sahel---Spain D. The Congo Basin---Belgium
5. Which of the following groups did the Rwandan genocide of 1994 target?
A. All Tutsi and modern Hutu C. Tutsi and Hutu civilians indiscriminately
B. Tutsi who did not intermarry with Hutu D. Tutsi politicians and members of the military
6. Which one of the following describes best African economic conditions in the post –
independence period?
A. Increasing diversification of the agricultural sector unlike manufacturing
B. Instability and decline party related to independence on the export of mono-crops
C. Relative growth until the introduction of structural Adjustment programs in the 1980s
D. Rapid industrialization of the economy with the exception of a few Sub-Saharan countries
7. Which one of the following properly describes the differing positions of groups of African states
prior to the formation of the OAU in 1963?
[Link] Anglophone and Francophone countries were advocates of unity along linguistic line.
B. The Brazzaville Group was opposed to the establishment of a continental organization.
C. The Casablanca Group emphasized the immediate creation of the United States of Africa.
D. The Monorovia Group promoted the formation offour regional organizations.

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8. Among the French colonies of West Africa which of the following became independent in 1958
by voting “NO” to continued association with France?
A. Cameron B. Senegal C. Guinea D. Mali

ANSWER
1) D. 2) A. 3)D 4) D. 5)A 6)B 7) C. 8) C
Reference
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Mohammed Hassen. The Oromo of Ethiopia 1570-1860. Cambridge, 1990.
Pankhrust, Richard. 1997. The Ethiopian Borderlands: Essays in Regional History from Ancient
Times to the end of the 18th Century. Red Sea Press.

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Rubenson, Sven. Survival of Ethiopian Independence. 1972.

Sergew Hable Selassie. Ancient and Medival Ethiopian History to 1270. Addis Ababa, 1972.
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