SALTS

A salt is a compound formed when either all of part of the ionisable hydrogen of the acid is
replaced by a metallic ion or ammonium ion. Or
A salt is an ionic compound consisting of a positive metallic or ammonium ion and a negative
ion derived from an acid.
Salts get their names from the acids they are derived from. Examples are in the table below.
Acid Salt Example
Hydrochloric acid (HCl) Chlorides Sodium chloride (NaCl)
Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) Sulphates Ammonium sulphate (NH4)2S04
Carbonic acid (H2CO3) Carbonates Calcium hydrogen carbonate, Ca(HCO3)2
Nitric acid (HNO3) Nitrates Barium nitrate,Ba(NO3)2
Phosphoric acid (H3PO4) Phosphates Sodium phosphate,Na3PO4
Ethanoic acid (CH3COOH) Ethanoates Sodium ethanoate,CH3COONa
Sulphurous acid (H2SO3) Sulphites Sodium sulphite. Na2SO3

Types of salts
a) Normal salt
This is a salt produced when all the ionisable hydrogen of the acid is replaced by a metallic or
ammonium ion. These salts do not contain ionisable hydrogen. Examples include; sodium
chloride, NaCl; ammonium nitrate, NH4NO3; Magnesium sulphate, MgSO4; lead (II) bromide,
MgBr2 and sodium phosphate, Na3PO4.
All normal salts have PH of 7 except salts formed from
i) Strong bases and weak acids e.g. sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) and potassium ehanoate
(CH3COOK). These salts in solution have PH value more than 7.
ii) Strong acids and weak bases e.g. ammonium chloride (NH4Cl). The salts have a PH value
less than 7 in solution.
b) Acid salts
An acid salt is a salt formed when only part of the ionisable hydrogen of the acid is replaced by
ammonium or metallic ion. These salts contain ionisable hydrogen and examples include:
sodium hydrogensulphate, NaHSO4; calcium hydrogencarbonate, Ca(HCO3)2; and potassium
hydrogen carbonate, KHCO3.
These acid salts behave like salts because they contain metallic ion and a negative ion derived
from an acid; they behave like acids because the negative ions are capable of further ionization
to yield hydrogen ion(H+)
c) Basic salts
Basic salt is formed when insufficient acid is present to neutralize the available base. E.g. basic
zinc chloride (Zn(OH)Cl) and basic magnesium chloride (Mg(OH)Cl).
All monobasic acids form normal salts while dibasic and tribasic acids form both normal and
acid salts.
Naming of salts
Salts are named by adding the name of the radical or ion of the acid after the name of the metal
or ammonium. Examples are:
Name of metal/ammonium Name of acid radical Name of salt
radical (negative ion)
Sodium Chloride Sodium chloride, NaCl
Aluminium Sulphate Aluminium sulphate,
Al2(SO4)3
Ammonium Nitrate Ammonium nitrate
NH4NO3
Potassium Carbonate Potassium carbonate,
K2CO3

SOLUBILITY OF SALTS
Solubility is the amount of solute in grams required to saturate 100g of solvent (water) at a
particular temperature.
A salt is described as soluble if it can dissolve in a given solvent and insoluble if it cannot
dissolve in the solvent. Salts have varying degree of solubility in water as described below:
All ammonium, sodium, and potassium salts are soluble in water.
All nitrate salts are soluble in water.
All chloride salts are soluble in water except silver chloride, lead (II) chloride (sparingly soluble)
and mercury (I) chloride.
All sulphate salts are soluble in water except lead (II) sulphate and barium sulphate. Calcium
sulphate is sparingly soluble in water.
All carbonate salts are insoluble in water except sodium, potassium and ammonium carbonates.
Determining the solubility of a salt e.g. sodium chloride Procedure
 Take about 50cm3 of distilled water in a beaker.
 Add sodium chloride crystals to the water a little at a time while stirring continuously until
when no more salt dissolves. The solution formed is saturated.
 Weigh a clean evaporating dish and pour into it a little of the clear salt solution.
 Weigh the evaporating dish with the salt solution and evaporate the solution to dryness
carefully through a water bath.
 Allow the evaporating dish to cool and reweigh the dish with the dry salt.
Results
Mass of empty dish= a g
Mass of dish + saturated solution = b g
Mass of dish + dry salt = c g
Calculations
Mass of saturated solution = (b-a) g
Mass of dry salt = (c-a) g
Mass of water (solvent) = (b-a)-(c-a)
= b-a-c+a
= (b-c) g
 (b-c) g of water dissolves (c-a) g of NaCl 1

g of solvent dissolves g of NaCl

100g of solvent dissolves x 100 g of NaCl

Therefore, the solubility of NaCl at room temperature is x 100 g/100 g of water.

Examples
1. 30g of sodium chloride crystals were dissolved in 75 g of water at 80 . Calculate the solubility
of sodium chloride at this temperature.
Solution
75 g of water dissolves 30 g of NaCl

1 g of solvent dissolves g of NaCl

100g of solvent dissolves ( x 100) g of NaCl
=40g
Therefore, the solubility of NaCl at 80 temperature is 40g/100 g of water.
2. 12.0g of potassium chlorate was carefully evaporated to dryness, 2.4 g of potassium chlorate
crystals were left on the evaporating dish. Calculate the solubility of potassium chlorate in
grams per 100g of water at room temperature.
Solution
Mass of solvent = mass of solution–mass of solute
=(12.0-2.4)g = 9.6g of solvent (water)

9.6 g of water dissolves 2.4g of potassium chlorate

1 g of solvent dissolves g of potassium chlorate
100g of solvent dissolves ( x 100) g of potassium chlorate
=25g
Therefore, the solubility of potassium chlorate at room temperature is 25g/100 g of water.
3. 75g of a saturated solution contains 30g of salt. Calculate,
i) The solubility of the salt
ii) The percentage of salt in the saturated solution
Solution
i) Mass of solvent = masss of solution- mass of solute
=(75-30)g = 45g of solvent

45 g of solvent is saturated by 30g of salt

1 g of solvent is saturated by g of salt

100g of solvent saturated by ( x 100) g of salt
=66.67g
 Therefore, the solubility of the salt at room temperature is 66.67g/100 g of water.
ii) Percentage of salt = x 100
x 100
=40%
Exercise
1. In an experiment to determine the solubility of potassium nitrate at 20˚C, the following results
were obtained.
Mass of evaporating dish + saturated solution = 100.7g
Mass of evaporating dish = 65.3g
Mass of dish + dry salt = 73.8 g
Use the data above to calculate the solubility of potassium nitrate at 20˚C. Clearly show your
working.
Factors that affect the rate of solubility of salts
1. Amount of solvent
Solubility of most salts increase with increase in the amount of solvent used.
2. Nature of solvent/solute
Solubility of a salt may increase or decrease depending on the nature of solvent or solute.
3. Temperature
Solubility of most salts increase with increase in temperature. For example, potassium chlorate
and potassium nitrate. Solubility of a few salts like calcium chloride and calcium sulphate
decrease with increase in temperature. The solubility of sodium hydroxide and gases as well also
decrease with increase in temperature.
Solubility curve
A solubility curve is a graph that shows how the solubility of a salt varies with temperature. The
graph is obtained by plotting solubility (on the vertical axis) against temperature (on the
horizontal axis).
Solubility curve of some common salts
Potassium nitrate

Potassium chloride

Solubility Sodium chloride

1g/100g of water

Potassium chlorate

Calcium sulphate

Temperature /˚C

The solubility of potassium chloride, potassium nitrate and potassium chlorate increase with
increase in temperature. The solubility of potassium nitrate increases most rapidly, followed by
potassium chlorate then potassium chloride.
The solubility of sodium chloride increases very slightly with increase in temperature. The
solubility of calcium sulphate decreases with increase in temperature.
Uses of solubility curves
 It can be used to find the solubility of a salt at a given temperature.
 It gives the temperature at which a given amount of salt saturates 100g of solvent.
 It can be used to explain the trend of solubility of salts.
 A solubility curve can be used to calculate the mass of salt obtained by cooling a solution
from a higher temperature to a lower temperature.
Mass of salt= (solubility at a higher temperature – solubility at a lower temperature)
For example, if a salt P with solubility of 180g/100g of water at 90˚C was cooled to a temperature
of 30˚C where its solubility is 25g/100g of water. Calculate the mass of salt formed formed after
cooling the solution.
Solution
Mass of salt= (solubility at a higher temperature – solubility at a lower temperature)
= (180-45)g
= 155g
Application of solubility
 Solubility is used to separate soluble salts from a mixture by fractional crystallization.
 It is used in the extraction of salts from large water bodies like lakes and seas.
Exercise
1. a) Describe an experiment that you would carryout to determine the solubility of potassium
nitrate at 15˚C.
b) Determine the solubility in water of substance S at room temperature from the following
data.
Mass of evaporating basin 25g
Mass of evaporating basin + Saturated solution of S 55g
Mass of evaporating basin + Solid S 30g
2. a) Define the term solubility?
b) The table below shows the solubility (ies) of salt P in water at different temperatures.
Temperature/˚C 10 20 30 40 50 60
Solubility, g/100g of water 18 20 24 30 38 50
i) plot a graph of solubility of P against temperature ii)
use your graph to determine
a) solubilities of P at 25˚C and 45˚C
b) the mass of crystals deposited when a solution of P is cooled from 50˚C to
25˚C
iii) calculate the mass of P that would dissolve in 45g of water at 25˚C

Effects of heat on salts

1. Carbonates
Potassium and sodium carbonates are very stable and are not decomposed by heat. But if the
salts are hydrated, they lose their water of crystallization. In such a process, salts lose their
crystalline nature and become amorphous.

Na2CO3.10H2O(s) Na2CO3(s) + 10H2O(g)

(Crystalline solid) (Powdery solid)
All the other metallic carbonates decompose upon heating to give the oxide of the metal and
carbondioxide gas.
Example
When white zinc carbonate is heated, it produces a colorless gas that turns lime water milky
leaving a yellow residue when hot which turns white on cooling.

ZnCO3(s) ZnO(s) + CO2(g)

When lead (II) carbonate is heated, a brown residue (when hot) which becomes yellow on
cooling and a colorless gas that turns lime water milky are produced.
PbCO3(s) PbO(s) + CO2(g)
When copper (II) carbonate is heated, black solids of copper (II) oxide is formed and a colorless
gas that turns lime water milky evolved.

CuCO3(s) CuO(s) + CO2(g)

Ammonium carbonate decomposes to give ammonia gas, carbondioxide and water vapor.

(NH4)2CO3(s) 2NH3(g) + H2O(g) + CO2(g)

Hydrogen carbonate of metals decompose to form carbonate of metals, carbondioxide gas and
water vapor.
Example
2NaHCO3(s) Na2CO3(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
2. Sulphates
Sulphates of sodium and potassium donot decompose on heating. When hydrated sulphates of
potassium or sodium is heated, it loses its water of crystallization and becomes amorphous.

K2SO4.10H20(s) K2SO4(s) + 10H2O(g)

Sulphates of heavy metals decompose to give metal oxides and white fumes of sulphur trioxide
gas. When heated more strongly, the sulphur trioxide gas decomposes to give sulphur dioxide
and oxygen gas.
Examples
When hydrated copper (II) sulphate crystals are heated, they lose their water of crystallization
and changes from blue crystals to white powder. The water condenses as a colorless liquid on
the cooler parts of the test tube.

CuSO4.5H2O(s) CuSO4(s) + 5H2O(g)

(blue crystals) (white powder)
On further heating,the white powder gives off white fumes of a gas (SO3) and a black residue
(CuO) is left.
 2CuSO4(s) 2CuO(s) + SO3(g)
(white powder) (black
solids)
When green solid of iron (II) sulphate is heated, it loses it water of crystallization and changes
from green to dirty-yellow anhydrous solids.

FeSO4.7H2O(s) FeSO4(s) + 7H2O(g)

(Green solids) (Dirty yellow solids)
When heated more strongly, it gives off sulphur dioxide (a colorless gas that turns potassium
dichromate solution from yellow to green), white fumes of sulphur trioxide and brown residue
of iron (III) oxide is left.

2FeSO4(s) Fe2O3(s) + SO3(g) + SO2(g)

(dirty yellow) (brown solids)

3. Nitrates
All nitrates decompose upon heating.
Sodium and potassium nitrates melt into colorless liquids then decompose upon heating to give
their corresponding nitrites that form yellow solids on cooling and oxygen gas.

2NaNO3(s) 2NaNO2(s) + O2(g)

(white crystals) (yellow powder)

All nitrates from calcium down to copper decompose to give their corresponding oxides, brown
fumes of nitrogen dioxide gas and oxygen gas.
Examples
2Zn(NO3)2(s) 2ZnO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
(White crystals) (Yellow-hot; white-cold) (Brown fumes)

2Pb(NO3)2(s) 2PbO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)

(White crystals) (Brown-hot; yellow-cold) (Brown fumes)
N.B. Lead(II)nitrate decomposes with a cracking sound.

2Cu(NO3)2(s) 2CuO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)

(Green crystals) (Black powder) (Brown fumes)

Mercury (II)nitrate and silver nitrate decompose to give their corresponding metals, brown fumes
of nitrogen dioxide gas and a colorless gas that relights a glowing spling (oxygen gas).
2AgNO3(s) Ag(s) + 2NO2(g) + O2(g)
(White crystals) (Grey solids) (Brown fumes)
Hg(NO3)2(s) Hg(l) + 2NO2(g) + O2(g)

Ammonium nitrate sublimes upon heating to give dinitrogen oxide and water vapor.
NH4NO3(s) N2O(g) + 2H2O(g)

4. Chlorides
Metallic chlorides are not affected by heat because hey are very stable. However, if they are
hydrated, the lose their water of crystallization.
For example
MgCl2.7H2O(s) MgCl2(s) + 7H2O(g)

Ammonium chloride sublimes on slight heating and on further heating, it decomposes to give
ammonia and hydrogen chloride gases.
Equation
NH4Cl(s) NH4Cl(g) NH3(g) + HCl(g)
Effects of heat on hydroxides
Hydroxides of sodium and potassium are not decomposed by heat. If they are in solid forms,
they absorb moisture and melt to form solutions.
However, the hydroxides of other metals decompose to give the corresponding oxides and water
vapor.
Example
Zn(OH)2(s) ZnO(s) + H2O(g)

Pb(OH)2(s) PbO(s) + H2O(g)

Hydrolysis of salts
Some salts such as potassium carbonate show some basic properties. For example, they turn red
litmus paper blue when in aqueous solution. The reason for some salts to show alkaline properties
is because when in aqueous solution, they combine with water, that is, they are hydrolyzed to a
mixture of a strong alkali (completely ionized) and weak acid (slightly ionized). the solution is
therefore alkaline because the concentration of hydroxide ions is greater than that of hydrogen
ions.
K2CO3(s) + 2H2O(l) 2KOH(aq) + H2O(l)
The carbonate ions extract hydrogen ions from water to form carbonic acid, which is a weak acid
(slightly ionized). Potassium ions extract hydroxyl ions from water to form potassium hydroxide,
which is a strong alkali (completely ionized).
Therefore, the concentration of hydroxyl ions is greater than that of hydrogen ions. The resulting
solution is alkaline.

Ammonium chloride dissolves in water resulting in an acidic solution. Ammonium ions extract
hydroxyl ions from water to form ammonium hydroxide which is a weak base (slightly ionized).
Chloride ions extract hydrogen ions from water to form hydrochloric acid which is a strong acid,
which ionizes completely.
NH4Cl(s) + H2O(l) NH4OH(aq) + HCl(aq)
Therefore, the concentration of hydrogen ions is greater than that of hydroxyl ions. the resulting
solution is acidic.
Although it is common practice to talk of hydrolysis of salts, it is strictly the anion or cation that
is hydrolyzed. The aqueous solution of an acid salt of a strong acid is strongly acidic owing to
the concentration of hydroxonium ions produced.
HSO4-(s) + H2O(l) SO42-(aq) + H3O+(aq)
In contrast, the aquestion solution of an acid salt of a weak acid is often alkaline.
H2CO3-(s) + H2O(l) OH-(aq) + H2CO3(aq)
Therefore, the behavior of water towards salts may be classified as follows
a) no effect (insoluble salts)
b) dissolve the salt to give neutral solution
c) dissolve the salt and reacts with it to give alkaline solution
d) dissolve the salt and reacts with it to give an acidic solution
Note; Hydrolysis of salts is a reaction between water and the ions of the salt with a resultant
change in pH.

Exercise
1. The solutions of the following salts were tested with red litmus paper. State what was
observed in each case.
a) Ammonium sulphate
b) Sodium carbonate
c) Sodium sulphate
d) Sodium hydrogencarbonate
e) Sodium hydroxide
f) Ammonium carbonate
g) Potassium hydrogencarbonate
Reactions of ionic salts
When an ionic salt dissolves in water, its ions break free. For example, when sodium
sulphate is dissolved in water, sodium ions(Na+) and sulphate ions (SO42-) break
free.
The reactions for ionic salts occur between ions.

Exercise
Write the formulae of ions present in the following salts/substances
a) Lead(ii) nitrate
b) Potassium permanganate
c) Dilute sulphuric acid
d) Sodium ethanoate
e) Aluminium chloride
f) Ammonium chloride
g) Sodium hydrogencarbonate
h) Iron(iii) sulphate
i) Sodium hydroxide

Ionic equations
An ionic equation is an equation that shows only those ions that have undergone a
change during the reaction.
The ionic equation is used to describe the chemical reaction while also clearly indicating which
of the reactants and/or products exist primarily as ions in aqueous solution.

Rules in writing ionic equations

1. Start with a balanced molecular equation.
A molecular equation is one that shows the chemical formulas of all reactants and products but
does not expressly indicate their ionic nature.

For example,

2 Na3PO4 (aq) + 3 CaCl2 (aq) 6 NaCl (aq) + Ca3(PO4)2 (s)

2. Break all soluble strong electrolytes (compounds with (aq) beside them) into their
ions o indicate the correct formula and charge of each ion o indicate the correct number of each
ion o write (aq) after each ion
3. Bring down all compounds with (s), (l), or (g) unchanged

6 Na+(aq) + 2PO43-(aq) + 3Ca2+(aq) + 6Cl-(aq) 6Na+ (aq) + 6Cl- (aq) + Ca3(PO4)2(s)

How did I get this equation?

Consider each reactant or product separately:
1 mole of Na3PO4 contains 3 moles of Na+ and 1 mole of PO43-. Since the balanced equation
shows that two moles of sodium phosphate are involved in the reaction, a total of 6 moles (2 x 3)
of Na+ and 2 moles (2 x 1) of PO43- are formed. Notice that the subscript "4" in the formula for
the phosphate ion is not used when determining the number of phosphate ions present. That
particular subscript is part of the formula for the phosphate ion itself.

2 Na3PO4 (aq) 6 Na+ (aq) + 2 PO43- (aq)

1 mole of CaCl2 contains 1 mole of Ca2+ and 2 moles of Cl-. Remember, the subscript "2" indicates
the number of chloride ions. Cl2 is elemental chlorine. You will never have a diatomic chlorine
ION (i.e. Cl2- or Cl22-) in aqueous solution. Since the balanced equation shows that 3 moles of
calcium chloride are involved in the reaction a total of 3 moles (3 x 1) of Ca2+ and 6 moles (3 x
2) of Cl- are formed.

3 CaCl2 (aq) 3 Ca2+ (aq) + 6 Cl- (aq)

1 mole of NaCl contains 1 mole of Na+ and 1 mole of Cl- . Since the balanced equation shows that
6 moles of NaCl are produced by the reaction, 6 moles (6 x 1) of Na+ and 6 moles (6 x 1)of Cl-
will be formed.

6 NaCl (aq) 6 Na+ (aq) + 6 Cl- (aq)

Since calcium phosphate is an insoluble solid (indicated by the (s) beside its formula), it will not
form appreciable amounts of ions in water. It is brought down unchanged into the complete ionic
equation.

4. Cross out the spectator ions that are present

Spectator ions are ions that are present in the reaction mixture but do not participate in it. They
"sit around and watch the reaction take place" just like a spectator at a football game watches the
players in the game but doesn't play the game himself. You can recognize spectator ions by
looking for ions that are present on both sides of the equation. They will always have the same
exact formula, charge, and physical state. They will also be present in exactly the same number
on both sides of the equation.

6 Na+(aq) + 2PO43-(aq) + 3Ca2+(aq) + 6Cl-(aq 6 Na+(aq) + 6 Cl-(aq) + Ca3(PO4)2(s)

5. Write the "leftovers" as the net ionic equation

2 PO43- (aq) + 3 Ca2+ (aq) Ca3(PO4)2 (s)

The ions that appear in the final net ionic equations are called participants as they are the ones
that are actively involved in the reaction.
Examples
Write an ionic equation for the reaction which occurs when
a) Copper (II) sulphate solution is added to sodium carbonate solution
Step 1
CuSO4(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) CuCO3(s) + Na2SO4(aq)
Step 2
Cu2+ (aq)+SO42-(aq) + 2Na+(aq) + CO32-(aq) CuCO3(s) + 2Na+(aq) + SO42-(aq)
Ionic equation
Cu2+ (aq) + CO32-(aq) CuCO3(s)
Write the ionic equation for the word equation

Sodium chloride(aq) + silver nitrate(aq) → silver chloride(s) + sodium nitrate(aq)

Solution:

Step 1: Write the equation and balance it.

NaCl(aq) + AgNO3(aq) → AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq)

Step 2: Split the ions. (Only compounds that are aqueous are split into ions.)

Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq) + Ag+(aq) + NO3-(aq) → AgCl(s) + Na+(aq) + NO3-

Step 3: Cancel out spectator ions.

Step 4: Write a balanced ionic equation

Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) → AgCl(s)

Example 2:

Write the ionic equation for the word equation

Sodium(s) + hydrochloric acid(aq) -> sodium chloride(aq) + hydrogen(g)

Solution:

Step 1: Write the equation and balance it.

2Na(s) + 2HCl(aq) -> 2NaCl(aq) + H2(g)

Step 2: Split the ions. (Only compounds that are aqueous are split into ions.)
2Na(s) + 2H+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) → 2Na+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) + H2(g)

Step 3: Cancel out spectator ions.

Step 4: Write a balanced ionic equation

2Na(s) + 2H+(aq) → 2Na+(aq) + H2(g)

Exercise

Write the complete ionic and net ionic equations for each of the following reactions:

a) 3 (NH4)2CO3 (aq) + 2 Al(NO3)3 (aq) 6 NH4NO3 (aq) + Al2(CO3)3 (s)

b) 2 NaOH (aq) + H2SO4 (aq) Na2SO4 (aq) + 2 H2O (l)

c) Mg (s) + 2 HCl (aq) MgCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)

d) Zn (s) + CuSO4 (aq) ZnSO4 (aq) + Cu (s)

e) Na2CO3 (aq) + 2 HNO3 (aq) 2 NaNO3 (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)

CARBON IN ENVIRONMENT
Carbon is an element in period II and group IV in the periodic table. It has atomic
number of six.
Occurrence of carbon
Carbon occurs in both free states and combined states. In combined states, it occurs
as coal, mineral oils, carbonates (e.g. lime stone, marble and sea shells) and all living
things (animals and plants). As an element it occurs in both natural (as diamond and
graphite) and synthetic forms (as coke, charcoal and carbon fiber).
Allotropes of carbon
Allotropy is the existence of an element in two or more forms in the same physical
state.
Allotropes are various forms in which elements exist without change in physical state.
Different allotropes of the same element always have different crystalline structures
and physical properties but the same chemical properties.
Allotropes of carbon are: diamond and graphite. Another form of carbon is amorphous
carbon.
 Diamond
In diamond, the structure consists of infinite number of carbon atoms. Each of the
carbon atoms is joined to four other carbon atoms by covalent bonds resulting into a
tetrahedral arrangement. This gives a diamond crystal a giant three dimensional
structure. Diamond has no mobile electrons so cannot conduct electricity.
Structure of diamond
Carbon atom

Strong covalent bond between

carbon atoms

Physical properties of diamond

 Diamond is the hardest natural substance known. This is because the carbon
atoms are closely parked and are joined by strong covalent bonds.
 Diamond has a very high melting pint because of the strong covalent bond
between the carbon atoms.
 It has a very high density (3.5g/cm3) because of the closely packed carbon
atoms.
 Diamond is transparent, sparkling and glitters.
 Diamond does not conduct electricity because it has no mobile electrons.
Uses of diamond
 Diamond is very hard and used as drilling devices, rock borers and glass cutters.
 Diamond is used jewellery because its sparkling appearance.
 Diamond is bright and used to make laser beams.

Graphite
Graphite consists of infinite number of carbon atoms each covalently bonded to three
other carbon atoms forming hexagonal rings that are arranged in layers. Each layer is
a giant two dimensional structure. The different layers are held by weak Vander Waal‘s
forces of attraction, making them to slide over each other thus they are slippery and
soft. Some electrons in a layer are mobile making them to conduct electricity.
Structure of graphite

Covalent bond

Weak Vander Waal’s force

of attraction

rings Carbon atom

Graphite consists of infinite number of carbon atoms each covalently bonded to three
other carbon atoms forming hexagonal rings that are arranged in layers. Each layer is
a giant two dimensional structure. The different layers are held by weak Vander Waal
‘s forces of attraction, making them to slide over each other thus they are slippery and
soft. Some electrons in a layer are mobile making them to conduct electricity.

Physical properties of graphite

 Graphite conducts electricity because they have free mobile electrons.
 The melting point of graphite is high because of the strong covalent bond
between the carbon atoms.
 Graphite is soft and slippery because its layers are held by weak Vander Waals
force of attraction.
 Graphite is opaque and dark in color and shiny.
Graphite is less resistant to chemical attack than diamond because of the open spaces
between the layers. The density of graphite is 2.3g/cm3
Uses of graphite
 Graphite is soft and can mark therefore used to make pencil ―leads‖. Graphite
is mixed with clay to make pencil leads.
 Graphite is a good conductor of electricity and thus used as electrodes.
 It is soft and greasy, therefore used as lubricants especially in small bearings
like those in dynamos.
 Graphite is used to make brushes for electric motors.
 Graphite (black lead) is used as a protective coating on iron to prevent rusting.

When 1g of both diamond and graphite burns in oxygen, they form 3.67g of carbon
dioxide only. This shows that they are allotropes.

Amorphous carbon
Amorphous carbon is black and has the lowest density. It is non-crystalline and
fairly conducts electricity. Amorphous carbon exists in several forms like wood
charcoal, animal charcoal, sugar charcoal, lamp black and coke.
i) Wood charcoal
It is formed when wood is heated in limited supply of air (destructive distillation of
wood). It is a black porous solid and a very good absorbent of gases.
ii) Animal charcoal
This is made by heating animal refuse and bones in limited supply of air. Animal
charcoal has a property of absorbing coloring matter and is used to remove brown
color from sugar during its manufacture.
iii) Sugar charcoal
This is a very pure form of carbon made by removing elements of water from sugar.
E.g. when cane sugar is dehydrated by concentrated sulphuric acid, sugar charcoal is
formed.
iv) Lamp black
This is formed by burning oils (e.g. turpentine, petroleum, kerosene) in limited supply
of air. It is used for making ink for printing and shoe polish.
 v) Coke
This is an impure form of carbon made by heating coal in the absence of air
(destructive distillation of coal). It is used as a reducing agent in the extraction of
metals like iron and zinc from their ores. Coke is also used as fuel.

Chemical properties of carbon

All allotropes of carbon have similar chemical properties but different physical
properties.
1. Reaction of carbon with oxygen

Carbon burns is excess oxygen to for carbon dioxide gas. In the process great heat is
generated.
C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g)

When carbon burns in limited amount of oxygen, carbon monoxide forms.

C(s) + ½O2(g) CO(g)

Reaction of carbon in a deep, brightly glowing coke/coal fire.

In region A, plenty of air is available. Carbon burns to carbon dioxide.

C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g)

In region B, ascending carbon dioxide is reduced by red hot coke to carbon monoxide.
CO2(g) + C(s) 2CO(g)
At the surface, the hot carbon monoxide burns in air to form carbon dioxide with a
flickering blue flame.
CO(g) + ½O2(g) CO2(g)
2. Reaction of metal oxides with carbon
Carbon readily removes oxygen from (reduces) oxides of metals lower than it in the
reactivity series. Thus it acts as a reducing agent. Examples of oxides reduced by
carbon are: zinc oxide, ZnO; lead (II) oxide, PbO; copper (II) oxide, CuO; iron (II) oxide,
FeO and iron (III) oxide, Fe2O3.
2ZnO(s) + C(s) 2Zn(s) + CO2(g)
2PbO(s) + C(s) 2 Pb(s) + CO2(g)
2CuO(s) + C(s) 2Cu(s) + CO2(g)
3. Reaction with acids
Carbon reduces nitric acid and sulphuric acid to nitrogen dioxide and sulphur dioxide
gases respectively. The carbon itself is oxidized to carbon dioxide gas.
C(s) + 4HNO3(aq) 4NO2(g) + CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
C(s) +2 H2SO4(aq) 2SO2(g) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
4. Reaction with steam
If steam is blown through red hot charcoal, a mixture of carbon monoxide and
hydrogen gases are formed. This mixture is called water gas.
H2O(g) + C(s) CO(g) + H2(g)

OXIDES OF CARBON
CARBON MONOXIDE (CO)
Occurrence
Carbon monoxide is a poisonous gas and is commonly present in coal gas and other
gaseous fuels. It is also produced in car exhaust fumes due to partial combustion of
carbon.
Laboratory preparation
This can be done by the action of concentrated sulphuric acid on any of the following
compounds.
1. Methanoic acid (HCOOH)
Concentrated sulphuric acid is a very strong dehydrating agent and removes water
from methanoic acid forming carbon monoxide and water.
Conc. H2SO4
HCOOH(l) CO(g) + H 2O(l)
No heating is required.
2. Sodium methanoate (HCOONa)
Here, concentrated sulphuric acid dehydrates sodium methanoate to form water,
sodium hydrogen sulphate and carbon monoxide.
HCOONa(s) + H2SO4(aq) NaHSO4(aq) + CO(g) H2O(l)
3. Oxalic acid (ethanedioic acid-H2C2O4)
Set up of apparatus

Equation
Conc. H2SO4
H2C2O4(s) CO2(s) + CO(g) + H2O(l)
In this preparation, the products formed are passed through concentrated potassium
hydroxide solution to remove traces of carbon dioxide.
2KOH(aq) + CO2(g) K2CO3(aq) + H2O(l)
If the carbon monoxide is required dry, it is passed through a bottle containing conc.
Sulhuric acid and collected by use of a syringe or upward displacement of air.
Physical properties of carbon monoxide
- It is colorless, odourless and tasteless.
- It is insoluble in water.
- It is denser than air.
- It is neutral to litmus paper
Chemical properties
a) Reaction with air
Carbon dioxide burns in air with a pale blue flame to produce carbon dioxide.
CO(g) + ½O2(g) CO2(g)
b) Reducing action of carbon monoxide
Carbon dioxide is a powerful reducing agent and it reduces the oxides of metals (iron
(illustrated in extraction of iron), lead and copper) to respective metals upon heating.
Poisonous nature of carbon monoxide
Blood contains haemoglobin which combines with oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin.
The oxyhaemoglobin transports and supplies the oxygen to all parts of the body.
However, when carbon monoxide is inhaled, it combines with haemoglobin to form
carboxyhaemoglobin. This stops the blood from absorbing oxygen and may lead to
death.
Haemoglobin has a higher affinity for carbon monoxide than oxygen. Carbon monoxide
is even more dangerous because it has no colour and smell.
Uses of carbon monoxide
 It is used extensively in the extraction of metals as a reducing agent e.g.
extraction of iron in a blast furnace.
 It is used as fuel in form of producer gas and water gas.
 It is used in the manufacture of methanol used in anti-freezer mixture in cold
countries to prevent ice from forming in car radiators.
 It is used in the manufacture of synthetic petrol.

CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2)

Carbon dioxide occurs in air and occupies 0.03% by volume. Carbon dioxide forms
from rocks as a result of volcanic eruption; occurs in mines as ―choke damp‖ and it
is always present in natural drinking water because it is slightly soluble in it.
Laboratory preparation
It is prepared by the action of dilute hydrochloric acid on marble chips (a form of
calcium carbonate)
Set up of apparatus
Arrange the apparatus as shown above with the calcium carbonate in the flask. Run
dilute hydrochloric acid in to the flask through a funnel.
Observation
Effervescence occurs as a colorless gas is given off.
Equation
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Ionic equation
(aq) + 2 (aq) CO2(g) + H2O(l)
The gas may be collected over water as it is only slightly soluble in water. If the gas is
required dry, it is collected by down ward delivery method.
If a pure dry sample of carbon dioxide is required, the gas is first passed through a
wash bottle containing concentrated solution of potassium hydrogen carbonate to
remove traces of hydrogen chloride gas (water placed in a wash bottle can also be
used). It is then passed through a U tube containing fused calcium chloride to dry the
gas. The gas is then collected by down ward delivery method since it is denser than
air.

Sulphuric acid is not used in the preparation of carbon dioxide because the salt formed
(calcium sulphate) forms a coating on the surface of calcium carbonate and this
prevents further reaction between the acid and the calcium carbonate as the calcium
sulphate coating is insoluble. The reaction therefore stops prematurely.
Other reactions that produce carbon dioxide include: fermentation; combustion of
hydrocarbons; respiration and action of heat on carbonates and hydrogen carbonates.
Properties of carbon dioxide
Physical properties
 It is colorless, odourless and tasteless.
 It does not burn and does not support burning. Because of its density, it is also
used as a fire extinguisher as it displaces oxygen that supports burning.
Illustration

Air

Carbon dioxide

Burning candle

 It is denser than air that is why it is collected by down ward delivery method.
Under high pressure, carbon dioxide is quite soluble in frizzy drinks
(effervescent drinks)
 It is slightly soluble in water forming a weakly acidic solution of carbonic
acid.

CO2(g) + H2O(l) H2CO3(aq)

 It turns moist blue litmus paper pink indicating that it is weakly acidic.

Chemical properties
1. Carbon dioxide does not support burning. However, when a piece of burning
magnesium is lowered into a gas jar of carbon dioxide, it continues to burn forming
black specks of carbon mixed with white solids of magnesium oxide.

2Mg(s) + CO2(g) 2MgO(s) + C(s)

In this case, magnesium reduces carbon dioxide to carbon ant itself is oxidized to
magnesium oxide.

2. Carbon dioxide turns lime water (calcium hydroxide) milky. This is due to the
formation of insoluble calcium carbonate (white precipitates)
 Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2(g) CaCO3(g) + H2O(l)
(White precipitate)
However, when excess carbon dioxide is bubbled, through the solution (lime water),
the white precipitates dissolve making the solution to appear clear. This is due to
the formation of calcium hydrogen carbonate which is a soluble compound.

CaCO3(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) Ca(HCO3)2(aq)

3. When carbon dioxide is bubbled through a solution of fairly concentrated sodium
hydroxide, the solution remains clear due to the formation of a soluble sodium
carbonate.

2NaOH(aq) + CO2(g) Na2CO3(aq) + H2O(l)

This reaction is sometimes used to remove carbon dioxide from a mixture of gases.
However, when excess carbon dioxide is bubbled through the above solution, white
precipitates appear due to formation of insoluble sodium hydrogen carbonate.

Na2CO3(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) 2NaHCO3(s)

(White precipitate)
4. When carbon dioxide gas is bubbled through a solution of potassium hydroxide,
there is no observable change as the products formed are all soluble.

2KOH(aq) + CO2(g) K2CO3(aq) + H2O(l)

(Soluble)
K2CO3(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) 2KHCO3(aq)
(Soluble)

Uses of carbon dioxide

 It is used as a fire extinguisher as it does not support burnng and is denser than
air.
 It is used in the manufacture of effervescent drinks. This is because the solution
of the gas in water has a pleasant taste (the taste of soda water).
 Solid carbon dioxide (dry ice) is used as a refrigerating agent for perishable
goods.
 Carbon dioxide is used in the manufacture of baking powder.
 Solid carbon dioxide (dry ice) is fired into the cloud where it cools to form rain.
This happens in places where there is unreliable rain fall.
Test for carbon dioxide
When carbon dioxide gas is passed through a solution of calcium hydroxide (lime
water), the solution becomes milky. This is due to the formation of calcium carbonate
which is insoluble.
Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2(g) CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)
(White precipitate)
CARBONATES AND HYDROGEN CARBONATES

These are salts derived from carbonic acid.

Properties
1. Solubility
 a) A part from potassium, sodium and ammonium carbonates, all other carbonates
are insoluble in water.
b) All solid hydrogen carbonates are soluble in water except sodium hydrogen
carbonate which is only slightly soluble. Hydrogen carbonates of metals lower than
magnesium in the reactivity series do not exist. Hydrogen carbonates of calcium
and sometimes magnesium only exist in solution form.

2. Action of heat on carbonates and hydrogen carbonates

a) Carbonates of sodium, potassium and lithium are not decomposed by heat.
However if they are hydrated, they only lose their water of crystallization. E.g.

Na2CO3.10H20(s) Na2CO3(s) + 10H2O(l)

(White crystals) (White powder)
b) All the other metal carbonates decompose when heated to form the oxide of the
metal and a colorless gas that turns lime water milky (carbon dioxide) e.g.

CuCO3(s) CuO(s) + CO2(g)

(Green powder) (Black powder)
ZnCO3(s) ZnO(s) + CO2(g)
(White powder) (Yellow-hot; white-cold)
c) Ammonium carbonate sublimes when heated and forms ammonia, carbon
dioxide and water vapor.

(NH4)2CO3(s) 2NH3(g) + H2O(g) + CO2(g)

d) All hydrogen carbonates decompose to give corresponding carbonates, carbon
dioxide gas and water vapor. E.g.

2NaHCO3(s) Na2CO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(g)

3. Action of dilute acids

All carbonates and hydrogen carbonates react with dilute acids to liberate carbon
dioxide gas, water and corresponding salts. E.g.

2HCl(aq) + CaCO3(s) CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

H2SO4(aq) + 2NaHCO3(s) Na2CO3(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

N.B. Dilute sulphuric acid reacts with calcium carbonate and lead (II) carbonate at a
very slow rate as the resulting salts formed (calcium sulphate and lead(II) sulphate)
are insoluble and therefore tend to form coatings around the carbonates inhibiting
further reactions between the carbonates and the acid.

The reaction between dilute hydrochloric acid and lead (II) carbonate also forms an
insoluble salt (lead (II) chloride) which also forms coating stopping further reactions.

Dilute nitric acid reacts with all carbonates to form soluble nitrate salts.
Sodium carbonate
Laboratory preparation
Set up

Procedure
- Bubble carbon dioxide through a fairly concentrated sodium hydroxide solution
until in excess. White precipitate of sodium hydrogen carbonate is formed
according to the equation below

2NaOH(aq) + CO2(g) Na2CO3(aq) + H2O(l)

Na2CO3(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) 2NaHCO 3(s)

(White precipitate)
- The white precipitate of sodium hydrogen carbonate is filtered off, washed and
dried.
- The sodium hydrogen carbonate is heated strongly until no further water vapor
and carbon dioxide are given off. This leaves a white powder of calcium carbonate.

2NaHCO3(s) Na2CO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(g)

Commercial preparation of sodium carbonate (Solvay process)

Very concentrated brine (28% sodium chloride) is saturated with ammonia gas in a
tower to form ammonia gas in a tower to form ammoniacal brine. The ammoniacal
brine is run downwards from the top of the tower while carbon dioxide (formed from
decomposition of calcium carbonate) is forced to rise up the tower from the base of the
tower.

The tower is fitted with perforated mushroom shaped baffles at intervals that delay
the flow of ammoniacal brine and also offer surface for the reaction.

The ammoniacal brine reacts with carbon dioxide to form sodium hydrogen carbonate
as precipitates since it is not very soluble in water. Precipitation is assisted by cooling
the lowest third of the chamber.

NaCl(aq) + NH4OH(aq) + CO2(g) NaHCO3(s) + NH4Cl(aq)

Sodium hydrogen carbonate is filtered from the white sludge at the base of the tower
and washed to remove ammonium compounds. The sodium hydrogen carbonate is the
heated to form sodium carbonate.

2NaHCO3(s) Na2CO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(g)

The anhydrous sodium carbonate formed ha a wide market.

The Solvay tower

Ammoniacal brine

Circular metal baffles

Sodium hydrogencarbonate

Carbon dioxide
Suspension of sodium hydrogen
carbonate

If crystalline form (washing soda) is required, the anhydrous solid is dissolved in hot
water, crystallization takes place as the solution cools. The crystals are removed and
allowed to dry.

Na2CO3(aq) + 10H2O(l) Na2CO3.10H2O(s)

Sodium carbonate decahydrate, Na2CO3.10H2O are large translucent crystals. When
the crystals are exposed to air, they lose mass and become coated with fine powder
which makes is opaque. Each molecule of washing soda gives to the atmosphere 9
molecules of water of crystallization.

Na2CO3.10H2O(s) Na2CO3.H2O(s) + 9H2O(g)

(Sodium carbonate monohydrate)
Such lose of water of crystallization to the atmosphere is termed as efflorescence. The
substance that loses its water of crystallization is known as an efflorescent substance.

Uses of sodium carbonate

 Manufacture of glass. Ordinary bottle glass is made by fusing together sodium
carbonate, calcium carbonate, silicon dioxide (sand) and a little carbon (reducing
agent). Broken glasses are added to assist fusion.
 Manufacture of water glass that is used to preserve eggs, used in fire proofing
and production of cement.
 Sodium carbonate is used in the manufacture of soap powders.
 Sodium carbonate in used in domestic water softening. Calcium ions ( )
which is the principal cause of hardness in water is precipitated from the water
as calcium carbonate by adding sodium carbonate.

The carbon cycle

The balance of processes which give out carbon dioxide and those which use carbon
dioxide is called the carbon cycle. Summary of the carbon cycle is given below.

Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is added from: respiration of plants and animals;
decay/ decomposition of plants and animals; heating of lime stone (to give quick lime)
in lime kilns; water (if the percentage in air drops); and combustion of coal (formed as
a result of slow decomposition of plants and animals over millions of years), petroleum
oil and natural gas.

The processes that remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere are: photosynthesis
by green plants; and dissolution in water.

Animals obtain carbon from plants by feeding on food such as starch made by plants.

Effects of carbon dioxide on atmospheric temperature

The sun emits radiations that pass through the atmosphere of the earth with little
absorption and warms up the surface of the earth (ground). The warm surface of the
earth (ground) reflects back the radiations inform of infrared radiations. The infrared
radiation is absorbed by gases like carbon dioxide and methane which radiate some
heat back to the ground leading to warming up of the earth. The warming up of the
earth is known as greenhouse effect. The gases like carbon dioxide and methane that
cause the warming up of the earth are referred to as greenhouse gases.

When more greenhouse gases are released into the atmosphere, much heat
accumulates and this leads to general rise in temperature of the world. The general
rise in temperature of the world is known as global warming.

Sample questions on Carbon and its compounds

1. Define the terms allotrope and allotropy. Name two crystalline forms of the allotropes of
carbon and describe their structures. Outline three differences between the two allotropes.
Mention two uses of each allotrope. How do you prove that the allotropes consist solely of
carbon?
2. Amorphous carbon exists in several forms name them and briefly explains how each form
is obtained and give at least one use of each form of amorphous carbon.
3. With the aid of equations describe the reactions of carbon with oxygen, acids, steam and
metallic oxides.
4. Describe carefully how you would prepare and collect carbon monoxide free from carbon
dioxide. Give three ways in which this gas is different from carbon dioxide. Describe the
reducing action of carbon monoxide on copper(II) oxide. Explain briefly how water gas and
producer gas are obtained. How can exhaust fumes of cars act as poison?
5. By means of a labeled drawing, and equation, show how a sample of carbon dioxide can
be made and collected in the laboratory. Describe briefly without using diagrams how you
can convert carbon dioxide to carbon monoxide. Mention two large scale uses of carbon
dioxide.
6. Explain with equations the observations made when carbon dioxide is bubbled through
calcium hydroxide (lime water) and sodium hydroxide until in excess.
7. Describe how sodium carbonate is prepared in the laboratory and in large scale from the
Solvay process. Equations and drawings must be used to illustrate.