Geomorphic Processes

Geomorphic Processes

The surface of the Earth is constantly subjected to the internal and external forces applied on it. These
forces result in the unevenness of the surface of the Earth. These forces bringing about changes in the
Earth's surface configuration are called Geomorphic Processes.

Types of Geomorphic Processes

There are two types of geomorphic processes
● The Endogenic (Internal forces)
○ Endogenic Processes are the internal forces that derive the energy from the earth’s interior and
are responsible for giving shape to the crust.
● The Exogenic (External Forces)
○ The Exogenic processes are the forces that derive the energy from the earth’s exterior and
originate within the earth’s atmosphere.

Endogenic Processes:
● The endogenic processes are also called constructive forces as they are responsible for creating
relief features like mountain building and continent building.
● Source of Energy: The primary source of energy is the convective currents generated within the
Earth.
● Process: These convecting thermal currents within the Earth results in the contraction and
expansion of rocks.
Based on the intensity, the Endogenic Processes can be further categorized into two parts:
● Sudden forces and movements
● Slow forces and movements (Diastrophic Forces)

Sudden forces and movements

The sudden movements within the Earth cause large-scale deformation over a brief period of time.
● Agents of Sudden Movement: Earthquakes and Volcanism are the causes of sudden movements.
○ Earthquake: Earthquake occurs when a large amount of stress within the Earth’s interior is
released through weak zones over the Earth’s surface. They result in uplifting in coastal areas,
landslides, soil creeps etc.
○ Volcanoes: A volcano is formed when molten magma in the Earth’s interior escapes to the
crust through vents and fissures with large amounts of gases and pyroclastic materials.
Landforms like Batholiths, Laccoliths, Dykes and Sills are formed.

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 Geomorphic Processes

Slow forces and movements (Diastrophic forces)

● These movements change the Earth’s surface very slowly and gradually, which might take
thousands of years.
● These processes are responsible in continental building processes, mountain building processes, on
the Earth surface.
Types of diastrophic movements:
The diastrophic movements and forces can be classified into:
● Epeirogenesis
● Orogenesis
Epeirogenesis
The word epeirogenesis comprises two words- epeiros meaning continent and genesis meaning origin.
The epeirogenic processes are continent building processes. These movements are responsible for the
formation of continents.
There are two types of movements, viz. upward movement and downward movement.
● Upward movement: results in the upliftment of continental masses.
○ lt may also result in the upliftment of coastal land, which is known as emergence.
● Downward movement results in subsidence of the land area.
○ It may also result in subsidence of a coastal land below sea level, which is known as
submergence.

Orogenesis
The term orogenesis is derived from two words- oros meaning mountain and genesis meaning origin.
Thus, the orogenic processes are mountain building processes.

● In orogenesis, the endogenetic forces act horizontally within the earth’s crust that results in the
mountain building.
● The forces may act in opposite or the same direction.
● Tensional Forces: When they operate in opposite directions, they are called tensional forces.
○ Tensional forces result in ruptures, cracks, and faults in the earth’s crust.
● Compressional forces: When they operate towards each other, they are called compressional
forces.
○ The compressional forces lead to the formation of folds on the earth surface.

Difference between Epeirogenic Movement and Orogenic Movement

Epeirogenic Movement Orogenic Movement
lt is a vertical movement. It is a horizontal movement.
lt involves upliftment or subsidence of It involves forces of compression and
areas. tension.
It is responsible for formation of It is responsible for folding, faulting and
continents mountain building.

Folds
The crustal rocks are subjected to the compressional force generated by the horizontal movement of the
plates. The rocks under this force form wavy undulations called folds.

Parts of a Fold:
● Anticline and Syncline: The folds are made up of a series of crests and troughs.

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 Geomorphic Processes

o An anticline is the up-folded rock strata

that take up an arch’s shape.
o While the down folded rock strata,
which looks like a trough, is called a
syncline.
● Limbs: The two sides of the fold are called
limbs.
● Axial Plane: The plane that bisects the
angle between two limbs is called the axial
plane.
● Axis: The line of intersection of the axial
plane with the upper or lower surface of any
rock bed is called the axis.
● Dip: The inclination of the rock beds with respect to the horizontal plane is called dip.
● Strike: The strike of an inclined bed in the direction of any horizontal line on the bedding plane.

Parts of a Fold

Types of Folds:
Factors affecting Folds Formation: The formation of folds depends on factors such as:
● The nature of the rock.
● The intensity of the compressional force.

Type of Folds Details

Symmetrical Fold ● These are folds where the axial plane is vertical
and both the limbs incline uniformly.
● They are formed when compressive forces
regularly act with moderate intensity.

Asymmetrical Fold ● They are folds where the axial plane is inclined
and the limbs of the anticline dip in opposite
directions.
● One limb is longer with moderate inclination,
while the other is shorter with steep inclination.

Overturned Fold ● It is a type of fold where the axial plane is inclined

and both the limbs dip in the same direction but at
different angles.

Isoclinal Fold ● These are folds where two limbs dip at equal
angles in the same direction.
● They are formed when the compressional forces
are so strong that the limbs become parallel.

Recumbent Fold ● Recumbent folds are characterised by a horizontal

axial plane.

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● They are formed when compressive forces are so

strong that the limbs become parallel and
horizontal.
● Such recumbent folds are widely found in the
Alps.

Chevron ● These are folds with sharp and angular crests and
troughs.

Fan Fold ● When the limbs of a fold are overturned to such an

extent that it looks like a fan, it is called a fan fold.

Open Fold ● Folds, where the angle between two limbs is

usually greater than 90 degrees but less than 180
degrees, are called open folds.
● The rock beds have the same thickness throughout
the fold in such folds.
● They are formed due to moderate compressional
force.

Closed Fold ● Folds where the angle between two limbs is less
than 90 degrees are called closed folds.
● The rock beds are thinner at the limbs and thicker
at the crests and troughs.
● They are formed by intensive compressional force.

Nappe ● These folds result from intense horizontal

movement and high compressional forces.
● They are formed from recumbent folds.
● The crests of recumbent folds are weak and have
cracks.
● When there is further intense compressional force,
one limb of the fold slides forward and overrides
the other. Such features are called Nappes.
● Several nappes are found in the Alps mountains.

Anticlinorium ● An anticlinorium is formed when there is a series

of minor anticlines and synclines within one
extensive anticline.

Synclinorium ● A synclinorium is formed when there is a series of

minor anticlines and synclines within one
extensive syncline.

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 Geomorphic Processes

Types of Folds

Faults

A fault is a fracture or cracks in the earth’s crust. There is displacement of rocks on both sides of the
fault and parallel to it. This displacement occurs due to both tensional and compressional forces acting
horizontally or vertically, or both together at the same point in time.

Terms associated with Faults

● Fault Plane: It is the plane along which the rock blocks have been displaced. lt may be vertical,
inclined, or horizontal.
● Fault Dip: It is the angle between the fault plane and the horizontal plane.
● Hade: It is the angle between the fault plane and the vertical plane.
● Up throw side: lt is the block of rock that lies at a relatively greater height than the other.
● Down throw side: It is the block of rock that lies at a relatively lesser height than the other.
● Hanging Wall: lt is the block of rock resting above the fault plane.
● Footwall: It is the block lying below the fault plane.
● Fault Line: lt is the intersection of the fault with the earth’s surface.
● Fault Zone: it consists of various small faults. It is formed when the displacement of the rock is not
related to a single fracture but is distributed over a large area.

Types of Faults

Type of Faults Details

Normal Fault ● Normal faults are formed due to tensional

forces that tend to pull the crust apart.

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Reverse Fault ● The faults are formed when both the blocks
along the fracture are moving towards each
other.
● These faults are formed due to compressional
forces.

Strike-Slip Fault ● These faults are formed when the rock

masses slip past one another parallel to the
strike.
● In these strike faults, the plane of the fault is
almost vertical and the blocks tend to move
laterally (i.e. left or right)

Transform Fault ● These are a type of strike-slip fault.

● These faults can be seen in the transform
plate boundary.
● For instance, the Dead Sea transforms fault.

Dip Slip ● The dip-slip can either be a normal fault or a

reverse fault.
● These faults tend to move along the direction
of the dip plane.

Oblique-Slip Fault ● The oblique slip fault is a fault that shows

both dip slip and strike slip motion.

Graben and Horst

Graben or Rift Valley:
A trench-like feature with straight, parallel walls is
called Graben or Rift Valley.
● They are formed when a block of rock drops
down between two normal faults.
Horst: When a block is elevated between two
normal faults, a horst is formed.
● They have a flat top but steep, straight sides. Horsts and Grabens are very common in the East
African Rift Valley.

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 Geomorphic Processes

Types of Faults

Exogenic Processes:
Exogenic processes are destructive processes. These result in wearing down of surfaces, commonly
known as denudation. The word “denude” means wearing down or stripping off or to uncover.
● Source of energy: Exogenetic processes derive energy from the sun
● Process: The processes including denudation are weathering, mass movement, erosion and
transportation. The driving agents that exercise the denudation processes are running water,
groundwater, glaciers, waves and currents, winds etc.

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 Geomorphic Processes

Factors affecting Exogenic Processes:

● Climate: As there are different climatic regions on the earth’s surface, the exogenic geomorphic
processes vary from region to region.
○ Temperature and precipitation are the two important climatic elements that control various
processes.
● Other Climatic Factors:
○ differences in wind velocities and directions,
○ amount and kind of precipitation, its intensity,
○ the relation between precipitation and evaporation,
○ daily range of temperature,
○ freezing and thawing frequency,
○ depth of frost penetration
● Vegetation: The density, type and distribution of vegetation which largely depend upon
precipitation and temperature exert influence indirectly on exogenic geomorphic processes.
● Aspect: Aspect variations and the variation in the amount of insolation received by north and south
facing slopes as compared to east and west facing slopes affect geomorphic processes.
● Structure of Rock: Different types of rocks with differences in their structure offer varying
resistances to various geomorphic processes.
The term structure includes such aspects of rocks as folds, faults, orientation and inclination of beds,
presence or absence of joints, bedding planes, hardness or softness of constituent minerals, chemical
susceptibility of mineral constituents; the permeability or impermeability etc.

Types of Exogenic Processes

The Exogenetic forces are expressed by the following processes:

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 Geomorphic Processes

● Weathering
● Mass movements
● Erosion
● Deposition

Weathering
Weathering is defined as mechanical disintegration and chemical decomposition of rocks through the
actions of various elements of weather and climate.
● Weathering is the primary stage of denudation.
● The surface and subsurface rocks break up, dissolve and decompose to disintegrate into fragment
materials.
● As minimum material movement takes place in a weathering phenomenon, it can be called an in-
situ weathering process.
● Source of Energy: Weathering derives energy from insolation which is guided by the surface of
the Earth including the atmosphere.
● Factors Affecting Weathering: Weathering is a very complex process that is dependent on factors
like climate, topography and vegetation, aspect.
Types of Weathering:
Weathering is classified into three types:
● Physical weathering
● Chemical weathering
● Biological weathering
All the three processes, that is the physical, chemical and biological weathering are mostly found to be
operational together. Very rarely, any one of these processes operate completely.

Physical weathering:
Physical or mechanical weathering is the physical disintegration of minerals into fragment particles
without any change in their chemical properties.
● The transformation of rocks into fragment particles occurs through mechanical methods such as
freezing, thawing, salt weathering and thermal cracking.
● The forces responsible for breaking the rock may originate from within the rock or outside the rock
mineral.
● Physical weathering is more dominant in regions like deserts, high mountains and arctic regions.
Types of physical weathering:
● Freezing, thawing and Frost shattering.
● Expansion from unloading.
● Thermal expansion and contraction or insolation weathering
● Salt weathering or crystallisation of salt
Freezing, Thawing & Frost shattering:
● Water expands when it freezes. This expansion results in generating cryostatic pressure.
● Frost Shattering: In cold regions, rocks have small cracks which, when filled with water in
daytime, freezes and expands and breaks the rock from within. This process is called frost
shattering.

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 Geomorphic Processes

Frost Shattering

Expansion resulting from unloading:

● The removal of the overlaying rock load because of continued erosion leads the vertical pressure to
release.
● As the pressure is released above the rock,
the underlying rock elastically compensate
for the erosional loss by expanding
perpendicular to the direction of pressure
release.
● This unloading of pressure results in the rock
to fracture horizontally.
● It results in the upper layers of the remaining
rock to expand and disintegrate the rock
mass. This process is called expansion
resulting from unloading.
● These fractures are arranged horizontally and are called sheet fracture or exfoliation sheet.

Unloading
Thermal expansion and contraction or Insolation weathering:
● The weathering process results because of subsequent expansion and contraction of rocks that is
caused by diurnal and seasonal variations in temperature.
● The surface layers of the rocks tend to expand more than the rock at depth, and this results in peeling
off of the surface layer (exfoliation).
● Because of the differential heating (leading to expansion) and cooling (leading to contraction) the
exfoliated surface is more rounded. For instance, in Granites.
● This process is most effective in dry climates and high elevations, where the diurnal temperature
changes are drastic.

Insolation Weathering
Salt weathering or crystallisation of salt:
● The saline water present in the pore spaces evaporates with the rise in temperature in daytime
and leaves behind salt crystals.
● The expanding salt crystals exert pressure on the walls of rock pores, thus, causing
disintegration or foliation of rock.
Chemical weathering
Chemical weathering refers to decomposition of a rock to create a new chemically different material.
Process:

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 Geomorphic Processes

● The prime agents involved in chemical

weathering are the gases in the
atmosphere. Water from precipitation in
the form of rain and snow.
● Types of rocks comprising the minerals
are the prime chemical substance found
in the rock.
● During a chemical weathering process,
the internal molecular structure of a
mineral is altered by reaction with other
elements to form a different element.
● For example: Dissolved oxygen in water
oxidises minerals that contain iron, and
the process is called oxidation.

Types of chemical weathering:

● Oxidation and Reduction
● Solution
● Carbonation
● Hydration.

Oxidation and Reduction:

● Oxidation: The mixing of minerals with oxygen to form oxides and hydroxides is called oxidation.
○ The oxidation process results in fragmentation of rocks.
● Reduction: When oxidised minerals are placed in an environment where oxygen is absent,
reduction takes place.
○ Such conditions usually exist below the water table, in areas of stagnant water and waterlogged
ground.

Solution:
● Earth materials dissolve in acid or water to form a solution of water and the dissolved substance.
● The disintegration of the solids depends upon the solubility of minerals in weak acids or water.
● Some rocks get affected by this process after coming in contact with water or acid rain.
● For instance, Rock forming minerals like nitrates, potassium and sulphates dissolve and are leached
out, thus causing chemical weathering.

Carbonation:
● Carbonation is a process in which bicarbonate and carbonates react with other minerals.
● This process helps in weathering of carbonate minerals. The Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and
soil is absorbed by water to form carbonic acid that acts like a weak acid.
● For example: The Magnesium carbonates and the Calcium carbonates dissolve in the carbonic acid
(i.e. the CO2 absorbed water forming weak acid).

Hydration:
● The chemical addition of water is called hydration.
● Minerals enlarge after coming in contact with water. The resulting enlargement increases the
volume of the material or rock.

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 Geomorphic Processes

● With sustained recurrence of this process can lead to fatigue in the rocks. This may lead to
disintegration of rocks.

Biological weathering:
The weathering caused by living organisms is called Biological weathering. This type of weathering
showcases both physical and chemical weathering.
● For example: Plant roots penetrate into cracks in rock and slowly break the rock mechanically. The
roots of the plant secrete certain chemicals to extract minerals, thereby causing chemical
weathering.
● Animals and insects that den or nest or cave in soft rocks fall under physical weathering.
● Anthropogenic activities are one of the most effective agents of biological weathering.

Significance of Weathering:
● Weathering weakens the surface materials on the surface of the Earth.
● lt helps in soil formation by facilitating silt, clay, and sand.
● Weathering of rocks helps in making fertile plains, beaches etc.
● Minerals created by the weathering process are supplied as nutrients for plant uptake.

Mass Movements:
Mass movements can be defined as the transferring of mass of rock and debris down the slopes under
the direct influence of gravity. The flow movement of mass may range from slow to rapid.
● Mass movements are aided by gravity and not influenced by geomorphic agents like running water,
glaciers, wind, waves etc.

Modes of mass movement:

The mass movement is followed by different modes of movements downhill, like slide, flow and heave.
● Slide:In slide movement, the maximum motion is found along the base of the moving mass.
○ Clearly visible layer that divides the mobile upper layer and stable lower mass and the plane
separating is called a shear plane.
● Flow: In flow movement, the material above the shear plane reaches the maximum speed at top,
while the rate of movement diminishes with increasing depth till it reaches zero along the shear
plane.
● Heave:This type of mechanism moves particles ranging from the size of fine clay to large boulder.
A very slow rate is maintained.

Types of mass movements:

Types of mass movements are classified based on the rate at which mass movements occur. They range
from slow mass movement to rapid mass
movement.
Types of Mass Movements
● Solifluction: In the solifluction process,
the soil flow covers the surface with water
saturated mass.
○ The flow is completely water
dependent. As water content increases,
soil cover changes from soggy matter
and loses cohesive strength.

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 Geomorphic Processes

○ The ground that experiences

solifluction is broken into gentle,
terrace-like features.
● Soil creep: Soil creep is slow movement of
soil along the slope under the influence of
gravity.
○ Most common type of mass movement
that can be found everywhere across the
Earth’s surface.
○ The surface should be very steep to
experience soil creep.
● Mudflow and Earthflow: The process of
mudflow occurs on a large scale, earth flow
happens on any surface in a localised
manner.
○ Mud flow is characteristic to valleys and has very rapid movement.
○ Absence of vegetation and heavy rainfall further aids the mud flow.
● Landslide: Landslides are the most devastating, sudden rapid slide movements capable of
transporting and burying settlements and destroying the ecosystem.
○ They are common to areas that have
steep slopes and unconsolidated soil
surface.
○ Triggering factors are heavy rainfall
and earthquakes. .
● Liquefaction: Liquefaction is a
phenomenon in which the strength and
stiffness of a soil is reduced by earthquake
shaking.
○ Solid surfaces shake during earthquake tremors. This results in the clay rich rocks to behave
like plastic matter, thus causing liquefaction.
● Avalanche: Sudden and disastrous landslides are called an avalanche.
○ It involves rapid weathered rock mass movement.
Joshimath Subsidence
Context: Joshimath in Uttarakhand was declared a landslide-subsidence zone.
About Joshimath
● It is believed to be the winter seat of Lord Badrinath, which is brought down to Vasudeva temple
in Joshimath every winter.
● It is also the gateway to the Sikh holy shrine Hemkund Sahib.
Factors which might have led to subsidence at Joshimath
● Prone to landslide: In 1976 Mishra Committee report, highlighted that Joshimath lies on a
deposit of sand and stone which are of ancient landslide.
● Location: Its location in seismic zone V, which is more prone to earthquakes.
● Rivers and Rainfall: The frequent flow of the Himalayan rivers and heavy rainfall which caused
flash floods in the Rishi Ganga and Dhauliganga rivers in 2022.
● Unplanned Construction: Haphazard construction activities in the area, followed by increased
population pressures due to tourism.

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 Geomorphic Processes

● Development Work: Vibrations caused by development work for National Thermal Power
Corporation's Tapovan Vishnugad Hydro Power Project.

Erosion:
Erosion is the process in which earthen materials are worn away and transported by natural forces such
as wind or water.
● Erosion by Water: Liquid water is the major agent of erosion on Earth. Rain, rivers, floods, lakes,
and the ocean carry away bits of soil and sand and slowly wash away the sediment.
● Erosion by Wind: Wind is a powerful agent of erosion. Aeolian (wind-driven) processes
constantly transport dust, sand, and ash from one place to another.
● Erosion by Ice: Ice, usually in the form of glaciers, can erode the earth and create dramatic
landforms. In frigid areas and on some mountaintops, glaciers move slowly downhill and across the
land.
○ As they move, they transport everything in their path, from tiny grains of sand to huge boulders.
Rocks carried by glaciers scrape against the ground below, eroding both the ground and the
rocks.
The erosion can be defined as “application of the kinetic energy associated with the agent to the
surface of the land along which it moves”.

Kinetic energy is computed as KE = 1/2 mv2, where ‘m’ is the mass and ‘v’ is the velocity.
Hence, the energy available to perform work will depend on the mass of the material and the velocity
with which it is moving.

Deposition:
Deposition is the laying down of sediment carried by wind, flowing water, the sea or ice. Sediment can
be transported as pebbles, sand and mud, or as salts dissolved in water.
● Deposition is a consequence of erosion.
● The erosional agents lose their velocity and hence energy on gentler slopes, and the materials carried
by them start to settle themselves.

Comparison of Weathering, Erosion and Mass Movement

Weathering Erosion Mass Movement

Definition Weathering is the Erosion is a process Mass movements

process of breaking in which Earth can be defined as
up or decomposing materials are worn the transferring of
rocks by the action away and mass of rock and
of water, air, transported by debris down the
chemicals, plants or natural forces such slopes under the
animals. as wind and water. direct influence of
gravity.
Process The materials are not The broken up The rocks and
displaced after materials are debris move under
breaking up. displaced by the the influence of

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natural agents. gravity only and not

any other
geomorphic agents
like wind, water,
Types Different types of Different types of Mass movements
weathering include erosion include soil are commonly
physical, chemical erosion, shoreline found in areas with
and biological erosion etc. unconsolidated
weathering. materials, thinly
bedded rocks,
faults, abundant
precipitation,
scarcity of
vegetation.
Agents The weathering While the agents of Gravity is the only
phenomenon is erosion activities cause for mass
generally caused by are water, wind, ice, movement. They
atmospheric factors human activities are of two types:
like air pressure, etc. slow and rapid mass
rainfall, frost, water, movements.
etc.
Examples Mechanical Sheet erosion, Rills, Avalanche. Soil
weathering- Ravines are forms Creep, Landslide,
Breaking up of of soil erosion
rocks by the action caused by water as a
of tree roots. natural agent.
Chemical
weathering.
Weathering of rocks
due to acid rain

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