Speed Logs

ELECTROMAGNETIC LOG:
• An Electromagnetic Log, sometimes called an "EM Log", measures the speed
of a vessel through water.
• It consists of an electromagnet with coils and sensors, SW conductor, Master
unit with amplifier and speed-distance recorder.

Principle:
• The E.M. log works on the principle of electromagnetic induction as stated in
Faradays law of electromagnetic induction. When a moving conductor cuts a
stationary magnetic field or when a moving magnetic field cuts a stationary
conductor, an electromotive force (EMF) is induced in the conductor. The
amplitude of the EMF induced is directly proportional to the speed of
movement of the conductor or magnetic field.
• E=FxLxV
(Where F = magnetic field strength, L=length of the conductor, V = velocity
ofthe conductor through the magnetic field)
• If F and L are constant, we can find the velocity (V) and when velocity is
integrated with time, we can also find the distance.

Construction:
• The Log extends up to about 20cm outside the hull. It can be retracted
whenrequired.
• Sensors are fitted to obtain the water flow and the Master unit is fitted to
calculate the speed and distance.
• The induced EMF being very small needs amplification. Hence, an amplifier is
also provided.
• Two electrodes are provided to pick up the e.m.f
• Indicators are provided to display the speed and distance.
 Block Diagram – Electromagnetic Log

Working:

• In the EM Log, an electromagnet consisting of a coil carrying A.C. current

generates a vertical magnetic field around the probe.
• As the moving water passes through the magnetic field an EMF is induced in
the water. This EMF is directly proportional to the speed of the water across
the hull.
• In the EM Log, if ‘F’ and ‘L’ are maintained constant, then velocity (speed
through water) is directly proportional to the EMF induced. However, the
induced EMF varies with the conductivity of water. (Sea water is a good
conductor while fresh water is not such a good conductor of electricity)
• The EMF is picked up by a pair of probes (electrodes) that are in contact
with the water. The voltage drop is fed to the amplifier and finally applied to
a meter that displays the ships speed. Speed integrated over time allows the
unit to display the distance run.
• NMEA outputs to other equipment may also be provided.
• The log is calibrated for zero speed when vessel is stationary and with a
measured mile run and input to the meter is adjusted accordingly.
Limitations / Errors:
1. Sitting of the probe: The sitting of the probe is critical as wrongly fitted probe
will lead to wrong representation of vessel’s speed. This is minimized by
careful sitting of sensors as well as by calibrating the instrument during
installation.

2. Rolling and Pitching: There may be slight error in the speed calculated if the
vessel is rolling and pitching. However, these are reduced by having an
electrical time constant that is longer than a period of vessel’s motion.

3. Sign of speed: The EM log can show the astern speed as well, but without
sign when AC current is used. If DC current is used, it will show the sign.

4. Other limitations: The EM log provides only the STW i.e., speed of water
flowing past the hull of the ship. This flow can vary due to the hull form. Also,
it is greatly affected by currents flowing under the ship. Hence, when
navigating in area of great current, one must exercise precautions.

Advantages:
1. No moving parts
2. Not affected by marine growth
3. Simple and reliable
4. Easy to calibrate and maintain

Disadvantages:
1. Only reads speed through the water
2. Ocean current affects speed measurement
3. Induced EMF varies with conductivity of the water
4. Measurement affected by uneven flow of water past the hull.
5. Sensor protrudes below the hull and is subject to damage
6. Roll and pitch leads to errors
DOPPLER LOG

Principle:
• Doppler log works on the principle of Doppler Effect, which is a shift in
frequency between a transmitted signal and a received signal caused by the
motion of the vessel.
• Doppler Effect can be observed on any type of wave – light wave, sound
wave, water wave, etc.
• It is the apparent shift in frequency produced by a moving source and/or
observer i.e., relative motion of the frequency source and observer. If both
are not moving w.r.t. each other, no Doppler shift will take place.
• Doppler effect can be explained using a few equations. Consider, Frequency
transmitted = Ft, Frequency received by the observer = Fr, Speed of sound
through water = c, Vo = Velocity of observer, Velocity of source = Vs
𝑐
If source moves towards stationary observer, Fr = Ft x 𝑐−𝑉𝑠 (Vo = 0)
𝑐
If source moves away from stationary observer, Fr = Ft x (Vo = 0)
𝑐+ 𝑉𝑠

𝑐+𝑉𝑜
If observer moves towards stationary source, Fr = Ft x 𝑐
(Vs = 0)

If observer moves away from stationary source, Fr = Ft x 𝑐−𝑉𝑜

𝑐
(Vs = 0)

If both move away from each other, Fr = Ft x 𝑐− 𝑉𝑜

𝑐+𝑉𝑠

𝑐+𝑉𝑜
If both move towards each other, Fr = Ft x 𝑐−𝑉𝑠

• Since in the Doppler Log, source and observer are the same, we get,
𝑐+𝑉
Fr = Ft x 𝑐−𝑉 (Where v = velocity of the ship)

• If a signal beamed in the forward direction reflects off an object and is

returned to the vessel, it will suffer an apparent frequency shift which is
proportionate to the vessel’s movement. The vessel’s speed can thus be
 calculated based on the difference in frequency between transmitted and
received signals. Since there is generally no reflecting surface ahead of a ship
at sea so we use the sea bed to gauge the ships speed.
• The Doppler transducer is mounted on the keel and produces a concentrated,
conical beam of energy. The sound waves are not sent straight down, but at
an angle so as to cause Doppler shift.
• An angle of 60˚ to the keel has been found to be suitable and will reflect a
signal of sufficient strength back to the receiving transducer.
• If ‘α’ is the angle of incidence of the acoustic beam from the keel, we get,
𝑐+𝑉 cos 𝛼
Fr = Ft x 𝑐−𝑉 cos 𝛼

Since ‘Fr’, ‘Ft’, ‘c’ and ‘α’ are known, speed of the ship (v) can be calculated.

Janus Configuration:
• When using a single transducer, if the angle ‘α’ changes during pitching or
due to incorrect trim, longitudinal parameters will change and speed
indicated will be in error as calculation of speed is done with angle as 600.
• To avoid this to some extent, two acoustic beams are transmitted, oneahead
and one astern. This kind of a transducer assembly is called ‘Janus’
configuration, named after a Roman God who possessed two faces and was
able to see into both the future and the past.
• With two beams, the Doppler shift formula changes and accuracy is improved
with a slight error still present. The Doppler shift (Ft-Fr) is now given by the
formula:
2 v Ft
(Ft-Fr) = (cos α + cos α’) (where α=α’=600),
𝑐
2 v Ft c (Ft−Fr)
∴ (Ft-Fr) = (0.5 + 0.5) ∴ v=
𝑐 2 𝐹𝑡

• Thus, we see that the amount of Doppler Shift (Ft-Fr) depends on the
transmitted frequency (Ft), velocity of transmitted signal (c) and velocity of
the transmitter/receiver i.e., the ship (v).
• Hence, if transmission angles are 600both sides, then they can be effectively
ignored, cancelling the effects of pitching on the speed indication.
• With a Janus configuration, and 30 trim, it is seen that the error is reduced to
0.2% (but not fully eliminated) as compared to the 5% error if single transducer
arrangement is used.
• A second transducer assembly may be set at right angles to the first one to
get dual axis speed i.e., longitudinal speed and as well as transverse speed.
• Also, transducer arrangements may be at the bow and the stern to show the
vessel’s movement during turn manoeuvres.

Effect of Pitching on a Janus Configuration Transducer

Dual axis speed measured using 4 beams

Working:
• A transducer broadcasts a continuous beam of sound vibrations with velocity
of about 1500 m/s in water. The transducer is usually mounted atthe keel,
toward the bow, where disturbances due to engine, propeller noise and
aeration effects are least. The same transducer serves as both transmitter
and receiver. Transducers used are of the electro strictive type.
• The acoustic beams are transmitted at an angle of about 600 from the keel,
which is found to be the optimum angle of incidence with the seabed, which
will reflect a signal of sufficient strength to be received by the transducer.
• The Log registers the change in frequency between the transmitted and
received signal and then calculates the velocity of the ship.
• The beams are continuous, narrow and high in frequency. The frequency
varies from system to system but usually is in the range of 100 kHz to 1 MHz
• When signal is bounced off the sea bed, called Bottom track, speed indicated
will be the speed over ground (SOG).
• In deep waters, where ground cannot be found, the signals will be bounced
off a layer of water (water track) and the speed indicated will be the speed
through water (STW).
• The Doppler log normally measures the SOG to about 600 ft depth. (About
180m) After this depth, signals may return from a dense, colder layer of water
located throughout the oceans called the deep scattering layer (DSL).Signals
from the DSL are not as accurate as those from the bottom reflections, but
can be used to obtain the STW when SOG is not available.
• The system may automatically or manually switch over to water tracking from
Bottom tracking at increased depths.
• Logs with both longitudinal and transverse speed function may also have
digital displays and connections to GPS allowing for a berthing mode. Digital
signals may be fed to various other equipment like auto-pilot, radar, ECDIS,
etc.
ERRORS:
1. List & Trim – a change in trim from the calibrated normal, will affect the fore
and aft speed, whereas excessive list will affect the athwartship speed. A
Janus configuration transducer reduces this error to a negligible amount.
Heaving i.e., vertical movement has no effect on the calculated speed.

2. Instrumental Error – the difference in the transmitted and received

frequencies measured by the fwd. & aft transducers must be measured
accurately. Any error in this measurement will directly reflect in the speed
calculated. Also, incorrectly calibrated equipment will have a fixed error.

3. Side Lobe Error – when side lobe reception dominates the main beam
reception, there will be an error in the speed. This happens more on sloppy
bottoms where side lobe reflects at a more favorable angle and has less path
beam than the main beam.

4. Rolling and Pitching – If vessel is pitching at angle Φ and speed is indicated

as ‘x’, then the actual speed is ‘x/cosΦ’. The digital indicator will fluctuate
between the actual speed and the value lower than the actual speed.

5. Velocity of the transmitted wave: The velocity of the transmitted wave (c)
changes with temperature, salinity and pressure. It is assumed to be 1500 m/s
at 160C and 3.4% salinity. However, depending on the seawater, the value of
‘c’ will vary. To compensate for the error due to temperature, a thermostat is
mounted near the transducer.

6. Transducer Orientation – the transducer must make a perfect 600 angle

w.r.t. the keel or else the speed indicated will be inaccurate.

7. Oscillator Frequency – the frequency generated (Ft) by the oscillator must be

accurate & constant or else speed will be in error. This is not normally an issue
in modern systems as they use very stable & controlled oscillators.

8. Cross Noise - It is affected by cross noise if located too close to the propeller,
thrusters, drain tubes, echo sounder transducer, etc.
 9. Aeration – An aerated water layer will reflect signals giving rise to errors.
Aeration in the proximity of propellers/bow thrusters while coming along side
causes errors. Also, sand / mud in suspension in shallow, disturbedwaters will
lead to errors.

Calibration:
• It is necessary that the Doppler log be correctly calibrated at installation.
• The unit must be first correctly zeroed. This can be done while alongside or
at anchor when speed over ground is zero.
• Scale calibration is done during sea trials, when time taken to cover a
measured mile is noted and speed is calculated. The calculated speed is
compared with the speed displayed and necessary adjustments are made.

Advantages:
1. High accuracy
2. Can measure very low speeds
3. Can measure ahead, astern & athwartship speed
4. Can be used for ocean navigation in water track mode showing STW (set
and drift must be accounted for in this mode)
5. Useful in berthing and manoeuvring in ground track mode
6. May provide a docking mode display for easy assessment of vessels
movement when berthing
7. May be manufactured to show water depth as well (echo sounder function)

Disadvantages:
1. Fairly complex device
2. Janus configuration transducer protrudes a little below the hull
3. Damage to the hull near the transducer may cause deflection of the
transducer mounting leading to errors
4. Accuracy may be reduced in rough weather (BF 6 and up)
PERFORMANCE STANDARDS FOR SPEED & DISTANCE MEASURING
EQUIPMENTS:
RESOLUTION A.824(19) - PERFORMANCE STANDARDS FOR DEVICES TO MEASURE AND
INDICATE SPEED AND DISTANCE as amended by RESOLUTION MSC.96(72) (adopted on
22 May 2000)

Introduction
• Devices to measure and indicate speed and distance are intended for general
navigational and ship manoeuvring use. The minimum requirement is to
provide information on the distance run and the forward speed of the ship
through the water or over the ground. Additional information on ship's
motions other than in the forward axis may be provided.
• The equipment should comply fully with its performance standard at forward
speeds up to the maximum speed of the ship.
• Devices measuring speed and distance through the water should meet the
performance standard in water of depth greater than 3 m beneath the keel.
• Devices measuring speed and distance over the ground should meet the
performance standard in water of depth greater than 2 m beneath the keel.

Methods Of Presentation
• Speed information may be presented in either analogue or digital form.
• Where a digital display is used, its incremental steps should not exceed 0.1
knots.
• Analogue displays should be graduated at least every 0.5 knots and be
marked with figures at least every 5 knots. If the display can present the
speed of the ship in other than the forward direction, the direction of
movement should be indicated unambiguously.
• Distance run information should be presented in digital form. The display
should cover the range from 0 to not less than 9999.9 nautical miles and the
incremental steps should not exceed 0.1 nautical miles. Where practicable,
means should be provided for resetting a read out to zero.
 • The display should be easily readable by day and by night.
• Means should be provided for transmitting measured speed and distance run
information to other equipment fitted on board, in accordance with the
relevant international marine interface standards.
• If equipment is capable of being operated in either the "speed through the
water" or "speed over the ground" mode, mode selection and mode
indication should be provided.
• If the equipment has provision for indicating speeds other than on a single
fore and aft direction, then both the forward and athwart speeds should be
provided either through the water or over the ground. Resultant speed and
direction information may be provided as a display selectable option. All such
information should clearly indicate the direction, mode and validity status of
the displayed information.

Accuracy Of Measurement
• Errors in the measured and indicated speed, when the ship is operating free
from shallow water effect and from the effects of wind, sea bottom type,
current and tide, should not exceed the following:
a) for digital display - 2% of the ships speed, or 0.2 kts, whichever is greater;
b) for analogue display – 2.5% of ships speed, or 0.25 kts, whichever greater;
c) for output data transmission – 2% of the ships speed, or 0.2 kts, whichever
is greater
• Errors in the indicated distance run, when the ship is operating free from
shallow water effect and from the effects of wind, sea bottom type, current
and tide; should not exceed 2% of the distance run by the ship in 1 hour or
0.2 nautical miles in each hour, whichever is greater.
• If the accuracy of devices to indicate speed and distance run can be affected
in use by certain conditions (e.g., sea state and its effects, water
temperature, salinity, sound velocity in water, depth of water under the keel,
heel and trim of ship), details of possible effects should be included in the
equipment handbook.
Roll And Pitch
• The performance of the equipment should be such that it will meet the
performance standards when the ship is rolling up to ±10º and pitching up to
±5º.

Construction And Installation

• The system should be so designed that the method of attachment of parts of
the equipment to the ship or damage occurring to any part of the equipment
which penetrates the hull should not result in the ingress of water to the ship.
• Where any part of the system is designed to extend from and retract into the
hull of the ship, the design should ensure that it can be extended,operated
normally and retracted at all speeds up to the maximum speed of the ship. Its
extended and retracted positions should be clearly indicated at the display
position.

Janus Transducer
******