CHAPTER 6 EQUIVALENCE OF PROPOSITION INTRODUCTION » be expressed in various ways although we Our thoughts may : ame thing*Equivalence of proposition is the process of sition in varied ‘ways without changing its ‘our kinds of equivalence: obversion, mean the s expressing the propo: original meaning. There are f conversion, contraposition, and inversion. rn OBVERSION , ate inference which consists in substituting an affirmative proposition with its negative equivalent, or vice-versa. This type of equivalence is also known as equipollence (Lt. “gequus” meaning equal and “pollens” meaning strength.) The original proposition is called the obvertend; the resultant inference is called the obverse. Obversion is a form of immedi Rules of Obversion: 1. Change the quality of the proposition, i.e., the affirmative proposition becomes negative and vice versa. 2. Substitute in place of the predicate its contradictory term. * Examples: ; : Obvertend Obverse A. All men are free. E. No men are non-free. nS men are free. A. Allmen are non-free. . Some men are free. O. Some men are not non-free. O. Some men are not free. I. Some men are non-free.Chapter 6 - Equivalence of Proposition 118 Other examples: se Obvertend Obverse E. No manis dishonest. are dishonest, honest. A. All me! 1 i . fe mente honest. O. Some men are not dishonesy 3 Roe men are not honest. I. Some men are dishonest. A. All men are honest CONVERSION Conversion is a form of immediate inference which Consists jn transposing the subject and the predicate without changing they meaning. The original proposition is called convertend: the resultant inference is called converse. There are two. kinds of conversion: simple and partial conversion. SIMPLE CONVERSION Simple conversion consists in transposing the subject and the predicate, and retaining the Quality of the original Proposition and the quality of the terms. This kind of conversion is also known as perfect or full conversion because the converse perfectly talies with the convertend. Rules: 1. Transpose the subject and the predicate of the convertend. 2. Retain the quality of the proposition, z 3. Retain the quantity of the terms, Note: Only E nd I propositions can undergo simple convertion because they are the only ones whose meaning is retained afte conversion, Examples: Convertend : Converse E. No penis a chalk. E. No chalkisapen E. No soldier is coward, E. No coward (x) is ona |. Some students are scholars. I. Some scholars are stu' aie iticians: I. Some Politicians are actors, I. Some actors are polllicChapter 6 - Equivalence of Proposition 119 ion cannot be converted sim it i quantity of the predicate bore doradiee ts : ension in the converse than in the sone ee meaning of the converse differs from that arihd se examples, therefore, are not valid: . A propos wange in ie choral ext vise, the vertend: The Converse convertend al mothers are females. Every rose is a flower. A a hammer is a tool. A. Allfemales are mothers. A. Every flower is a rose. A. A tool is a hammer. the quantity of the predicate term is particular, while its quantity pject term in the converse is universal. Hence, change ning. The same explanation goes with the other examples : the A-proposition, however, ‘is a definition, the rule of conversion applies because the subject and the predicate tensive as in this exa end: A triangle is a mple: Convert { polygon. Converse. A three-sided polygon is a triangle. i plies to A-proposition if the subject e are singular terms in which case each is dent with the other, as in this example: Convertend: Fr. Lorenz tin is the Dean of the Philosophy Departm ent of San Carlos minary. Converse: The Dean of the Philosophy Department of Festin. san Carlos Seminary is Fr. Lorenz like A-proposition, O-proposition cannot be Its conversion results in an invalid inference. ore, are not valid: , the first example, " of the original proposition he predicat converted simply These examples, Converse cow Convertend ; ue females are not mothers. O. some mothers are not females. Some lawyers are not judges. O. Some judges are not lawyers. y of the original subject term In the given examples, the quantit al predicate term in the is | : Reece it becomes a_ univers erse. Hence, a change in meaning. p; ARTIAL CONVERSION the subject and the Parti : i ial conversion consists in transposing ition changed from Pred hi cate with the quantity of the propos!Chapter 6 - Equivalence of Proposition 120 ; is ki of conversion is also called i ticular. This kind versio! Be ceriondenvenion or conversion by limitation because the acciden ition is lessened. (Qnly “A:proposition can n. Rules: 1. Transpose the subject and the predicate. 2. Retain the quality of the proposition. iB 3, The universal affirmative proposition (A-proposition) becomes particular. Examples: Convertend Converse A. Allstones are inanimate. I. Some inanimate (x) are stones, A. Alljudges are lawyers. I. Some lawyers are judges. CONTRAPOSITION Contraposition is a form of immediate inference ‘hat pies ds. of the and in. There are two contraposition: pa and . The original proposition is called contraponend; the resultant inference is called contraposit. PARTIAL CONTRAPOSITION 4 * Partial contraposition consists in obverting the — original Proposition, then converting its obverse. It is simply the converse of the obverse of the given proposition. The following rules are employed: 1. Obvert the given proposition. 2. Convert the resultant proposition. Examples: 1. A: Allroses are flowers. Obverse: No roses are non-flowers. Converse: Non-flowers are not roses. (Partial contraposition) The obverse being al ’ Converts simply.Chapter 6 - Equivalence of Proposition £: No dogs are cats. se: All dogs are non-cats. (Ay 2. obve rse; Some non-cats are dogs. (1). Seu mpn-toe conve! ne partial contraposition) The obverse being an A-propositic Cenverts Partial n_Arroposti sition. I: Some lawyers are judges. e: Some lawyers are not non-judges. © ” opvers non-judges are not lawyers. Q Sem--009.- 44 Converse: Some ersion requires the retention of the quality of the (Note: Conversic : original proposition. But, in l-proposition, it is not the case. Likewise, particular term cannot become a universal term for we itwillinvolve'a change in meaning.) : O: Some students are not scholars. Obverse: Some students are non-scholars. (D948 ; Converse: Some non-scholars are students. Some 00 hie (Partial contraposition) The obverse being an «-pr@pstton convert: oN 4 Observe that. only creed without undergoing limitation. E proposition has to be partially converted. Other examples: 5 a writing instrument. , A: Contraponend: A penis Contraposit: Non-writing instrument is not a pen. po ropositions can have partial el E: Contraponend: No square is a circle. Contraposit: Some non-circles are squares. O: Contraponend: Some prisoners are not criminals. Contraposit: Some non-criminals are prisoners. FULL CONTRAPOSITION a pei tae a consists in obverting the outcome of partial cbvelse mae It is simply the obverse of the converse of the nevertheless ‘i given, proposition. The resultant inference is, contraposit foll fe equivalent of the original contraposit.. Full lows these rules: gL122 Chapter 6 - Equivalence of Proposition 1, Obvert the given proposition. 2. Convert its obverse. 3. Obvert its converse. Examples: (Note: PC stands for partial contraposition and FC for full contraposition.) 1. A: All roses are flowers. Obverse: No roses are non-flowers. 5 ; PC: Non-flowers are not roses. FC: Non-flowers are non-roses. 2, E: No dogs are cats. © Obverse: All dogs are non-cats. PC: Some non-cats are dogs. FC: Some non-cats are not non-dogs. 3. 7 : Some lawyers are. judges.. Obverse: Some lawyers are not non-judges. PC: Some non-judges are not lawyers. (not valid) FC: Since | cannot be partially contraposited, it cannot be fully contraposited either. 4. O: Some students are not scholars. Obverse: Some students are non-scholars. PC: Some non-scholars are students, FC: Some non-scholars are not non-students. INVERSION While full contraposition requires the transposition of the subject and the predicate of the original proposition, inversion does not undergo such transposition but merely introduces negative paces Delorg the subject and the predicate. There are two kinds oO Hevesi), partial and full inversion. The original proposition is Called invertend: the resultant inference is called inverse. It is important to note that the inverse of i i i a proposition is valid only for A and E propositions. es ; INVERSION OF A-PROPOSITION To get the full inverse of an A-proposition, convert its Contraposit. To gain the partial inverse, obvert the full inverse.Chapter 6 - Equivalence of Proposition 123 examples: A: Allroses are flowers. Obverse: No roses are non-flowers. Converse: Non-flowers are not roses. Obverse: All non-flowers are non-roses. - Converse: Some non-roses are non-flowers. (Full Inverse) Obverse: Some non-roses are not flowers. (Partial Inverse) INVERSION OF E-PROPOSITION erse of E-proposition, convert, obvert and To get the partial inv al proposition. To obtain the full inverse, convert again the origin obvert the partial inverse. Example: E: No dogs are cats. Converse: No cats are dogs. Obverse: All cats are non-dogs. Converse: Some non-dogs are cats. (Partial inverse) Obverse: Some non-dogs are not non-cats. (Full inverse) DousLe NEGATIVE two negatives used. in-a sentence inference that that, if not nof- ly common to inguages, In some A double negative is when cancel each other out to make a positive. It is an if A is true, then not not-A is true and its converse, Ais true, then A is true. Double negative is not on the English language: it is common to several other lai but not every language considers it as incorrect. languages it is simply a way of speech. Wi How does one avoid double negatives? It is quite simple. hen using the negative form of a verb (e.g. aren't, don't. won't, etc}, do not follow it up with a negative determiner (e.g. nowhere, nothing, never, etc). Consider the following sentences: They aren't going nowhere. They don 't do nothing. They won't never stop.124 Chapter 6 - Equivalence of Proposition 3 he double negative; and are hence ciel it oye ee the double negative was q never ee hasis, but the effort to make English Conform See shea Yo formal logic has rendered it unacceptable eda. “Lécicaly the meanings of the above sentences, deduced by applying the formula negative + negative = Positive, are: They are going somewhere. (aren’t + nowhere = somewhere} They do something. (don't + nothing = something) They will stop. (won't + never = will) The ban on multiple negatives also applies to combination with adverbs such as hardly and scarcely. It is therefore regarded gs incorrect to say ‘! couldn't hardly do it' or ‘The vehicle has scarcely no fuel.’ Here we try to identify double negatives with the help of the examples mentioned below, along with the implied meaning and the actual meaning. 1, She can't make no friends with nobody. anecani make no friends with nobody. Implied Meaning: She can't make friends with anybody. Literal Meaning: She can make friends with somebody. 2. Ldid not barely understand what you were saying. Implied Meaning: did not understand anything you said. Literal Meaning: | understood everything you said. 3. Lnever sow nothing. Implied Meaning: | never saw anything. Literal Meaning: | saw something. 4. That attitude won't get you nowhere, Implied Meaning: that attitude won't get you anywhere. Literal Meaning: That attitude will get you somewhere. 5. I'm not going to no party, Implied Meaning: I'm not going to any party. Literal Meaning: | am going to a party. aeReference: [Link] [Link]/articles double-negative- Chapter 6 - Equivalence of Proposition | don't want no sympathy from you. Implied Meaning: | don't want any sympathy from you Literal Meaning: | want some sympathy from you. g He can't hardly wait for his present to arrive. Implied Meaning: He can hardly wait for his present to arrive. Literal Meaning: He can wait for his present to arrive. 125 Kevin shouldn't have nothing to do with his colleaque. Implied Meaning: Kevin shouldn't have anything to do with his colleague. Literal Meaning: Kevin should have something to do with his colleague. The pilot could not find nowhere to land. a Implied Meaning: The pilot could not find a place to land. Literal Meaning: The pilot could find some place to land. . [haven't had no luck with finding a job. oT Implied Meaning: | haven't had any luck finding a job. Literal Meaning: | have had some luck finding a job. [Link]!