Department of Electrical Engineering

Pashchimanchal campus, Institute of Engineering

Tribhuvan University

Control Engineering

Component Modeling

Ram Pd. Pandey

2021
 Chapter 2:
Component Modeling
2.1) Differential equation and transfer function notations
2.2) Modeling of Mechanical Components: Mass, spring and damper
2.3) Modeling of Electrical Components: Inductance, Capacitance, Resistance,
DC and AC motor , Transducers and Operational Amplifiers
2.4) Electric circuit analogies ( force-voltage analogy and force-current analogy)
2.5) Linearized approximations of non-linear characteristics
 Basics:
• The control systems can be represented with a set of mathematical
equations known as mathematical model. These models are useful
for analysis and design of control systems.
• Analysis of control system means finding the output when we know
the input and mathematical model.
• Design of control system means finding the mathematical model
when we know the input and the output.
• The following mathematical models are mostly used.
1. Differential equation model
2. Transfer function model
3. State space model
 Chapter 2:
Component Modeling
2.1) Differential equation and transfer function notations
2.2) Modeling of Mechanical Components: Mass, spring and damper
2.3) Modeling of Electrical Components: Inductance, Capacitance, Resistance,
DC and AC motor , Transducers and Operational Amplifiers
2.4) Electric circuit analogies ( force-voltage analogy and force-current analogy)
2.5) Linearized approximations of non-linear characteristics
 Differential equation
• Differential equation model is a time domain mathematical model of
control systems.
• Describes dynamics of the system[ Eg mechanical, electrical, thermal
system etc]
• Obtained by using physical laws [ Eg Newton’s law for mechanical system
and Kirchhoff’s laws for electrical systems. ]
• Follow these steps for differential equation model.
1. Apply basic laws to the given control system.
2. Get the differential equation in terms of input and output by
eliminating the intermediate variables
 Example for differential equation:
Consider the following electrical system as shown in the following figure. This circuit consists of resistor,
inductor and capacitor. All these electrical elements are connected in series. The input voltage applied to this
circuit is 𝑣𝑖 and the voltage across the capacitor is the output voltage 𝑣𝑜 . Write differential equation of system.
Solution
Step 1: Apply basic laws to the given control system
KVL equation for this circuit is:
𝑑𝑖
𝑣𝑖 = 𝑅𝑖 + 𝐿 + 𝑣0
𝑑𝑡
Step 2: Get the differential equation in terms of input and output by eliminating the intermediate variables
𝑑𝑣𝑜
Substitute, the current passing through capacitor 𝑖 = 𝐶 in the above equation.
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣𝑜 𝑑 2 𝑣𝑜
𝑣𝑖 = 𝑅𝐶 + 𝐿𝐶 + 𝑣0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2
𝑑 2 𝑣0 𝑅 𝑑𝑣0 1 1
+ + 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑖
𝑑𝑡 2 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 𝐿𝐶 0 𝐿𝐶

The above equation is a second order differential equation.

 Transfer Function Model
• Transfer function model is an s-domain mathematical model of control systems.
• The Transfer function of a Linear Time Invariant LTI system is defined as the ratio of Laplace transform
of output (response function) and Laplace transform of input (driving function) by assuming all the
initial conditions are zero.
• If 𝑥(𝑡) and 𝑦(𝑡) are the input and output of an LTI system, then the corresponding Laplace transforms
are 𝑋(𝑠) and 𝑌(𝑠). Therefore, the transfer function of LTI system is equal to the ratio of 𝑌(𝑠) and
𝑋(𝑠).
𝐿𝑎𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐿 𝑦 𝑡 𝑌 𝑠
𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = = =
𝐿𝑎𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐿[𝑥 𝑡 ] 𝑋 𝑠
• In figure, we represented an LTI system with a block having transfer function inside it. And this block
has an input 𝑋(𝑠) & output 𝑌(𝑠).

• Following steps are used to obtain the transfer function of the given system:
1. Write the differential equations for the given system:
2. Take the Laplace transform of the equations obtained in step 1, with assumptions all initial conditions are zero.
3. Take the ratio of transformed output to input.
4. The ratio of transformed output to input, obtained in step 3 is the required transfer function of the given system
 Example of Transfer Function:
Derive Transfer function for the system shown in figure:
Solution,
Step 1) Write the differential equations for the given system:
Previously, we got the differential equation of an electrical system as:
𝑑2 𝑣0 𝑅 𝑑𝑣0 1 1
+ + 𝑣 = 𝑣
𝑑𝑡 2 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 𝐿𝐶 0 𝐿𝐶 𝑖

Step 2) Take the Laplace transform of the equations obtained in step 1, with assumptions all initial conditions are zero.
Apply Laplace transform on both sides,
𝑠𝑅 1 1
𝑠 2 𝑉0 𝑠 + 𝑉𝑜 𝑠 + 𝑉0 𝑠 = 𝑉 (𝑠)
𝐿 𝐿𝐶 𝐿𝐶 𝑖
𝑅 1 1
𝑠2 + 𝑠+ 𝑉𝑜 𝑠 = 𝑉 (𝑠)
𝐿 𝐿𝐶 𝐿𝐶 𝑖
Step 3) Take the ratio of transformed output to input.
1
𝑉0 𝑠 𝐿𝐶
=
𝑉𝑖 (𝑠) 𝑠 2 + 𝑅 𝑠 + 1
𝐿 𝐿𝐶
Step 4) The ratio of transformed output to input, obtained in step 3 is the required transfer function of the given system
1
𝑉0 𝑠 𝐿𝐶
𝑇. 𝐹 = =
𝑉𝑖 (𝑠) 𝑠 2 + 𝑅 𝑠 + 1
𝐿 𝐿𝐶
The above equation is a transfer function of the second order electrical system. The transfer function model of this system is shown in
figure.
 Advantages & Disadvantages of Transfer Function:
Advantages of Transfer function:
• Gives gain of the system
• Convert time-domain equations to simple algebraic equations
• Determine poles, zeros & characteristic equation ( i.e denominator=0)
• Stability study
• Determine output response for given input
• Obtain differential equation

Disadvantages of Transfer function:

• Applicable only to a linear system.
• Not applicable if the initial condition cannot be neglected.
• It gives no information about the actual structure of a physical system.
T.F of closed loop system
 Chapter 2:
Component Modeling
2.1) Differential equation and transfer function notations
2.2) Modeling of Mechanical Components: Mass, spring and damper
2.3) Modeling of Electrical Components: Inductance, Capacitance, Resistance,
DC and AC motor , Transducers and Operational Amplifiers
2.4) Electric circuit analogies ( force-voltage analogy and force-current analogy)
2.5) Linearized approximations of non-linear characteristics
2.2 ) Modeling of Mechanical components: mass, spring and damper:

• Mechanical systems are of two types:

1. Translational mechanical system ( motion along straight line)
2. Rotational mechanical system (motion about fixed axis)
• Modeling of Mechanical components (i.e mass , spring & damper) done for
both mechanical systems (i.e translational & rotational)
• Following steps are used for modeling of the mechanical components:
1. Assume the system is in equilibrium.
2. Assume some displacement for given force.
3. Draw the free body diagram of forces exerted on each mass in the system.
4. Apply Newton's law of motion to each diagram, using the convention that any force acting in the
direction of assumed displacement is positive.
5. Rearrange the equations in a suitable form to be solved by any means.
Note: Mass O point exist for :
1. System with no mass between elements
2. System with open ended element
 1) Modeling of Translational Mechanical Systems
• systems move along a straight line
• mainly consist of three basic elements
1. mass,
2. dashpot or damper
3. spring
• If a force is applied to a translational mechanical system, then it is
opposed by opposing forces due to mass, elasticity and friction of the
system.
• Since the applied force and the opposing forces are in opposite
directions, the algebraic sum of the forces acting on the system is zero.
• the force opposed by these three elements individually is shown in
table :
a) Mass b) Damper c) Spring
 property of a body, which stores kinetic • piston/shock absorber  Element which stores potential energy.
energy  If a force is applied on dashpot B, then it  If a force (𝐅) is applied on spring K,
 If a force(𝐅) is applied on a body having is opposed by an opposing force(𝑭𝑩 ) then it is opposed by an opposing force
mass M, then it is opposed by an opposing due to friction of the dashpot. (𝑭𝑲 ) due to elasticity of spring
force (𝑭𝑴 ) due to mass  Opposing force is proportional to the  Opposing force is proportional to
 Opposing force is proportional to the velocity (𝒗) of the body. Assume mass displacement (𝒙)of the spring.
acceleration (𝒂) of the body. Assume and elasticity are negligible Assume mass and friction are negligible.
elasticity and friction are negligible.

𝑭𝑴 ∝ 𝒂 𝑭𝑩 ∝ 𝒗 𝑭𝑲 ∝ 𝒙
𝟐 𝒅𝒙
𝒅 𝒙 𝑭𝑲 = 𝑲𝒙
𝑭𝑴 = 𝑴𝒂 = 𝑴 𝟐 𝑭𝒗 = 𝑩𝒗 = 𝑩
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝑭 = 𝑭𝑲 = 𝑲𝒙
𝒅𝟐 𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝑭 = 𝑭𝑴 = 𝑴 𝟐 𝑭 = 𝑭𝒗 = 𝑩
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
Where, Where,
Where,
𝑭 = applied force 𝑭 = applied force
𝑭 = applied force
𝑭𝑩 =opposing force due to friction of 𝑭𝑲 = opposing force due to elasticity of
𝑭𝒎 =opposing force due to mass
dashpot spring
𝑴 = mass
𝑩 = frictional coefficient 𝑲 = spring constant
𝒂 = acceleration
𝒗 =velocity 𝒙 = displacement
𝒙 = displacement
𝒙 = displacement
 1) Modeling of Translational Mechanical Systems
So, for translational system:
• Three forces that resists motion of applied force F are inertial,
damping and spring force i.e 𝐹𝑀 , 𝐹𝐵 & 𝐹𝐾
• From D’alembert’s principle:
∑𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 + ∑𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 0
∑𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 = −∑𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 = 𝐹𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 + 𝐹𝐷𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 + 𝐹𝑆𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑑2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝐹 =𝑀 2 +𝐵 +𝑘𝑥
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Example :Modeling of Translational Mechanical Systems
Example:
Write the differential equations governing the mechanical system shown in fig 1 & determine the transfer function.

Signal Laplace
Transform

𝑓(𝑡) 𝐹(𝑠)

𝑥1 𝑋1 (𝑠)

𝑥 𝑋(𝑠)
Solution:
Step 1: Assume the system is in equilibrium.
Step 2: Assume some displacement for each mass (i.e 𝑥1 & 𝑥).
For given system,
Input = Applied force=𝑓(𝑡)
Output= Final displacement = 𝑥
The system has two nodes (i.e mass 𝑀1 & 𝑀2 ). The differential equations governing the system are given by force
balance equation at these nodes.
Step 3: Draw the free body diagram (FBD) of forces exerted on each mass( i.e 𝑀1 & 𝑀2 ) in the system.

FBD of 𝑀1 FBD of 𝑀2
• Let the displacement of mass 𝑀1 be 𝑥1 . The • The displacement of mass 𝑀2 is 𝑥. The opposing
opposing forces acting on mass 𝑀1 are marked as forces acting on 𝑀2 are marked as
𝑓𝑚1 , 𝑓𝑏1 , 𝑓𝑏 , 𝑓𝑘1 & 𝑓𝑘 . 𝑓𝑚2 , 𝑓𝑏2 , 𝑓𝑏 & 𝑓𝑘

𝑑 2 𝑥1
𝑓𝑚1 = 𝑀1
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑2 𝑥
𝑓𝑚2 = 𝑀2 2 ;
𝑑𝑥1 𝑑𝑡
𝑓𝑏1 = 𝐵1
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥
𝑓𝑏2 = 𝐵2
𝑓𝑘1 = 𝐾1 𝑥1 𝑑𝑡
𝑑
𝑑 𝑓𝑏 = 𝑥 − 𝑥1 ;
𝑓𝑏 = 𝐵 𝑥1 − 𝑥 ; 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑓𝑘 = 𝐾(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
𝑓𝑘 = 𝐾(𝑥1 − 𝑥)
Fig 3: Free body diagram of mass 𝑀1 (node 1) Fig 4: Free body diagram of mass 𝑀2 (node 2)
Step 4: Apply Newton's law of motion to each diagram, using the convention that any force acting in the direction of assumed
displacement is positive.

• By Newton’s second law, • By Newton’s second law,

𝑓𝑚1 + 𝑓𝑏1 + 𝑓𝑏 + 𝑓𝐾1 + 𝑓𝐾 = 0 𝑓𝑚2 + 𝑓𝑏2 + 𝑓𝑏 + 𝑓𝐾 = 𝑓(𝑡)

𝑑2 𝑥1 𝑑𝑥1 𝑑 𝑑2 𝑡 𝑑𝑥 𝑑
∴ 𝑀1 + 𝐵1 + 𝐵 𝑥 − 𝑥 +𝐾1 𝑥1 + 𝐾(𝑥1 − 𝑥) = 0 𝑀2 2 + 𝐵2 +𝐵 𝑥 − 𝑥1 + 𝐾 𝑥 − 𝑥1 = 𝑓(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 1 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
• On taking Laplace transform of above equation with zero • On taking Laplace transform of above equation with zero
initial conditions we get, initial conditions we get,
𝑀1 𝑠 2 𝑋1 𝑠 + 𝐵1 𝑠𝑋1 𝑠 + 𝐵𝑠 𝑋1 𝑠 − 𝑋2 𝑠 + 𝐾1 𝑋1 𝑠 𝑀2 𝑠 2 𝑋 𝑠 + 𝐵2 𝑠𝑋 𝑠 + 𝐵𝑠 𝑋 𝑠 − 𝑋1 𝑠 + 𝐾 𝑋 𝑠 − 𝑋1 𝑠
+ 𝐾 𝑋1 𝑠 − 𝑋 𝑠 =0 = 𝐹(𝑠)
𝑋1 𝑠 𝑀1 𝑠 2 + 𝐵1 + 𝐵 𝑠 + 𝐾1 + 𝐾 − 𝑋 𝑠 𝐵𝑠 + 𝐾 = 0 𝑋 𝑠 𝑀2 𝑠 2 + 𝐵2 + 𝐵 𝑠 + 𝐾 − 𝑋1 𝑠 𝐵𝑠 + 𝐾 = 𝐹 𝑠 … . (2)
𝑋1 𝑠 𝑀1 𝑠 2 + 𝐵1 + 𝐵 𝑠 + 𝐾1 + 𝐾 = 𝑋 𝑠 𝐵𝑠 + 𝐾

𝐵𝑠 + 𝐾
∴ 𝑋1 𝑠 = 𝑋 𝑠 … … (1)
𝑀1 𝑠 2 + 𝐵1 + 𝐵 𝑠 + 𝐾1 + 𝐾
Step 5: Rearrange the equations in a suitable form
Example 1
Example 2
Example 3
 2) Modeling of Rotational Mechanical Systems
• systems move about a fixed axis.
• consist of three basic elements
1. moment of inertia
2. dashpot.
3. torsional spring
• If a torque is applied to a rotational mechanical system, then it is opposed
by opposing torques due to moment of inertia, elasticity and friction of the
system.
• Since the applied torque and the opposing torques are in opposite
directions, the algebraic sum of torques acting on the system is zero.
• the torque opposed by these three elements individually is shown in table
below:
 2) Modeling of Components for Rotational Mechanical Systems
a) Moment of inertia b) Damper c) Torsional Spring
 property of a body, which stores kinetic  Property of body causing friction  Element which stores potential energy.
energy  If a torque (𝑻) is applied on dashpot B,  If a torque(𝑻) is applied on torsional spring K,
 If a torque(𝑻) is applied on a body having then it is opposed by an opposing torque then it is opposed by an opposing torque (𝑻𝑲 )
moment of inertia (J), then it is opposed by an (𝑻𝑩 ) due to the rotational friction of the due to the elasticity of torsional spring.
opposing torque 𝑻𝑱 due to the moment of dashpot. This opposing torque is  Opposing torque is proportional to angular
inertia. proportional to the angular velocity(𝐰) of displacement (𝜃) of the torsional spring.
 opposing torque is proportional to angular the body. Assume the moment of inertia Assume that the moment of inertia and
acceleration(𝒂) of the body. Assume elasticity and elasticity are negligible. friction are negligible.
and friction are negligible.

𝑻𝑱 ∝ 𝒂 𝑻𝑩 ∝ 𝒘 𝑻𝑲 ∝ 𝜽
𝒅 𝜽𝟐 𝒅𝜽 𝑻𝑲 = 𝑲𝜽
𝑻𝑱 = 𝑱𝒂 = 𝑱 𝟐 𝑻𝑩 = 𝑩𝒘 = 𝑩
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝑻 = 𝑻𝑲 = 𝑲𝜽
𝒅𝟐 𝜽 𝒅𝜽
𝑻 = 𝑻𝑱 = 𝑱 𝟐 𝑻 = 𝑻𝑩 = 𝑩
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 where,
where, where, 𝑻= applied torque
𝑻 = applied torque 𝑻 = applied torque 𝑻𝑲 =opposing torque due to elasticity of torsional
𝑻𝑱 =opposing torque due to moment of inertia 𝑻𝑩 =opposing torque due to the rotational spring
friction of dashpot 𝑲 =torsional spring constant
𝑱 = moment of inertia
𝑩 = rotational friction coefficient 𝜽 = angular displacement
𝜶 = angular acceleration
𝝎 =angular velocity
𝜽 = angular displacement
𝜽 =angular displacement
 2) Modeling of Rotational Mechanical Systems
So, for rotational system:
• Three forces that resists rotational motion of applied torque T are inertial
,damping and spring torque i.e 𝑇𝐽 , 𝑇𝐵 & 𝑇𝐾
• From D’alembert’s principle:
∑𝑇𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 + ∑𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 0
∑𝑇𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 = −∑𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑇 = 𝑇𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 + 𝑇𝐷𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 + 𝑇𝑆𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔

𝑑2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑇 =𝐽 2 +𝐵 +𝑘𝜃
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Example : Modeling of Rotational Mechanical Systems
Example 1: Modeling of Rotational Mechanical Systems
 Summary for Modeling of Mechanical Systems
Translational system Rotational motion

Mechanical Components Force that resists Mechanical Components Torque that resist
for translational motion translational motion For rotational motion rotational motion
Mass(𝑀) Inertial force: Moment of Inertia(J) Inertial torque:
𝑑2𝑥 𝑑2𝜃
𝐹𝑀 = 𝑀 2 𝑇𝐼 = 𝐽 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Damper(𝐵) Damping force: Damper(𝐵) Damping torque:

𝑑𝑥 𝑑2𝜃
𝐹𝐷 = 𝐵 𝑇𝐷 = 𝐵
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Torsional spring(K) Spring torque:

Spring(𝐾) Spring force:
𝑇𝜃 = 𝐾 𝜃
𝐹𝐾 = 𝐾 𝑥
Moment of Inertia(J) , 𝑑2𝜃 𝑑𝜃
Mass(𝑀),Spring(𝐾) & 𝑑2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 Damper(𝐵) & Torsional 𝑇 =𝐽 2 +𝐵 +𝑘𝜃
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Damper(𝐵) 𝐹 =𝑀 2 +𝐵 +𝑘𝑥
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 spring(K)
 Chapter 2:
Component Modeling
2.1) Differential equation and transfer function notations
2.2) Modeling of Mechanical Components: Mass, spring and damper
2.3) Modeling of Electrical Components: Inductance, Capacitance, Resistance,
DC and AC motor , Transducers and Operational Amplifiers
2.4) Electric circuit analogies ( force-voltage analogy and force-current analogy)
2.5) Linearized approximations of non-linear characteristics
 Basic Elements of Electrical Systems: Resistance

• The time domain expression relating voltage and current for the
resistor is given by Ohm’s law

v R (t )  iR (t )R

• The Laplace transform of the above equation is

VR ( s )  I R ( s ) R
 Basic Elements of Electrical Systems: Inductance

• The time domain expression relating voltage and current for the
inductor is given as:
diL (t )
v L (t )  L
dt
• The Laplace transform of the above equation (assuming there is no
energy stored in inductor) is

VL ( s )  LsI L ( s )
 Basic Elements of Electrical Systems: Capacitence

• The time domain expression relating voltage and current for the
Capacitor is given as:

1
vc (t )   ic (t )dt
C
• The Laplace transform of the above equation (assuming there is no
charge stored in the capacitor) is
1
Vc ( s )  Ic (s)
Cs
Modeling of Electrical Components: Inductance, Capacitance, and Resistance
• Resistance, Inductance, and capacitance are the basic components of the electrical system.
• For modelling electrical system , the electrical network is formed by using R, L & C and voltage or
current source.
• Differential equation can be formed by using KCL for various nodes & KVL for various closed loop.
• Transfer function can be obtained by taking Laplace Transform of the differential equations and
rearranging them as a ratio of output to input
• The describing equation of above basic electrical components are given below:
Example: Modelling of Electrical Components: Inductance, Capacitance, and Resistance
 Example 1: Modelling of Electrical Components: Inductance, Capacitance, and Resistance

Q) The two-port network shown in the following figure has 𝑣𝑖 (𝑡) as the input voltage and 𝑣𝑜(𝑡)
𝑉
as the output voltage. Find the transfer function 𝑜 𝑠 of the network.
𝑉𝑖 𝑠

vi( t) i(t) C vo(t)

44
Example 1: Modelling of Electrical Components: Inductance, Capacitance, and Resistance

1 1
vi (t )  i(t )R   i(t )dt vo ( t )   i(t )dt
C C
• Taking Laplace transform of both equations, considering initial conditions to zero.
1 1
Vi ( s )  I ( s )R  I (s) Vo ( s )  I (s)
Cs Cs
1
Vi ( s )  I ( s )( R  ) CsV o ( s )  I ( s )
Cs

• Substitute I(s) in equation on left

1
Vi ( s )  CsV o ( s )( R  )
Cs
Vo ( s ) 1

Vi ( s ) 1
Cs ( R  )
Cs

Vo ( s ) 1 1
 The system has one pole at 1  RCs  0 s
Vi ( s ) 1  RCs RC
45
 Modelling of DC motor

Modelling of DC Motor :
• Speed control of dc motor can be done using field control and
armature control method.
• Two types:
i) Field Controlled dc motor [ vary field current]
ii) Armature Controlled dc motor [vary armature current]
i) Field Controlled dc motor [ vary field current] ii) Armature Controlled dc motor [vary armature
current]
𝑖𝑎 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑓 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

𝑉𝑓 = 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝑎 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑉𝑓 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑉𝑎 = 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡

 i) T.F for Field Controlled dc motor [ vary field current]
a) Motor developed electromagnetic torque 𝑻𝒅 (𝒕) d) From field circuit:
𝑑𝑖𝑓
𝑉𝑓 = 𝑖𝑓 𝑅𝑓 + 𝐿𝑓
𝑇𝑑 𝑡 = 𝐾𝑎 𝜙 𝑖𝑎 𝑡 ∴ 𝑇𝑑 𝑡 ∝ 𝐹𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝜙 &𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝐼) 𝑑𝑡
Taking Laplace Transform on both sides.
where,
𝑉𝑓 = 𝑅𝑓 + 𝑠𝐿𝑓 . 𝐼𝑓 (𝑠)
𝐾𝑎 = constant 𝐽𝑠 + 𝐵 𝑠
𝑉𝑓 = 𝑅𝑓 + 𝑠𝐿𝑓 . 𝜃 𝑠 ………. 2 𝑅𝑒𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐼𝑓 𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 (1)
𝜙 = air-gap flux= 𝐾𝑓 𝑖𝑓 (𝑡) 𝐾𝑡
𝑖 𝑡 = armature current 𝜃 𝑠 1 𝐾𝑡
=
𝑇𝑑 𝑡 = 𝐾𝑎 𝐾𝑓 𝑖𝑓 (𝑡) 𝑖𝑎 𝑡 𝑉𝑓 𝑠 𝑅𝑓 + 𝑠𝐿𝑓 𝐽𝑠 + 𝐵 𝑠
= 𝐾𝑎 𝐾𝑓 . 𝑖𝑎 𝑡 . 𝑖𝑓 (𝑡) = 𝐾𝑡 . 𝑖𝑓 𝑡 𝐾𝑡
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝐾𝑡 = 𝐾𝑎 𝐾𝑓 . 𝑖𝑎 𝑡 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑅𝑓 𝐵
=
𝑠𝐿𝑓 𝑠𝐽
𝑇𝑑 𝑡 ∝ 𝑖𝑓 (𝑡) 𝑠 1+ +1
𝑅𝑓 𝐵
b) Torque used: 𝐾
𝑑2𝜃 𝑡 𝑑𝜃 𝑡 =
𝑇𝐿 = 𝐽 + 𝐵 𝑠 1 + 𝑠𝑇𝑒 1 + 𝑠 𝑇𝑀
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 where,
c) Torque developed = Torque used 𝐾𝑡
𝑇𝑑 𝑡 = 𝑇𝐿 (𝑡) 𝐾=
𝑑2𝜃 𝑡 𝑑𝜃 𝑡 𝑅𝑓 . 𝐵
𝐾𝑡 𝑖𝑓 𝑡 = 𝐽 +𝐵
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝐿𝑓
𝑇𝑒 = = 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
Taking Laplace Transform on both sides, 𝑅𝑓
𝐾𝑡 𝐼𝑓 𝑠 = 𝐽𝑠 + 𝐵 𝑠. 𝜃(𝑠) 𝐽
𝑇𝑚 = = 𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝐽𝑠 + 𝐵 𝑠 𝐵
𝐼𝑓 𝑠 = 𝜃 𝑠 … … … … (1)
𝐾𝑡
 ii) T.F for Armature Controlled dc motor [ vary armature current]
a) Motor developed electromagnetic torque 𝑻𝒅 (𝒕) d) From armature circuit:
𝑇𝑑 𝑡 = 𝐾𝑎 𝜙 𝑖𝑎 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑖𝑎 𝑡
𝑉𝑎 𝑡 = 𝐿𝑎 + 𝑅𝑎 𝑖𝑎 𝑡 + 𝑒𝑏 (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
= 𝐾𝑎 𝐾𝑓 𝑖𝑓 𝑖𝑎 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑖𝑎 𝑡 𝑑𝜃 𝑡
= 𝐿𝑎 + 𝑅𝑎 𝑖𝑎 𝑡 + 𝐾𝑏
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
= 𝐾𝑡 𝑖𝑎 𝑡
where, Taking Laplace Transform,
where,
𝐾𝑡 = 𝐾𝑎 𝐾𝑓 𝑖𝑓 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑉𝑎 𝑠 = 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑠𝐿𝑎 𝐼𝑎 𝑠 + 𝐾𝑏 𝑠 𝜃(𝑠)

𝑇𝑑 (𝑡) ∝ 𝑖𝑎 (𝑡) 𝐽𝑠 + 𝐵 𝑠 𝜃 𝑠
= 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑠 𝐿𝑎 + 𝐾𝑏 𝑠 𝜃 𝑠 𝑅𝑒𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐼𝑎 𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 (1)
𝐾𝑡
b) Torque used: 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑠 𝐿𝑎 𝐽𝑠 + 𝐵 + 𝐾𝑏 𝐾𝑡
𝑑2𝜃 𝑡 𝑑𝜃 𝑡 = 𝑠𝜃 𝑠
𝑇𝐿 = 𝐽 + 𝐵 𝐾𝑡
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
𝜃 𝑠 𝐾𝑡
=
𝑉𝑎 𝑠 𝑠[ 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑠 𝐿𝑎 𝐽𝑠 + 𝐵 + 𝐾𝑏 𝐾𝑡 ]
c) Torque developed = Torque used
𝑇𝑑 𝑡 = 𝑇𝐿 (𝑡) 𝐾𝑡
=
𝐿 𝐽
𝑑2𝜃 𝑡 𝑑𝜃 𝑡 𝑠 𝑅𝑎 𝐵 1 + 𝑠 𝑎 𝑠 + 1 + 𝐾𝑏 𝐾𝑡
𝑅𝑎 𝐵
𝐾𝑡 𝑖𝑎 𝑡 = 𝐽 + 𝐵
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝐾𝑡
=
Taking Laplace Transform on both sides, 𝑠 𝑅𝑎 𝐵 1 + 𝑠 𝑇𝑒 1 + 𝑠 𝑇𝑚 + 𝐾𝑏 𝐾𝑡
𝐾𝑡 𝐼𝑎 𝑠 = 𝐽𝑠 + 𝐵 𝑠. 𝜃(𝑠) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑇𝑒 =
𝐿𝑎
= 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑅𝑎
𝐽𝑠 + 𝐵 𝑠
𝐼𝑎 𝑠 = 𝜃 𝑠 … … … … (1) 𝐽
𝐾𝑡 𝑇𝑚 = = 𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝐵
i) Field Control type speed control system ii) Armature Control type speed control system of
of a dc motor a dc motor

𝜃 𝑠 1 𝐾𝑡 𝜃 𝑠 𝐾𝑡
𝑇. 𝐹 = = 𝑇. 𝐹 = =
𝑉𝑓 𝑠 𝑅𝑓 + 𝑠𝐿𝑓 𝐽𝑠 + 𝐵 𝑠 𝑉𝑎 𝑠 𝑠[ 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑠 𝐿𝑎 𝐽𝑠 + 𝐵 + 𝐾𝑏 𝐾𝑡 ]

Block diagram of Field Control type speed control

system of a dc motor
Block diagram of armature Control type speed control
system of a dc motor
 𝟏 𝒌𝒕
𝑽𝒇 (s) 𝑹𝒇 + 𝒔𝑳𝒇 𝑱𝒔 + 𝑩 𝒔 𝜽 𝒔

𝟏 𝒌𝒕 𝜽 𝒔 𝟏 𝜽 𝒔
𝑽𝒂 (𝒔) + -- 𝒌𝒕 𝑱𝒔 + 𝑩
- 𝑹𝒂 + 𝒔𝑳𝒂 𝒔 𝒔

𝑬𝒃 (𝒔)

𝒌𝒃
 Summary: Modelling of DC motor
i) Field Controlled dc motor ii) Armature Controlled dc motor

• vary armature current for speed control of dc motor

• vary field current for speed control of dc motor • constant field current
• constant armature current • closed loop control system
• open loop control system
 AC motor

• Three phase squirrel cage induction motors have constant speed and
make them the first choice for industrial drives . But in control system
the basic requirement of motor is a high starting torque over a wide
range of speeds.
• AC motors holds way in fractional horse power range upto about
1
𝐻𝑝. Above this, the efficiency falls off significantly..
3
 Modelling of AC motor
AC servomotor
• The servomotors basically two phase induction motor and is used in low power servomechanism.
• It basically consists of a stator and a rotor as shown in fig below:

1) Stator
• carries two windings, uniformly distributed and displaced by 90oin space, from each other.
• One winding is called as main winding or fixed winding. The reference winding is excited by a constant voltage a.c. supply. or reference
winding
• The other winding is called as control winding. It is excited by the variable control voltage, which is obtained from a servo amplifier.
• The winding are 90oaway from each other and control voltage is 90oout of phase with respect to the voltage applied to the reference
winding. This is necessary to obtain rotating magnetic field.
• To reduce the loading on the amplifier, the input impedance i.e. the impedance of the control winding in increased by using a tuning
capacitor in parallel with the control winding
2) Rotor: squirrel cage rotor
• Built with high resistance so that X/R ratio is small and torque slip characteristics is nearly linear in contrast to the highly non-linear
characteristics with large X/R ratio.
• Diameter is kept small in order to reduce inertia and thus obtain good accelerating characteristics
 Torque-Speed characteristics of AC Servomotor
Torque

Speed

From the speed torque characteristics,

• Stall(Starting) torque is the function of control winding voltage;
𝑇𝑠 = 𝐾𝑚 𝑒𝑒
𝐾𝑚 𝑒𝑒
• And slope of the curve= 𝑤𝑛𝑙
where, 𝑤𝑛𝑙 = no load speed
• This slope is denoted by motor viscous coefficient , 𝐵𝑚
The torque speed characteristics of ac servo meter are shown in above figure and its torque equation is given by the
following an expression.
𝑇 = 𝐾𝑚 𝑒𝑒 − 𝐵𝑚 𝜔
where,
𝐾𝑚 = 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝐵𝑚 = 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
..
 T.F of AC Servomotor
1) Motor developed torque:
𝑇𝑚 = 𝐾𝑚 𝑒𝑒 − 𝐵𝑚 𝑤
2) Load torque:
𝐽𝑑2 𝜃
𝑇𝐿 = + 𝐵𝐿 𝑤
𝑑𝑡 2
3) At balanced condition:
𝑇𝐿 = 𝑇𝑚
𝐽𝑑2 𝜃
+ 𝐵𝐿 𝑤 = 𝐾𝑚 𝑒𝑒 − 𝐵𝑚 𝑤
𝑑𝑡 2
𝐽𝑑2 𝜃
+ 𝐵𝑤 = 𝐾𝑚 𝑒𝑒
𝑑𝑡 2
where, 𝐵 = viscous damping coefficient due to motor and load= 𝐵𝐿 − 𝐵𝑚
Taking Laplace Transform :
𝐽𝑠 2 𝜃 𝑠 + 𝐵𝑠𝜃 𝑠 = 𝐾𝑚 𝐸𝑒 (𝑠)
𝜃 𝑠 𝐾
=
𝐸𝑒 (𝑠) 𝑠(𝑇𝑚 𝑠 + 1)
where
𝐾𝑚
𝐾= = 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝐵
𝐽
𝑇𝑚 = = 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝐵
 Modeling of Transducers
• Transducers are the electrical components which convert one form of energy into another form. The potentiometer is
the important type of transducer which is used for mechanical displacement either linear or angular. Thus, it is an
electromechanical transducer which converts the mechanical energy into electrical energy.
• The potentiometer is the electrical type of transducer or sensor and it is of resistive type because it works on the
principle of change of resistance of the wire with its length. The resistance of the wire is directly proportional to the
length of the wire, thus as the length of the wire changes the resistance of the wire also changes.
• The potentiometer is an electric circuit in which the resistance can be changed manually by the sliding contacts. The
typical potentiometer is shown in the figure below. Here the voltage Vs is applied across the two points of the wire A
and B. C is the variable contact point between A and B and its position can be changed by the sliding contact. The
voltage 𝑉𝑜 is measured between the points A and C.
• As per the resistance law of the conductor, the resistance of the conductor AC changes as the length of the wire AC
changes. Accordingly the output voltage 𝑉𝑜 between A and C also changes. The point C is the slider whose position is
changed by the operator or by the motion of the body whose displacement is to be measured. The relationship
between the length of the conductors and the voltage across them can be expressed as:
𝑉𝑜 𝐴𝐶
=
𝑉𝑠 𝐴𝐵

Figure :Potentiometer
1a) Potentiometer (POT): displacement transducer
• Two types: Linear POT & Rotatory POT

Fig 1: Linear( translational) potentiometer Fig 2: Electrical equivalent of fig 2

Fig 3: Rotatory potentiometer Fig 4: Electrical equivalent of fig 3
 Modeling of Operational amplifiers
• Operational amplifiers often called Op-amps are used to amplify signals in sensor
circuits. Op-amps are also frequently used in filters used for compensation purposes.
The ground is taken as 0 volt to measure input voltages e1 and e2 relative to the ground.
• The transfer functions of different operational amplifiers are given below:
 Basic Op-Amp Characteristics
• Operational Amplifier is one of the example of signal conditioner i.e. it
takes the o|p of the sensor & makes it into suitable condition.

where, 𝑣 = 𝐴𝑣𝑜 ; [𝑣0 = 𝑣+ − 𝑣− ] ; [ 𝐴𝑣0 → 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛]

• Ideal characteristics of Op-Amp
i. Input resistance is infinite: Almost any signal can drive it & there is no loading
of preceding stage.
ii. Output resistance is zero: The output can drive an infinite number of other
devices.
iii. Bandwidth is infinite: Any frequency signal from 0 to ∞ Hz .
iv. Open loop voltage gain is infinite
v. Common rejection ratio (MMR) is infinite: The output common-mode noise
voltage is zero.
vi. The two input terminals are virtually short circuited.

• There are two modes of operation of an op-amp:

i. Non-inverting mode
ii. Inverting mode
i) Non-inverting mode:
Input signal 𝑣𝑖 is applied to the on-inverting terminal i.e., + 𝑣𝑒 pin of op-amp. Let 𝑣0 be the
output voltage.
𝑣+ = 𝑣𝑖 … … … … … 1
𝑣− = 𝐼𝑓 𝑅 … … … … … (2)
𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜, 𝑣0 = 𝐼𝑓 (𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅)
𝑣0
𝑜𝑟, 𝐼𝑓 = … … … … … . . (3)
𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 2 & (3)
𝑣0
𝑣− = 𝑅 … … … … … … (4)
𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅
𝐴𝑠 𝑤𝑒 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤,
𝑣0 = 𝐴𝑣𝑜𝑙 𝑣+ − 𝑣−
𝑣0
𝑜𝑟, 𝑣0 = 𝐴𝑣𝑜𝑙 𝑣𝑖 − 𝑅
𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅
𝑣0 𝑣0
𝑜𝑟, = 𝑣𝑖 − 𝑅 … … … … … . . . (5)
𝐴𝑣𝑜𝑙 𝑅1 + 𝑅
• As the output from op-amp is no more than 15V and its open-loop voltage gain
(i.e., the ratio of 𝑣0 to 𝑣𝑖 with no feedback applied) is infinite, we have:
𝑣0
= 0……………………….. 6
𝐴𝑣𝑜𝑙
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 5 & 6 , 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡
𝑣0
0 = 𝑣𝑖 − 𝑅
𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅
𝑣0 𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅
𝑜𝑟, =
𝑣𝑖 𝑅
𝑣0 𝑅𝑓
∴𝐴= = 1 + … … … … … . (7)
𝑣𝑖 𝑅
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐴 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 − 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑟.
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 7 ,
𝑅𝑓
𝑣0 = 1 + 𝑣𝑖 … … … … … . . . (8)
𝑅
• Voltage follower or Buffer

𝐼𝑓 𝑅𝑓 = 0, 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 7 ,
𝑣0
𝐴= =1
𝑣𝑖
𝑜𝑟, 𝑣0 = 𝑣𝑖
This shows that the output exactly tracks the input voltage in sign & magnitude. Therefore, this circuit is
known as voltage follower or buffer.
ii) Inverting Mode
Input signal 𝑣𝑖 is applied to the inverting terminal i.e, − 𝑣𝑒 pin of op-amp. The non-inverting terminal is
grounded.
𝑣+ = 0
As we know,
𝑣+ − 𝑣− ≅ 0
KCL at terminal 𝑣− gives:
𝐼 + 𝐼𝑓 = 0
𝑣𝑖 − 𝑣− 𝑣0 − 𝑣−
𝑜𝑟, + =0
𝑅 𝑅𝑓
𝑣0 𝑣𝑖
𝑜𝑟, =−
𝑅𝑓 𝑅
𝑣0 𝑅𝑓
𝑜𝑟, 𝐴 = =− 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑟.
𝑣𝑖 𝑅
Rewriting above equation,
𝑅𝑓
𝑣0 = − 𝑣
𝑅 𝑖
 Applications of Op-amp
There are large applications of op-amps in instrumentation/
measurement system. Some of the commonly used operational circuits
are :
i. Inverter
ii. Adder
iii. Subtractor( Differential Amplifier)
iv. Integrator
v. Differentiator
i) Inverter

The closed-loop voltage gain of the amplifier in inverting configuration is given

by:
𝑣0 𝑅𝑓
𝐴= =−
𝑣𝑖 𝑅
If 𝑅𝑓 = 𝑅, then 𝑣0 = −𝑣𝑖
This shows the output voltage is 180° out of phase with input voltage.
ii) Adder
The circuit that performs the addition of signals with
amplification (if desired) is known as adder.
If only 𝑣1 is applied, then output is given by,
𝑅𝑓
𝑣01 = − 𝑣1
𝑅1
If only 𝑣2 is applied, then output is given by,
𝑅𝑓
𝑣02 = − 𝑣2
𝑅2
If only 𝑣3 is applied, then output voltage is given by,
𝑅𝑓
𝑣03 = − 𝑣3
𝑅3
If all three signals are applied together, then the output can
be obtained by superposition theorem as:
𝑣0 = 𝑣01 + 𝑣02 + 𝑣03
𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓
𝑜𝑟, 𝑣0 = − 𝑣 + 𝑣 + 𝑣
𝑅1 𝑓 𝑅2 2 𝑅3 3
If 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 𝑅3 = 𝑅𝑓 , then,
𝑣0 = −(𝑣1 + 𝑣2 + 𝑣3 )
Thus, the output signal is the sum of all the input signals.
iii) Subtractor (Differential Amplifier)
The circuit that performs the subtraction of two input signals is known as Subtractor.

The output from the first op-amp is given by:

𝑅𝑓1
𝑣01 = − 𝑣 … … … … … … . (1)
𝑅1 1
The output from the second op-amp is given by:
𝑅𝑓2 𝑅𝑓2
𝑣0 = − 𝑣 + 𝑣
𝑅2 2 𝑅3 01
𝑅𝑓2 𝑅𝑓2 𝑅𝑓1
𝑜𝑟, 𝑣0 = − 𝑣2 + − 𝑣
𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅1 1
If 𝑅𝑓1 = 𝑅𝑓2 = 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 𝑅3 , then
𝑣0 = − 𝑣2 − 𝑣1 = 𝑣1 − 𝑣2
This expression shows that output signal is the difference of two input signals.
iv) Integrator
A circuit that performs the mathematical integration of input signal is an
integrator. For example, if the input signal to the integrator is a square wave,
the output will be a triangular wave.
𝑣+ = 0
As we know,
𝑣+ − 𝑣− ≅ 0
∴ 𝑣− = 𝑣+ = 0
KCL at terminal 𝑣− gives:
𝐼 + 𝐼𝑐 = 0
𝑣𝑖 − 𝑣− 𝑑(𝑣0 − 𝑣− )
𝑜𝑟, +𝐶 =0
𝑅 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣0 𝑣𝑖
𝑜𝑟, 𝐶 =−
𝑑𝑡 𝑅
1
𝑜𝑟, 𝑑𝑣0 = − 𝑣 𝑑𝑡
𝑅𝐶 𝑖
1
𝑜𝑟, ∫ 𝑑𝑣0 = − ∫ 𝑣𝑖 𝑑𝑡
𝑅𝐶
1
𝑜𝑟, 𝑣0 = − ∫ 𝑣𝑖 𝑑𝑡
𝑅𝐶
v) Differentiator
A circuit that performs the mathematical differentiation of input signal is called a differentiator. For example, if
the input to the differentiator is triangular wave, the output will be a square wave.

𝑣+ = 0
𝐴𝑠 𝑣+ − 𝑣− ≅ 0
∴ 𝑣− = 𝑣+ = 0
KCL at terminal 𝑣− gives,
𝐼𝑐 + 𝐼 = 0
𝑑(𝑣𝑖 − 𝑣− ) 𝑣0 − 𝑣−
𝑜𝑟, 𝐶 + =0
𝑑𝑡 𝑅
𝑑𝑣𝑖 𝑑𝑣𝑖
∴ 𝑣0 = −𝑅𝐶 = −𝜏
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
 Chapter 2:
Component Modeling
2.1) Differential equation and transfer function notations
2.2) Modeling of Mechanical Components: Mass, spring and damper
2.3) Modeling of Electrical Components: Inductance, Capacitance, Resistance,
DC and AC motor , Transducers and Operational Amplifiers
2.4) Electric circuit analogies ( force-voltage analogy and force-current analogy)
2.5) Linearized approximations of non-linear characteristics
2.4) Electric Circuit Analogies (force-voltage analogy and force-current analogy)
1. For a force-voltage analogy, RLC series circuit is used.
2. For a force-current analogy, RLC parallel circuit is used.
Electric circuit analogies:
• Two systems are said to be analogous to each other if the following
two conditions are satisfied.
i. The two systems are physically different
ii. Differential equation modelling of these two systems are same
• Electrical systems and mechanical systems are two physically different
systems. There are two types of electrical analogies of translational
mechanical systems. Those are:
1. force voltage analogy
2. force current analogy.
2.4) Electric Circuit Analogies (force-voltage analogy and force-current analogy)

Force voltage 𝑭 − 𝑽 analogy: ( RLC series ckt , junction closed loop)

• Each junction in the mechanical system corresponds to a closed loop which consists of
electrical excitation sources and passive elements analogous to mechanical driving
sources and passive elements connected to the junction. All the points connected to
the rigid mass are considered as the junction.

Force current (𝑭 − 𝑰) analogy : (RLC parallel ckt; junction  node)

• Each junction in the mechanical system corresponds to a node which joins electrical
excitation sources and passive elements analogous to mechanical driving sources and
passive elements connected to the junction. All the points connected to the rigid mass
is considered as the same junction and one terminal of the capacitance analogous to
mass is always connected to the ground. The reason for connecting the one terminal of
the capacitance analogous to mass is always connected to the ground is that velocity of
mass is always referred to earth.
• In force current analogy, the mathematical equations of the translational mechanical
system are compared with the nodal equations of the electrical system.
Force-Voltage analogy (F-V analogy)
Figure: Translational Mechanical System Figure: RLC series circuit Mechanical System Electrical System

Translational RLC series

𝐹 𝑉
𝑀 𝐿
𝐵 𝑅
From Newton’s law, Apply KVL, 𝐾 1
𝐹 = 𝐹𝑀 + 𝐹𝐵 + 𝐹𝐾 𝑑𝑖 1 𝐶
𝑉 = 𝑖𝑅 + 𝐿 + ∫ 𝑖 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝐶
= 𝑀𝑎 + 𝐵𝑣 + 𝑘𝑥 𝑑𝑞 𝑑2𝑞 𝑞 𝑥 𝑞
=𝑅 +𝐿 2 +
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐶 𝑥̇ 𝐼
𝑑2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑2𝑞 𝑑𝑞 1
=𝑀 2 +𝐵 + 𝑘 𝑥 … … . . (𝑎) =𝐿 2 +𝑅 + 𝑞 … … … … … (1)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐶
F-V analogy (Special case-I)
Special case-I
Special case-I
Example for (𝑭 − 𝑽 𝒂𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒚)
Example for (𝑭 − 𝑽 𝒂𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒚)
Example for (𝑭 − 𝑽 𝒂𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒚)
Torque-Voltage analogy (T-V analogy)
Figure: Rotational Mechanical System Figure: RLC series circuit Mechanical System Electrical System

Rotational RLC series

𝑇 𝑉
𝐽 𝐿
𝐵 𝑅
𝐾 1
From D-Alembert’s principle, Apply KVL,
𝐶
𝑑𝑖 1
𝑇 = 𝑇𝐽 + 𝑇𝐵 + 𝑇𝐾 𝑉 = 𝑖𝑅 + 𝐿 + ∫ 𝑖 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝐶 𝜃 𝑞
= 𝑇𝑎 + 𝐵𝑤 + 𝑘𝜃 𝑑𝑞 𝑑2𝑞 𝑞
=𝑅 +𝐿 2 + 𝜃̇ 𝐼
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐶
𝑑2𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑2𝑞 𝑑𝑞 1
=𝐽 2 +𝐵 + 𝑘 𝜃 … … . . (𝑏) =𝐿 2 +𝑅 + 𝑞 … … … … … (1)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐶
Example for (𝑻 − 𝑽 𝒂𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒚)

y
 Summary of 𝑭 − 𝑽 & 𝑻 − 𝑽 analogy
Equations (a) & (1) and (b) & (1) are analogous to each other.
Force-Voltage(𝐹 − 𝑉) analogy Torque –Voltage (𝑇 − 𝑉) analogy
Mechanical System Electrical System Mechanical System Electrical System
(Translational ) (RLC series) (Rotational) (RLC series)
𝐹 𝑉 𝑇 𝑉
𝑀 𝐿 𝐽 𝐿
𝐵 𝑅 𝐵 𝑅
𝐾 𝐾
1 1
𝐶 𝐶
𝑥 𝑞 𝜃 𝑞
𝑥̇ 𝐼 𝜃̇ 𝐼
Force-Current analogy (𝐹 − 𝐼 analogy)
Figure: Translational Mechanical System Figure: RLC parallel circuit Force-Current analogy

Mechanical System Electrical System

(Translational) (RLC parallel)

𝐹 𝐼
𝑀 𝐶
𝐵 1
Apply KVL, 𝑅
From D-Alembert’s principle, 𝑉 1 𝑑𝑉 𝐾 1
𝑖= + ∫ 𝑉 𝑑𝑡 + 𝐶
𝐹 = 𝐹𝑀 + 𝐹𝐵 + 𝐹𝐾 𝑅 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 𝐿
= 𝑀𝑎 + 𝐵𝑣 + 𝑘𝑥 1 𝑑𝜙 𝜙 𝑑2𝜙
= + +𝐶 2
𝑅 𝑑𝑡 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 𝑥 𝜙
𝑑2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
=𝑀 +𝐵 + 𝑘 𝑥 … … . . (𝑎) 𝑑 2 𝜙 1 𝑑𝜙 𝜙
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 =𝐶 2 + + … … … (2) 𝑥̇ 𝐸
𝑑𝑡 𝑅 𝑑𝑡 𝐿
Special case-I
Special case-I
Special case-I
Example for (𝑭 − 𝑰 𝒂𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒚)
Example for (𝑭 − 𝑰 𝒂𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒚)
Torque-Current analogy (𝑇 − 𝐼 analogy)
Figure: Rotational Mechanical System Figure: RLC parallel circuit Torque-Current analogy

Mechanical System Electrical System

(Rotational) (RLC parallel)

𝑇 𝐼
𝐽 𝐶
𝐵 1
From D-Alembert’s principle, Apply KVL, 𝑅
𝑉 1 𝑑𝑉 𝐾 1
𝑇 = 𝑇𝐽 + 𝑇𝐵 + 𝑇𝐾 𝑖= + ∫ 𝑉 𝑑𝑡 + 𝐶
𝑅 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 𝐿
= 𝑇𝑎 + 𝐵𝑤 + 𝑘𝜃 1 𝑑𝜙 𝜙 𝑑2𝜙
= + +𝐶 2
𝑅 𝑑𝑡 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 𝜃 𝜙
𝑑2𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑 2 𝜙 1 𝑑𝜙 𝜙
=𝐽 +𝐵 + 𝑘 𝜃 … … . . (𝑏) 𝐸
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 =𝐶 2 +
𝑑𝑡 𝑅 𝑑𝑡
+ … … … (2)
𝐿
𝜃̇
Example for (𝑻 − 𝑰 𝒂𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒚)
Torque-Current analogy

Mechanical System Electrical System

(Rotational) (RLC parallel)

𝑇 𝐼
𝐽 𝐶
𝐵 1
𝑅
𝐾 1
𝐿
𝜃 𝜙
𝜃̇ 𝐸
 Summary of 𝑭 − 𝑰 & 𝑻 − 𝑰 analogy
Equations (a) & (2) and (b) & (2) are analogous to each other.
Force-Current(𝐹 − 𝐼) analogy Torque –Current (𝑇 − 𝐼) analogy
Mechanical System Electrical System Mechanical System Electrical System
(Translational ) (RLC parallel) (Rotational) (RLC parallel)
𝐹 𝐼 𝑇 𝐼
𝑀 𝐶 𝐽 𝐶
𝐵 1 1
𝐵
𝑅 𝑅
𝐾 1 𝐾 1
𝐿 𝐿
𝑥 𝜙 𝜃 𝜙
𝑥̇ 𝐸 𝜃̇ 𝐸
Overall Summary of analogy
Ex-1 (𝑭 − 𝑽 & 𝑭 − 𝑰 𝒂𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒚)
Ex-2 (𝑭 − 𝑽 & 𝑭 − 𝑰 𝒂𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒚)
Ex-3 (𝑭 − 𝑽 & 𝑭 − 𝑰 𝒂𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒚)
Ex-4 (𝑭 − 𝑽 & 𝑭 − 𝑰 𝒂𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒚)
Ex-5 (𝑭 − 𝑽 & 𝑭 − 𝑰 𝒂𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒚)
Ex-6 (𝑻 − 𝑽 & 𝑻 − 𝑰 𝒂𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒚)
 Special cases
Special cases( Mass 0 point):
1. When there is no mass between two series elements
2. When the element is open ended.
Special case-I
Special case-I
Special case-I
Special case-I
Special case-I
Ex-Special Case II
 Chapter 2:
Component Modeling
2.1) Differential equation and transfer function notations
2.2) Modeling of Mechanical Components: Mass, spring and damper
2.3) Modeling of Electrical Components: Inductance, Capacitance, Resistance,
DC and AC motor , Transducers and Operational Amplifiers
2.4) Electric circuit analogies ( force-voltage analogy and force-current analogy)
2.5) Linearized approximations of non-linear characteristics
2.5 Linearized approximations of non- linear characteristics:
Note: Linearization of the non-linear system is done using Taylor's series

• A normal operation of the system may be around an equilibrium point in control engineering, and the
signals may be considered small signals around the equilibrium.

• However, if the system operates around an equilibrium point and if the signals involved are small signals,
then it is possible to approximate the nonlinear system by a linear system.

• Such a linear system is equivalent to the nonlinear system considered within a limited operating range.
Such a linearized model (linear, time-invariant model) is very important in control engineering.

• The linearization procedure to be presented in the following is based on the expansion of nonlinear
function into a Taylor series about the operating point and the retention of only the linear term. Because
we neglect higher-order terms of the Taylor series expansion, these neglected terms must be small
enough; that is, the variables deviate only slightly from the operating condition.

• To obtain a linear mathematical model for a nonlinear system, we assume that the variables deviate only
slightly from some operating condition. The necessary conditions during the linearized approximations of
non -linear characteristics are given below:
1. Principle of Homogeneity
2. Principle of Superposition
• Most physical processes are non-linear, & we therefore develop non-linear mathematical models. We can
linearize the non-linear models . The principal of linearization is shown in figure:

• We linearize mathematical model because:

1. It simplifies the model
2. We want to study the system close to a working point
3. We can apply analysis and design methods for linear systems
• The example of linearized approximations of non- linear characteristics of a mass sitting on non linear
spring with its spring force versus y graph is shown below:
 Expression for linearization
We can write a general first order differential equation as:
𝑑𝑥
= 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑢)
𝑑𝑡
This equation is now studied close to the working point, W:
𝑑𝑥𝑤
= 𝑓(𝑥𝑤 , 𝑢𝑤 )
𝑑𝑡
If x experiences a small deviation ∆𝑥, from 𝑥𝑤 in the working point, and 𝑢 has a small deviation ∆𝑢, from 𝑢𝑤 , we may write,
𝑑(𝑥𝑤 + ∆𝑥)
= 𝑓 𝑥𝑤 + ∆𝑥, 𝑢𝑤 +∆𝑢
𝑑𝑡
𝛿𝑓 𝛿𝑓
= 𝑓 𝑥𝑤 , 𝑢𝑤 + ቤ ∆𝑥 + … … . + ቤ ∆𝑢 + … . . (𝑖. 𝑒 𝑇𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠)
𝛿𝑥 𝑊 𝛿𝑢 𝑊
We assume higher order to be negligible and we get,
𝑑𝑥𝑤 𝑑∆𝑥 𝛿𝑓 𝛿𝑓
+ = 𝑓 𝑥𝑤 , 𝑢𝑤 + ቤ ∆𝑥 + … … . + ቤ ∆𝑢 + … . .
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝛿𝑥 𝑊 𝛿𝑢 𝑊
𝑑∆𝑥
= 𝑎∆𝑥 + 𝑏∆𝑥
𝑑𝑡
where,
𝛿𝑓 𝛿𝑓
𝑎= ቤ & 𝑏= ቤ
𝛿𝑥 𝑊 𝛿𝑢 𝑊
 Example for linearization
We will linearize the equation:
𝑑𝑥
= 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑢 = − 𝑥 + 2𝑢
𝑑𝑡
𝑑∆𝑥
= 𝑎∆𝑥 + 𝑏∆𝑥
𝑑𝑡
where,
𝛿𝑓 1 𝛿𝑓
𝑎= ቤ =− & 𝑏= ቤ =2
𝛿𝑥 𝑊 2 𝑥𝑤 𝛿𝑢 𝑊
To find 𝑎 and 𝑏 in the working point when 𝑢𝑤 = 1, the steady state model is solved.
𝑑𝑥
= 0 = − 𝑥𝑤 + 2𝑢𝑤
𝑑𝑡
2 =4
𝑥𝑤 = 4𝑢𝑤
𝑎 = −0.25 & 𝑏 = 2