Evolution Notes Chapters 16 and 17
Name: Benjamin ClaycombPeriod: 8th & 9th
Chapter 16: Darwin’s Theory of Evolution
● Essential Question
○ What is natural selection?
■ 16. 3 Darwin Presents His Case
● Key Questions:
○ Under what conditions does natural selection occur?
○ What does Darwin’s mechanism for evolution suggest about living and extinct species?
● Think about it…
○ Darwin formulated his ideas on evolution based on his observations and prior research.
○ In 1858 Darwin read an essay by Alfred Russell Wallace which was nearly identical to his own
work.
○ This prompted Darwin to publish his work, On the Origin of Species.
● Evolution by Natural Selection
○ The struggle for Existence – More individuals are born than can survive, and members of a
population must compete for resources.
○ Variation and Adaptation
■ Members of a species have heritable variations (differences).
■ Adaptation – A heritable physical or behavioral variation that increases an individual's
ability to survive and reproduce.
○ Survival of the fittest
■ Fitness – How well an organism can survive and reproduce in its environment.
■ Those that survive and reproduce have a high fitness.
■ Those that die without reproducing and/or are not suited to their environment have a low
fitness.
■ Survival in evolutionary terms means passing adaptations to the next generation, not just
living.
○ Natural selection – organisms most suited to their environment leave more offspring than those
less suited.
■ Similar to artificial selection where a breeder influences fitness, but the environment
influences fitness.
■ Occurs in a situation where more individuals are born than can survive, there is a
heritable variation, and there is variable fitness.
■ Does not make organisms better suited to their environment.
■ Environmental change can render adaptations no longer useful.
● Common Descent
○ Darwin proposed that organisms are descended, with modifications, from common ancestors.
○ All species living and extinct are descended from common ancestors.
● 16.3 Review
○ What happens in the process of natural selection?
○ Why do organisms with greater fitness leave more offspring than those that are less fit?
○ How are natural selection and artificial selection similar?
○ How are they different?
○ What do evolutionary trees show?
○ What does the tree of life imply about all species living and extinct?
○ How are the teeth of a lion an adaptation?
■ 16.4 Evidence of Evolution
● Key Questions:
○ How does the geographic distribution of extant species relate to their distribution?
○ How do fossils help to document the descent of species from common ancestors?
○ What do homologous structures and embryonic similarities suggest about the process of
evolutionary change?
○ How can molecular biology trace evolution?
○ What does recent research about the Galapagos finches show about natural selection?
● Think about it…
○ Despite lacking evidence from the fields of geology, paleontology, chemistry, and embryology,
genetics and molecular biology, every scientific test has supported Darwin’s basic ideas about
evolution.
● Biogeography
○ Biogeography – Study of where organisms live and where their ancestors lived which hints at
the evolution of modern organisms from their ancestors.
○ Closely Related but Different – Populations on islands often evolve from mainland species.
Differences in climate result in different but related species.
○ Distantly Related but Similar – Similar selection pressures in similar climates can cause
distantly related species. Adaptive radiation.
● The Age of Earth and Fossils
○ The Age of Earth
■ Hutton and Lyell were geologist contemporaries of Darwin. They felt that the Earth was
very old based on geological features.
■ The validity of evolution by natural selection depends on Earth being very old
■ Modern radioactive dating techniques have confirmed that the Earth is about 4.5 billion
years old confirming Darwin’s theory.
○ Recent Fossil Finds
■ At Darwin’s time the fossil was much less complete.
■ Many recent intermediate fossil discoveries help to complete the picture of evolution of
modern species from extinct ancestors, which confirms evolution by natural selection.
● Comparing the Anatomy and Embryology
○ The same basic bone structure is found in all vertebrate limbs despite different uses, because
they evolved from a common ancestor.
○ Homologous Structures – shared by related species and inherited from a common ancestor.
The more similar the feature, the more closely related the species.
■ Analogous structures – structures that have a similar function, but a different structure
and evolutionary origin.
■ Vestigial structures – structures inherited from an ancestor that have lost much of their
original function.
● Label the following images as vestigial,
homologous, or analogous structures.
○ Embryology – the study of embryological
development.
■ The embryos of vertebrates look similar.
■ Groups of embryonic cells develop in the same order and in similar patterns to produce
homologous structures due to a common ancestor.
● Genetics and Molecular Biology
○ Darwin had no idea about heredity and DNA, but the heredity studies of Mendel and the
structure of DNA support evolution.
○ The universal genetic code and homologous molecules provide evidence for evolution.
○ Life’s Common Genetic Code
■ DNA and RNA…
■ Nearly identical…
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○ Homologous Molecules
■ Homology …
■ Proteins and genes …
● Cytochrome c …
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● Hox genes
● Testing Natural Selection
○ The long time frame in which evolution takes place…
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○ All experiments…
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○ A Testable Hypothesis
■ Darwin proposed …
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■ Peter and Rosemary Grant hypothesized…
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■ They meticulously tagged and measured all the finches on one island for years and
found …
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○ Natural Selection
■ Found that birds with different sized beaks…
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■ Found that natural selection …
■ The Grants demonstrated …
○ Evaluating Evolutionary Theory
■ Advances in many scientific fields have confirmed and expanded Darwin’s theory of
evolution through natural selection.
■ Questions that remain are about how evolution works, not whether it occurs
● 16.4 Review
○ What is biogeography?
○ Why do distantly related species in similar environments often share similar traits?
○ Why are fossils important evidence for evolution?
○ How do vestigial structures provide evidence for evolution?
○ Differentiate between homologous and analogous structures. Which are more important
evolutionarily? Why?
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○ Organisms A and B have similar Hox genes and their embryos are also very similar. What do
these similarities indicate about the ancestry of the organisms?
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○ What hypotheses did the Grants test?
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○ How does their data show that genetic variation within a species is important for the survival of
the species?
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○ How has the evidence collected since the 1850s strengthened Darwin’s theory of evolution by
natural selection?
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● Chapter 17: Evolution of Populations
● Essential Question:
○ How can populations evolve to form new species?
● 17.1 Genes and Variation
● Key Questions:
○ How is evolution defined in genetic terms?
○ What are the sources of genetic variation?
○ What determines the number of phenotypes for a trait?
● Think about it…
○ Darwin and Mendel were contemporaries of one another, but were not familiar with each other’s
work.
○ Darwin based his theory on heritable variation, but did not know where that variation came from.
○ We now know from where the variation comes, and we now understand patterns of heredity.
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● Genetics Joins Evolutionary Theory
○ The “rediscovery” of Mendel’s work …
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○ Researchers discovered…
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○ Modern genetics…
○ Genotype and Phenotype in Evolution
■ Natural selection…
■ The entire organism…
○ Populations and Gene Pools
■ Gene pool –
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■ Allele frequency –
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■ Evolution…
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● Calculate the allele frequency for the black allele (B) and the brown allele (b).
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● Sources of Genetic Variation
○ Mutations
■ Can be neutral…
■ Average of 300 mutations…
■ Only mutations…
■ Only heritable…
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○ Genetic Recombination in Sexual Reproduction –
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■ Independent assortment results…
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■ Crossing-over…
○ Lateral Gene Transfer –
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■ Occurs frequently…
■ Humans...
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● Single-Gene and Polygenic Traits
○ The number of phenotypes…
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○ Single-gene Traits –
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○ Polygenic Traits –
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● 17.1 Review
○ Explain the relationship between the gene pool and allele frequency.
○ What indicates that evolution is occurring in a population?
○ If a dominant allele kills a plant before it can reproduce, what will happen to the frequency of
that allele over time?
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○ What are three sources of genetic variation?
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○ Why does sexual reproduction provide more opportunity for genetic variation than asexual
reproduction?
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○ Differentiate between single-gene traits and polygenic traits.
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○ A black guinea pig and a white guinea pig have a litter of 4 pups. All of the pups are black.
What type of traits is this most likely an example of?
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○ How are mutations important to evolution?
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● 17.2 Evolution as Genetic Change in Populations
● Key Questions
○ How does natural selection affect single-gene and polygenic traits?
○ What is genetic drift?
○ What conditions are required to maintain genetic equilibrium?
● Think about it…
○ Insects evolve pesticide resistance, because there is enough heritable variation in the
population, that some individuals are able to survive even the harshest chemicals.
○ They then pass on this resistance, and the allele for resistance increases in the population until
all are resistant.
● How Natural Selection Works
○ Evolutionary fitness…
○ Evolutionary adaptation…
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○ Natural Selection on Single Gene Traits –
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■ May eliminate…
■ May increase…
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○ Natural Selection on Polygenetic Traits –
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■ Directional Selection –
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■ Stabilizing Selection –
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■ Disruptive Selection –
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● Draw the curves to represent directional, stabilizing, and disruptive selection.
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● Genetic Drift
○ Genetic drift –
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○ Genetic Bottlenecks –
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○ The Founder Effect –
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● Evolution Vs. Genetic Equilibrium
○ Genetic Equilibrium –
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○ Sexual Reproduction and Allele Frequency
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○ The Hardy-Weinberg Principle –
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■ The frequency of genotypes in a population can be predicted using the equations:
● Where p and q are …
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● Frequency of homozygous dominant + frequency of heterozygous + frequency of
homozygous recessive = 1
● Frequency of the dominant allele + frequency of the recessive allele = 1
■ Nonrandom Mating –
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■ Small Population Size –
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■ Immigration or Emigration –
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■ Mutations –
■ Natural Selection –
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● 17.2 Review
○ How does natural selection affect a single gene trait?
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○ Compare directional selection and disruptive selection.
○ Define genetic drift.
○ How does the founder effect lead to changes in a gene pool?
○ What five conditions cannot occur for the maintenance of genetic equilibrium?
○ Why is genetic equilibrium rare in actual populations?
○ Do populations often stay in genetic equilibrium following environmental change? Explain.
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● 17.3 The Process of Speciation
● Key Questions
○ What types of isolation led to the formation of new species?
○ What is the current hypothesis about the Galapagos finch speciation?
● Think about it…
○ How does one species become two?
○ Natural selection and genetic drift change allele frequencies, but changes in allele frequencies
alone does not lead to new species.
● Isolating Mechanisms
○ Species –
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○ Speciation –
○ Reproductive isolation –
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○ Behavioral Isolation –
○ Geographic Isolation –
○ Temporal Isolation –
● Speciation in Darwin’s Finches
○ Founders Arrive –
○ Geographic Isolation –
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● Changes in Gene Pool –
● Behavioral Isolation –
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● Competition and Continued Evolution –
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● 17.3 Review
○ What is geographical isolation?
○ What factors other than geographical isolation lead to speciation?
○ What type of reproductive isolation, may have been important for finch speciation?
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