CHAPTER 15

Sensors and interfacing

Chapter summary
Sensors provide us with a means of generating signals that can be used
as inputs to electronic circuits. The things that we might want to sense
include physical parameters such as temperature, light level and pressure.
Being able to generate an electrical signal that accurately represents these
quantities allows us not only to measure and record these values but also
to control them.
Sensors are, in fact, a subset of a larger family of devices known as
transducers so we will consider these before we look at sensors and how
we condition the signals that they produce in greater detail. We begin,
however, with a brief introduction to the instrumentation and control
systems in which sensors, transducers and signal conditioning circuits are
used.

Electronic Circuits: Fundamentals and applications. 978-1-138-82892-6. © Mike Tooley.

Published by Taylor & Francis. All rights reserved.

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 15 Sensors and interfacing

Instrumentation and control the system to regulate itself by comparing it with

systems a signal derived from the output (via a sensor and
appropriate signal conditioning).
Fig. 15.1 shows the arrangement of an
A comparator is used to sense the difference
instrumentation system. The physical quantity
in these two signals and where any discrepancy
to be measured (e.g. temperature) acts upon
is detected the input to the power amplifier is
a sensor that produces an electrical output
adjusted accordingly. This signal is referred to as
signal. This signal is an electrical analogue of the
an error signal (it should be zero when the output
physical input but note that there may not be a
exactly matches the demand). The input (demand)
linear relationship between the physical quantity
is often derived from a simple potentiometer
and its electrical equivalent. Because of this
connected across a stable d.c. voltage source
and since the output produced by the sensor
while the controlled device can take many forms
may be small or may suffer from the presence
(e.g. a d.c. motor, linear actuator, heater, etc.).
of noise (i.e. unwanted signals) further signal
conditioning will be required before the signal will
be at an acceptable level and in an acceptable Transducers
form for signal processing, display and recording.
Transducers are devices that convert energy
Furthermore, because the signal processing
in the form of sound, light, heat, etc., into an
may use digital rather than analogue signals
equivalent electrical signal, or vice versa.
an additional stage of analogue-to-analogue
conversion may be required. Before we go further, let’s consider a couple of
examples that you will already be familiar with.
Fig. 15.1(b) shows the arrangement of a control
A loudspeaker is a transducer that converts low-
system. This uses negative feedback in order
frequency electric current into audible sounds. A
to regulate and stabilize the output. It thus
microphone, on the other hand, is a transducer
becomes possible to set the input or demand
that performs the reverse function, i.e. that of
(i.e. what we desire the output to be) and leave

Figure 15.1 Instrumentation and control systems

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 15 Sensors and interfacing

converting sound pressure variations into voltage measurement, instrumentation or control system.
or current. Loudspeakers and microphones The signal produced by a sensor is an electrical
can thus be considered as complementary analogy of a physical quantity, such as distance,
transducers. velocity, acceleration, temperature, pressure, light
Transducers may be used both as inputs to level, etc. The signals returned from a sensor,
electronic circuits and outputs from them. From together with control inputs from the user or
the two previous examples, it should be obvious controller (as appropriate) will subsequently be
that a loudspeaker is an output transducer used to determine the output from the system.
designed for use in conjunction with an audio The choice of sensor is governed by a number of
system. A microphone is an input transducer factors including accuracy, resolution, cost and
designed for use with a recording or sound physical size.
reinforcing system. Sensors can be categorized as either active or
There are many different types of transducer and passive. An active sensor generates a current or
Tables 15.1 and 15.2 provide some examples voltage output. A passive transducer requires a
of transducers that can be used to input and source of current or voltage and it modifies this
output three important physical quantities; sound, in some way (e.g. by virtue of a change in the
temperature and angular position. sensor’s resistance). The result may still be a
voltage or current but it is not generated by the
sensor on its own.
Sensors
Sensors can also be classed as either digital or
A sensor is a special kind of transducer analogue. The output of a digital sensor can exist
that is used to generate an input signal to a in only two discrete states, either ‘on’ or ‘off’,

Table 15.1 Some examples of input transducers

Physical quantity Input transducer Notes
Sound (pressure change) Dynamic microphone Diaphragm attached to a coil is suspended in a magnetic
(see Fig. 15.3) field. Movement of the diaphragm causes current to be
induced in the coil.
Temperature Thermocouple (see Small e.m.f. generated at the junction between two
Fig. 15.2) dissimilar metals (e.g. copper and constantan). Requires
reference junction and compensated cables for accurate
measurement.
Angular position Rotary potentiometer Fine wire resistive element is wound around a circular
former. Slider attached to the control shaft makes contact
with the resistive element. A stable d.c. voltage source is
connected across the ends of the potentiometer. Voltage
appearing at the slider will then be proportional to angular
position.

Table 15.2 Some examples of output transducers

Physical quantity Output transducer Notes
Sound (pressure change) Loudspeaker (see Fig. 15.3) Diaphragm attached to a coil is suspended in a magnetic
field. Current in the coil causes movement of the diaphragm
which alternately compresses and rarefies the air mass in
front of it.
Temperature Heating element (resistor) Metallic conductor is wound onto a ceramic or mica former.
Current flowing in the conductor produces heat.
Angular position Rotary potentiometer Multi-phase motor provides precise rotation in discrete
steps of 15° (24 steps per revolution), 7.5° (48 steps per
revolution) and 1.8° (200 steps per revolution).

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 15 Sensors and interfacing

Figure 15.3 A selection of audible transducers

Figure 15.2 A selection of thermocouple probes

‘low’ or ‘high’, ‘logic 1’ or ‘logic 0’, etc. The output thus said to be continuously variable. Table 15.3
of an analogue sensor can take any one of an provides details of some common types of
infinite number of voltage or current levels. It is sensor.

Table 15.3 Some examples of input transducers

Physical quantity Input transducer Notes
Angular position Resistive rotary Rotary track potentiometer with linear law produces analogue voltage
position sensor (see proportional to angular position.
Fig. 15.5)
Optical shaft encoder Encoded disk interposed between optical transmitter and receiver (infra-
red LED and photodiode or photo-transistor).
Angular velocity Tachogenerator Small d.c. generator with linear output characteristic. Analogue output
voltage proportional to shaft speed.
Toothed rotor Magnetic pick-up responds to the movement of a toothed ferrous disk.
tachometer The pulse repetition frequency of the output is proportional to the angular
velocity.
Flow Rotating vane flow Turbine rotor driven by fluid. Turbine interrupts infra-red beam. Pulse
sensor (see Fig. 15.9) repetition frequency of output is proportional to flow rate.
Linear position Resistive linear Linear track potentiometer with linear law produces analogue voltage
position sensor proportional to linear position. Limited linear range.
Linear variable Miniature transformer with split secondary windings and moving core
differential transformer attached to a plunger. Requires a.c. excitation and phase-sensitive
(LVDT) detector.
Magnetic linear Magnetic pick-up responds to movement of a toothed ferrous track.
position sensor Pulses are counted as the sensor moves along the track.
Light level Photocell Voltage-generating device. The analogue output voltage produced is
proportional to light level.
Light-dependent An analogue output voltage results from a change of resistance within a
resistor (LDR) cadmium sulphide (CdS) sensing element. Usually connected as part of a
(see Fig. 15.8) potential divider or bridge.
Photodiode Two-terminal device connected as a current source. An analogue output
(see Fig. 15.8) voltage is developed across a series resistor of appropriate value.
Phototransistor Three-terminal device connected as a current source. An analogue output
(see Fig. 15.8) voltage is developed across a series resistor of appropriate value.

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 15 Sensors and interfacing

Table 15.3 (Continued)

Physical quantity Input transducer Notes
Liquid level Float switch Simple switch element which operates when a particular level is
(see Fig. 15.7) detected.
Capacitive proximity Switching device which operates when a particular level is detected.
switch Ineffective with some liquids.
Diffuse scan proximity Switching device which operates when a particular level is detected.
switch Ineffective with some liquids.
Pressure Microswitch pressure Microswitch fitted with actuator mechanism and range-setting springs.
sensor (see Fig. 15.4) Suitable for high-pressure applications.
Differential pressure Microswitch with actuator driven by a diaphragm. May be used to sense
vacuum switch differential pressure. Alternatively, one chamber may be evacuated and
the sensed pressure applied to a second input.
Piezo-resistive Pressure exerted on diaphragm causes changes of resistance in attached
pressure sensor piezo-resistive transducers. Transducers are usually arranged in the
form of a four active element bridge which produces an analogue output
voltage.
Proximity Reed switch Reed switch and permanent magnet actuator. Only effective over short
(see Fig. 15.4) distances.
Inductive proximity Target object modifies magnetic field generated by the sensor. Only
switch suitable for metals (non-ferrous metals with reduced sensitivity).
Capacitive proximity Target object modifies electric field generated by the sensor. Suitable for
switch metals, plastics, wood and some liquids and powders.
Optical proximity Available in diffuse and through scan types. Diffuse scan types require
switch (see Fig. 15.4) reflective targets. Both types employ optical transmitters and receivers
(usually infra-red emitting LEDs and photo-diodes or photo-transistors).
Digital input port required.
Strain Resistive strain gauge Foil type resistive element with polyester backing for attachment to
body under stress. Normally connected in full bridge configuration
with temperature-compensating gauges to provide an analogue output
voltage.
Semiconductor strain Piezo-resistive elements provide greater outputs than comparable
gauge resistive foil types. More prone to temperature changes and also
inherently non-linear.
Temperature Thermocouple (see Small e.m.f. generated by a junction between two dissimilar metals. For
Fig. 15.2) accurate measurement, requires compensated connecting cables and
specialized interface.
Thermistor (see Usually connected as part of a potential divider or bridge. An analogue
Fig. 15.6) output voltage results from resistance changes within the sensing
element.
Semiconductor Two-terminal device connected as a current source. An analogue output
temperature sensor voltage is developed across a series resistor of appropriate value.
(see Fig. 15.6)
Weight Load cell Usually comprises four strain gauges attached to a metal frame. This
assembly is then loaded and the analogue output voltage produced is
proportional to the weight of the load.
Vibration Electromagnetic Permanent magnet seismic mass suspended by springs within a
vibration sensor cylindrical coil. The frequency and amplitude of the analogue output
voltage are respectively proportional to the frequency and amplitude of
vibration.

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 15 Sensors and interfacing

Figure 15.4 Various switch sensors Figure 15.7 Liquid level float switch

Figure 15.5 Resistive linear position sensor Figure 15.8 Various optical and light sensors

Figure 15.6 Various temperature and gas sensors Figure 15.9 Liquid flow sensor (digital output)

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