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Map Projections and Coordinate Systems

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29 views4 pages

Map Projections and Coordinate Systems

Uploaded by

mayasherko4
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© All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Map Projection Lecture Notes 01(Code 7116)

Introduction and coordinate systems

1. Map Projections
Map projection is the geographic grid (Lat. &Long.) transformation to a plain Coordinate system (E &
N), (i.e. Displaying the earth on 2-dimensional maps). It has interacted in Cartography, Photogrammetry,
GIS, Remote Sensing, etc…

Advantages:

▪ Map specified to be flat.


▪ Managed for handling.
▪ Able to define the scale.

2. Why Map Projections?


The shape of the earth is spherical, therefore the best model that is used to represent the earth is a globe,
Disadvantage of the model:

▪ Difficult to handling.
▪ Having problems to make a measurement on it (e.g. distance, area, angle).

3. Map History, the map has appeared a long time ago in different stages:
a) Early Maps, The oldest known maps are preserved on Babylonian clay
tablets from about 2300 B.C.

b) Medieval Maps, During the Medieval period, European maps were


dominated by religious views.
c) Renaissance Maps (14th to 17th century), The invention of printing made maps much more
widely available beginning in the 15th century (i.e. printed on wooden blocks).
d) Modern Maps :Maps became increasingly accurate and factual during the 17th, 18th and 19th
centuries with the application of scientific methods. Many countries undertook national mapping
programs. Modern cartography is based on a combination of ground observations and remote
sensing.
e) Digital Maps, Digital mapping (also called digital cartography) is the process by which a collection of
data is compiled and formatted into a virtual image.

Asst. Prof. [Link] A. Sadeq PhD in Geomatics


2020-2021 / Page 1 of 4
Map Projection Lecture Notes 01(Code 7116)
Introduction and coordinate systems

4. Coordinate systems,
different kinds of coordinates are used to position objects in a two- or three-dimensional space.

Spatial coordinates (also known as global coordinates) are used to locate objects either on the Earth’s
surface in a 3D space or on the Earth’s reference surface (ellipsoid or sphere) in a 2D space.

The coordinate systems that are used to define the point is as follow:

a) 2D geographic coordinates ()


Geographic coordinates are always given in angular units, it is consisted from
▪ Latitude(phi or  or ): the angle north or south from the equatorial
plane. ( = 0°), at the equator and increases toward the poles. ranges
from +90 (90°N) to -90 (90°S).

▪ Longitude (lambda or ): the angle east or west from an identified


meridian of Greenwich ( = 0°) ranges from + 180° (180°E) to -
180° (180°W).

• Latitude and longitude represent the geographic coordinates


(,) of a point P' (figure below) with respect to the selected
reference surface.
• They are also called geodetic coordinates or ellipsoidal
coordinates when an ellipsoid is used to approximate the shape of
the Earth.

b) Latitude and longitude specifications


▪ Lines of equal latitude are called parallels, and they form circles on
the surface of the ellipsoid.
▪ Lines of equal longitude are called meridians and they form ellipses
(meridian ellipses) on the ellipsoid.
▪ Both lines form the graticule when projected onto a map plane,
producing lattice on the surface.
▪ A Graticule produced from intersection of parallels and meridians

c) 3D geographic coordinates (,  h), Are obtained by introducing


the ellipsoidal height h to the system. The ellipsoidal height
(h) of a point is the vertical distance of the point in the question
above the ellipsoid.

Asst. Prof. [Link] A. Sadeq PhD in Geomatics


2020-2021 / Page 2 of 4
Map Projection Lecture Notes 01(Code 7116)
Introduction and coordinate systems

d) Geocentric coordinates (X,Y,Z) or 3D Cartesian coordinates, they specified to be:


▪ used to define a position on the surface of the Earth
(point P in the figure right).
▪ has its origin at the mass-centre of the Earth with the
X- and Y-axes in the plane of the equator.
▪ The X-axis passes through the meridian of
Greenwich, and the Z-axis coincides with the
Earth's axis of rotation.
▪ The three axes are mutually orthogonal and form a
right-handed system.

Note: The rotational axis of the Earth changes its position


over time (referred to as polar motion). To compensate for this, the mean position of the pole in the year
1903 (based on observations between 1900 and 1905) has been used to define the so-called 'Conventional
International Origin' (CIO).

e) 2D Cartesian coordinates (X,Y) ,


Transforming the three-dimensional Earth into a two-dimensional map
is the subject of map projections and coordinate transformations.

To describe the location of any point in a map plane, noticeably, like


other cartographic applications, planer rectangular coordinates (x,y),
which is also known as planer rectangular coordinate is used.

The specification of 2D Cartesians are:

• It is consisted of intersecting two perpendicular lines: the horizontal axis, the X-axis, which is also
sometimes called Easting; and, the vertical, Y-axis, called Northing.
• The intersection of the X- and Y-axis forms the origin.
• The plane is marked at intervals by equally spaced coordinate lines, called the map grid.
• Normally, the coordinates x = 0 and y = 0 are given to the origin, which is called the false origin.
However, sometimes large positive values are added to the origin coordinates. This is to avoid
negative values for the x and y coordinates in case the origin of the coordinate system is located
inside the area of interest.
• The grid on a map represents lines having constant 2D Cartesian coordinates (x,y). It is almost
always a rectangular system and is used on large and medium scale maps to enable detailed
calculations and positioning.
• The map grid is usually not shown on small scale maps (about one to a million or smaller). Scale
distortions that result from transforming the Earth’s curved surface to the map plane are so great
on small-scale maps that detailed calculations and positioning are difficult.

Asst. Prof. [Link] A. Sadeq PhD in Geomatics


2020-2021 / Page 3 of 4
Map Projection Lecture Notes 01(Code 7116)
Introduction and coordinate systems

Graticule, the graticule on a map represents the projected position of the geographic coordinates (,) at
constant intervals, or in other words the projected position of selected meridians and parallels.

The grid specifications are:


• Used in topographic mapping,
• Specified to be rectangular, which means all the sheet maps will be the
same size.
• Allowing a completely uniform arrangement of the marginal information.

These graticule specifications are:


• The graticule as an outline of the mapped area might give a curved outline
• The shape of the graticule depends largely on the characteristics of the map
projection used and the scale of the map,

f) 2D polar coordinates (d)


It is another method to define the point the distance d from the origin to the point concerned and the angle
 between a fixed (or zero) direction and the direction to the point.
The angle  is called azimuth or bearing and is measured in a clockwise direction. It is given in angular
units while the distance d is expressed in length units.

An illustration of the 2D Polar coordinate system.

Bearings are always related to a fixed direction (initial bearing) or a datum line.

In principle, this reference line can be chosen freely. However, in practice, three different directions are
widely used: True North, Grid North and Magnetic North. The corresponding bearings are called: true
(or geodetic) bearing, grid bearing and magnetic (or compass) bearing.

Reading list:

[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]

Asst. Prof. [Link] A. Sadeq PhD in Geomatics


2020-2021 / Page 4 of 4

Common questions

Powered by AI

Transforming 3D geographic coordinates into 2D projections inherently leads to distortions due to the curvature of the Earth. Challenges include preserving area, shape, and distances. These are addressed using different projection methods that prioritize certain qualities; for example, conformal projections maintain local shapes while equal-area projections preserve comparative areas. The selection depends on the map's intended application and regional focus .

The choice of map projection affects the map's distortion of shapes, areas, distances, and directions, impacting the accuracy and efficacy in geographic decision-making. Different projections have varying levels of distortion, suitable for specific uses - for example, equal-area projections are preferred for area comparisons. Understanding these impacts helps in selecting the appropriate projection for accurate decision-making and representation .

Map graticules provide a framework of latitude and longitude on a map, facilitating the alignment and scaling of topographic map features. However, they can lead to distortions, particularly on small-scale maps, where the Earth's curvature presents challenges in accurately representing distances and angles, limiting their precision for detailed calculations .

Technological advancements have transformed digital cartography, allowing for real-time data processing and visualization, interactive maps, and widespread accessibility. These innovations facilitate complex analyses and dynamic mapping, revolutionizing traditional practices, leading to enhanced decision-making and planning capabilities in various fields such as urban planning, transportation, and environmental monitoring .

The evolution from early maps, such as Babylonian clay tablets, to digital maps reflects significant changes in human understanding and technology. Early maps were limited by the materials and geocentric views. During the Renaissance, the invention of printing allowed for wider distribution. The modern era introduced scientific methods for accuracy, while digital maps utilize technology for dynamic data compilation, showcasing an enhanced comprehension of spatial representation .

The transition from printed to digital maps marks a significant advancement in accessibility and data integration. Digital maps have democratized access to spatial data through online platforms and mobile applications. This shift has allowed for seamless integration of diverse datasets, fostering more comprehensive and timely spatial analyses, significantly impacting fields like urban planning, disaster management, and environmental protection .

Map projections are advantageous over globes because they offer a flat representation of the Earth, which makes them easier to manage and handle. Additionally, map projections allow for defining the scale, enabling precise measurements .

Polar coordinates are useful in navigation as they define a point based on its distance from a reference point and angle from a fixed direction, like True North. They are often preferred over Cartesian coordinates in scenarios requiring directional information, such as maritime and aerial navigation, where bearings and distances are more intuitive .

Latitude and longitude coordinates are angular measures used for identifying precise locations on Earth's surface, primarily applied in navigation and mapping. Geocentric coordinates, expressed in 3D Cartesian form (X, Y, Z), identify positions relative to Earth's center, useful in satellite data processing and global positioning systems, highlighting varied practical uses based on the required precision and scope .

The spherical shape of Earth necessitates various map projections to overcome the difficulty of representing a three-dimensional surface in two dimensions. Each map projection compromises certain aspects of scale, area, shape, or distance to fit specific needs, making the choice of projection critical depending on the map's purpose and geographical area of interest .

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