Modern Techniques of

Farm Management
 Modern Techniques of
Farm Management

Editors
Anil Kumar
Poonam Kashyap
Chandra Bhanu
Sanjeev Kumar
A.S. Panwar

ICAR-Indian Institute of Farming Systems Research

Modipuram, Meerut - 250 110 (U.P.), India
iv

Modern Techniques of Farm Management

© November, 2016

ISBN: 978-81-928993-2-9

Editors: Dr. Anil Kumar, Principal Scientist

Dr. Poonam Kashyap, Scientist
Dr. Chandra Bhanu, Scientist
Dr. Sanjeev Kumar, Scientist
Dr. A.S. Panwar, Director

Assistance: Dr. [Link], Technical Officer

Dr. Vinod Kumar, Technical Officer
Sh Teshu Kumar, SRF
Sh. Brijbir, Stenographer

Published by: Director

ICAR-Indian Institute of Farming Systems Research
Modipuram, Meerut - 250 110 (U.P.), India
Ph. No.: 0121-288 8711
Fax No.: 0121-288 8546
E-mail: directoriifsr@[Link]
Website: [Link]

Printed at: Yugantar Prakashan Pvt. Ltd.

WH-23, Mayapuri Industrial Area Phase-I, New Delhi-64
Ph.: 011-28115949, 28116018, 9811349619, 9953134595
E-mail: yugpress01@[Link], yugpress@[Link]
 v

Dr. S. Bhaskar
Assistant Director General
(Agronomy, Agro-forestry and Climate Change)
Division of Natural Resource Management
Indian Council of Agricultural Research
Krishi Anusandhan Bhavan-II, New Delhi

FOREWORD
Farm Management is the science of optimising the right combination of crop
and livestock enterprises in tune with the farm resources in order to maximize profit
per unit area. Such resources include land, labour, capital and management including
specialised knowledge, time and risk management skills, etc. Farm management is
best examined and understood under the whole farm situation through study of
human, technical and economic elements. An efficient farm management helps in
decision-making process where available but limited production resources are
allocated to selected production alternatives so as to operate the farm business in
such a way to attain some set objectives.

In fact, farm management and farming systems are inter-related concepts with
the former operating in institutional settings while the latter concerned with on-farm
situations. The Indian Institute of Farming Systems Research (IIFSR) Modipuram
has an important mandate of capacity building and human resource development.
Going by this proposition and keeping in view the vast experience of IIFSR in
organising capacity building programmes, this Institute is ideally suited for organising
the training programme on farm management.

It is a matter of great pleasure that IIFSR is publishing a book entitled ‘Modern

Techniques of Farm Management’ which would be very much helpful to the
participant trainees in upgrading their knowledge and skills in the area of farm
planning and implementation. I congratulate the Director and his entire team of
scientists for bringing out this book which will be a valuable document for the farm
managers in improving the production efficiency of the farm with optimisation of
natural and human resources, and minimisation of risk factor through strategic decision
making. I wish the team of IIFSR a great success in their endeavour towards
capacity building and human resource development in the area of farm management.

(S. Bhaskar)
 vii

PREFACE
Farm management is a collective term for various management strategies and
methods that are employed to keep a farm productive and profitable. In many
respects, effective farm management is similar to the management processes that
are employed with any type of business. There are decisions that must be made on
a daily basis, as well as operational guidelines that must be observed by everyone
involved with the operation. The issues of farm management have assumed greater
importance during the recent times in view of the need to reduce the production
cost, maximize the output and make agriculture more competitive. For effective
management of an agricultural farm, the farm manger is ought to have managerial
skills needed for farm planning, implementation and risk management associated
with the farm production and profitability.
Training is an important tool for skill upgradation in order to make a person
proficient in doing the specified job. It is an integral constituent of capacity building
programme and has often been used as one of the essential method in technology
transfer. The research information and technologies generated by the research
institutions are being transferred down the line to the end users through a system of
developmental machineries established in the country. The Indian Institute of Farming
Systems Research (IIFSR), Modipuram has been a key institution having repository
of the farm management technologies through years of systematic research. Training
and published literatures are significant tools which have always been instrumental
in upgrading the knowledge of end users.
The book entitled, ‘Modern Techniques of Farm Management’ has been brought
out to serve the needs of farm managers who are working under institutional settings.
There has been a growing need for such type of book dealing with conceptual and
practical aspects of farm management. It was felt necessary to ensure a
comprehensive content in the present book in order to meet the requirements of the
readers. The present book has been designed to fill the gap existing between the
already available literature and the latest development in the field. This book
encompasses chapters from resource persons having expertise in different disciplines
pertaining to farm management. We have tried to pool the essence of available
knowledge and findings of research in this book in a systematic manner.
We are deeply indebted to Dr. A. K. Vyas, ADG (HRM), ICAR, New Delhi for
his guidance and continuous support to organize a refresher course on Farm
Management. We also express our gratitude to Dr S. Bhaskar, ADG (Agronomy,
Agro-Forestry and Climate Change), ICAR, New Delhi for his moral support in
bringing out this publication. We also convey our appreciation to all the resource
persons who contributed their chapters for this book. Every information adds to our
knowledge and acquisition of knowledge leads to wisdom. We hope that this book
will contribute to the wisdom of farm managers and students of agriculture discipline.
Editors
 CONTENTS
Foreword v
Preface vii
Chapters

1. Principles of Effective Goal Setting for Farm Production 1

- AS Panwar
2. Economic Principles of Farm Management 7
- Brijendra Singh
3. Whole Farm Planning and Budgeting 21
- HL Singh
4. Crop Planning and Management 31
- Raghvendra B Yadav & Sanjeev Kumar
5. Theory and Practice of Orchard Management 41
- Poonam Kashyap
6. Principles and Procedures for Plant Protection 59
- Chandra Bhanu
7. Gender Sensitive Farm Tools 79
- Nisha Verma
8. Management of Livestock Farm 87
- Mahesh Kumar
9. Breeding, Feeding and Health Care Management in Poultry 101
- S. Malik
10. Fish Pond Management 113
- Peyush Punia & A.K. Prusty
11. Principles of Selection of Enterprises for Multi-enterprise Farm 125
- N. Ravisankar & AS Panwar
12. Optimization of Resource Use and Income Generation in Integrated 135
Farming Systems
- AK Prusty
13. Technologies of On-farm Storage and Phyto-sanitation 143
- Amit Nath
14. Contingency Planning in Crop Management under Abiotic Stress 153
- Mohammad Shamim
15. Economics of Farm Productivity and Profitability 159
- Harbir Singh
16. Supervision of Farm Operations and Manpower 167
- Anil Kumar
17. Soil Testing Procedures and Calculation of Fertilizer Doses 173
- Vinod Kumar & OK Tomar
18. Handling and Use of Plant Protection Equipments and Pesticides 193
- Chandra Bhanu
19. Records Management in Crop Farm 201
- Chet Ram
20. Record Keeping in Dairy Farm 207
- Ajayvir Singh Sirohi
Annexures
I Role of Essential Plant Nutrients 213
II Guidelines for Disposal of Farm Produce 220
III List of Contributors 221
 Chapter 1

Principles of Effective Goal Setting for Farm

Production
A.S. Panwar

Goal Setting is the process of establishing desired results that guide and direct
behavior. Goal setting involves the development of an action plan designed to motivate
and guide a person or group toward a goal. Goals are a contract between employee
and manager. They provide the framework for accountability and promote
conversations between the manager and employee to monitor progress throughout
the year.

On a basic level, there are two types of goals, learning goals and performance
goals; each possesses different traits associated with the selected goal. Learning
goals involve tasks where skills and knowledge can be acquired, whereas
performance goals involve easy-to-accomplish tasks that will make one appear
successful. A person with a learning goal orientation wants to develop competence
by mastering challenging situations. In contrast, the person with a performance
goal orientation wants to demonstrate and validate competence by seeking favourable
judgments. Considerable research has indicated that a learning goal orientation has
a positive impact on work-related behaviors and performance (VandeWalle, 2001).

APPROACHES TOWARD GOAL SETTING

Studies by Edwin A. Locke and his colleagues have shown that more specific
and ambitious goals lead to more performance improvement than easy or general
goals. As long as the person accepts the goal, has the ability to attain it, and does not
have conflicting goals, there is a positive linear relationship between goal difficulty
and task performance. An effective and consistent approach to goal setting includes
three facets:

1. Goals should be SMART: SMART is an acronym that stands for specific,

measurable, attainable, relevant, and timely. Specific goals help us to focus our
efforts and clearly define what we are going to do (Table 1).

2. Goals should be manageable in number: Five or six meaningful goals are

sufficient to challenge employees and keep them engaged in their contribution to
the overall purpose. Adding more goals is likely to have a negative impact on
productivity and derail progress toward achieving any of them.
2 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

Table 1: Characteristics of goal

S Specific The goal clearly defines the outcomes to be delivered, with any
necessary interpretation agreed upon by the employee and
manager in advance.
M Measurable The achievement of the goal can be objectively assessed
according to a predetermined and applicable measurement.
A Attainable The employee has the resources, time, and access to people,
data, etc., to allow him or her to achieve the goal.
R Relevant The goal addresses work and results that clearly align with the
goals of the team, the department or division, and the organization
as a whole.
T Timely The goal clearly specifies a delivery date or schedule.

3. Goals should address both institutional interests and personal

development: Well-written, regularly monitored goals provide the framework for
accountability and the basis for productive performance conversations between
managers and employees.

PRINCIPLES OF GOAL SETTING

Under the right conditions, goal setting can be a powerful technique for motivating
workers in relation to field or farm production. The following are some principles to
be considered when attempting to use goal-setting to enhance motivation and
performance:

Goals Need to be Specific

Farm workers perform at higher levels when asked to meet a specific high-
performance goal. Asking organization members to improve, to work harder, or to
do your best is not helpful, because that kind of goal does not give them a focused
target. Specific goals (often quantified) let organization members know what to
reach for and allow them to measure their own progress. Farm goals also need to
be specific based on the mandate of the farm attached to the research or production
organization. Research indicates that specific goals help bring about other desirable
organizational goals, such as reducing absenteeism, tardiness, and turnover (Locke
and Latham, 2002).

Goals Must be Difficult but Attainable

A goal that is too easily attained will not bring about the desired increments in
performance. The key point is that a goal must be difficult as well as specific for it
to raise performance. However, there is a limit to this effect. Although organization
Principles of Effective Goal Setting for Farm Production 3

members will work hard to reach challenging goals, they will only do so when the
goals are within their capability. As goals become too difficult, performance suffers
because the workers reject the goals as unreasonable and unattainable. A major
factor in attainability of a goal is self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997). This is an internal
belief regarding one’s job-related capabilities and competencies. If farm workers
have high self-efficacies, it is required to set higher personal goals under the belief
that they are attainable. The first key to successful goal setting is to build and
reinforce employees’ self-efficacy within the available resources.

Goals Must be Accepted

Goals need acceptance to achieve the desired performance level. Simply
assigning goals to workers may not result in their commitment to those goals,
especially if the goals are difficult to accomplish. A powerful method of obtaining
acceptance is to allow workers to participate in the goal-setting process. Participation
helps the workers to understand the goals which tends to enhance goal commitment.

Feedback Must be Provided on Goal Attainment

Feedback helps the workers to attain their performance goals with needed
refinement. Feedback helps in two important ways. First, it helps the workers
determine how well they are doing. Performance feedback tends to encourage
better performance. Second, feedback also helps people to determine the nature of
the adjustments to their performance that are required to improve (Lunenburg,
2011).

Deadlines Improve the Effectiveness of Goals

For most employees, goals are more effective when they include a deadline for
completion. Deadlines serve as a time-control mechanism and increase the
motivational impact of goals. Being aware that a deadline is approaching, the
employees will invest more effort into completing the task. In contrast, if sufficient
time remains for attaining the goal, the employee is likely to slow down his or her
pace to fill the available time. However, when deadlines are too tight, particularly
with complex tasks, the quality of work may suffer. Timeline set to a goal helps to
achieve it more effectively.

Group Goal-Setting is as Important as Individual Goal-Setting

Now-a-days, many organization members work in groups, teams, or committees.
Having employees work as teams with a specific team goal, rather than as individuals
with only individual goals, increases productivity. Furthermore, the combination of
compatible group goals and individual goals is more effective than either individual
or group goals alone. A related consideration is that when a team member perceives
that other team members share his or her personal goals, the individual will be more
4 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

satisfied and productive. A recent study of project teams indicated that a perceived
fit between individual and group performance goals resulted in greater individual
satisfaction and contribution to the team (Kristof-Brown and Stevens, 2001).

DELIVERING PERFORMANCE FEEDBACK

Organizations use a variety of methods designed to collect data about employee
performance and to deliver that feedback to the individual. The most effective
feedback focuses not on what went wrong in the past, but on what can go right in
the future. Forward-looking input is typically interpreted as encouragement and a
boost forward. It emphasizes solutions rather than problems. Furthermore, the person
accepting such feedback receives good ideas for completing the task, making the
change, and delivering the result.

On the other hand, negative feedback often tends to produce defensiveness on

the part of the farm worker and discomfort on the part of the manager. Even
constructively delivered feedback is often seen as negative because it necessarily
involves a discussion of mistakes, shortfalls, and problems. In theory, constructive
feedback is supposed to “focus on the performance, not the person”. However, in
practice, almost all feedback is taken personally, no matter how it is delivered.
Forward-looking input does not involve a personal critique because it is discussing
something that has not yet happened.

CONCLUSION
Goal setting is critically important to individual farm workers and their managers.
It is a human nature to feel both satisfied and self-confident when we make progress
toward and meet our objectives. Strategies for managers include offering forward-
looking input, eliminating defensiveness and promoting collaboration. Goals also
promote more useful interaction between managers and their team workers, so that
they can better align plans, monitor milestones, and make course corrections when
needed.

REFERENCES
Bandura A. 1997. Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman, New
York.
Kristof-Brown A L and Stevens C K. 2001. Goal congruence in project teams:
Does the fit between members’ personal mastery and performance goals
matter? Journal of Applied Psychology 86(6): 1083-1095.
Locke E A and Latham G P. 2002. Building a practically useful theory of goal
setting and task motivation. American Psychologist 57(9): 705-717.
Principles of Effective Goal Setting for Farm Production 5

Lunenburg F C. 2011. Goal setting theory of motivation. International Journal of

Management, Business and Administration 15 (1): 1-6.
VandeWalle D. 2001. Goal orientation: Why wanting to look successful doesn’t
always lead to success. Organizational Dynamics 30(2): 162-171.
 Chapter 2

Economic Principles of Farm Management

Brijendra Singh

The outpouring of new technological information is making the farm problems

increasingly challenging and providing alterative opportunities for maximizing profits.
Hence, the application of economic principles to farming is essential for the successful
management of the farm business. Some of the economic principles that help in
rational farm management decisions are:

● Law of variable proportions or law of diminishing returns: It solves the

problems of how much to produce. It guides in determination of optimum input
to use and optimum output to produce. It explains one of the basic production
relationship viz. factor- product relationship.

● Cost Principle: It explains how losses can be minimized during the periods of
price adversity.

● Principle of factor substitution: It solves the problem of how to produce? It

guides in determination of least cost combinations of resources and explains
factor – factor relationship.

● Principle of equi–marginal returns: It guides in the allocation of resources

under conditions of scarcity.

● Principle of product substitution: It solves the problem of what to produce?

It guides in determination of optimum combination of enterprises (Products)
and explains product- product relationship. .

● Principle of comparative advantage: It explains regional specialization in

the production of commodities.

● Time comparison principle: It guides in making investment decisions.

1. LAW OF VARIABLE PROPORTIONS

This law is also known as ‘law of diminishing returns’ or ‘principle of
added costs and added returns’. This law is a basic natural law affecting many
phases of management of a farm business. The factor production relationship or
the amount of resources that should be used (Optimum input) and consequently the
8 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

amount of product that should be produced (Optimum output) is directly related to

the operation of law of diminishing returns.

This law derives its name from the fact that as successive units of variable
resources are used in combination with a collective of fixed resources, the resulting
addition to the total product will become successively smaller. Mathematically it
can be expressed as:

Y= f (X1/X2, X3, X4,……..Xn)

Where,
Y = Output
f(X1….Xn) = Function of different inputs

Most profitable level of production:

(a) Optimum input to use
An important use of information derived from a production function is to
determine how much of the variable input to use. Given a goal of maximizing profit,
the farmer or farm manager must select from all possible input levels the one which
will result in the greatest profit. To determine the optimum input to use we apply
two marginal concepts viz, marginal value product and marginal factor cost.

(i) Marginal value product (MVP) is the additional income received from using an
additional unit of input.

Δ total value product Δ Y. Py

MVP = =
Δ input level ΔX

Where,
Y = Output
Py = Price per unit of output
X = Input

(ii) Marginal Input Cost (MIC) or Marginal Factor Cost (MFC) is defined
as the additional cost associated with the use of an additional unit of input.

Δ total input cost Δ X. Px

Marginal Factor cost = = = Px*
Δ input level ΔX
Economic Principles of Farm Management 9

Where,
X= Input quantity
Px = Price per unit of input
*This conclusion holds provided the input price does not change with the quantity
of input purchased.

Decision Rules:
1. If MVP is greater than MIC, additional profit can be made by using more input.
2. If MVP is less than MIC, more profit can be made by using less input.
3. Profit maximizing or optimum input level is at the point where MVP = MIC.

Example of determination of optimum input use:

Input price: Rs. 12 per unit, Output price: Rs. 2.00 per unit
Input X TPP (Y) MPP (ΔY) TVP (Rs.) MVP (Rs.) MIC(Rs.)
0 0 - - - -

1 12 12 24 24 12
2 30 18 60 36 12

3 44 14 88 28 12

4 54 10 108 20 12
5 62 8 124 16 12

6 68 6 136 12 12

7 72 4 144 8 12
8 74 2 148 4 12

9 72 -2 144 -4 12

10 68 -4 136 -8 12
TPP= Total Physical Product, MPP= Marginal Physical Product
TVP= Total Value Product

The above table exhibits that the profit maximizing input level i.e., optimum
input use is therefore, at the point where MVP= MIC. These relationships exist at
6 units of input level use.
10 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

(b) Optimum Output

The determination of optimum output to produce is the problem before farm
manager and to answer this question requires the introduction of two new marginal
concepts.

(i) Marginal Revenue (MR): It is defined as the additional income from selling of
additional unit of output.

Change in total revenue

Marginal Revenue =
Change in total physical product

Δ Y. Py
MR = = Py
ΔY

Where,
Y = Output
Py = Price per unit of output

(ii) Marginal cost (MC): It is defined as the additional cost incurred from producing
an additional unit of output.

Change in total cost

Marginal Cost =
Change in total physical product

Δ X. Px
MC = = Px
ΔY
Where ,
X = Quantity of input
Px = Price per unit of input
Y = Output

Decision rules:
1. If Marginal Revenue is greater than marginal cost, more profit can be made by
producing more output.
2. If Marginal Revenue is less than marginal cost, more profit can be made by
producing less output.
Economic Principles of Farm Management 11

3. The profit maximizing output level is at the point where MR= MC

Example of determination of optimum output to produce:

(Input price Rs. 12.00 per unit, Output price Rs.2.00 per unit)
Input (X) TPP (Y) MPP TR (Rs.) MR (Rs.) MC (Rs.)
0 0 - - - -

1 12 12 24 2 1.00

2 30 18 60 2 0.67
3 44 14 88 2 0.86

4 54 10 108 2 1.20

5 62 8 124 2 1.50
6 68 6 136 2 2.00

7 72 4 144 2 3.00

8 74 2 148 2 6.00
9 72 -2 144 2 -6.00

10 68 -4 136 2 -3.00

At the output level of 68 units of output, MR = MC. This is the optimum output
to be produced.

2. COST PRINCIPLE OR MINIMUM LOSS PRINCIPLE

This principle guides the producers in minimization of losses. Costs are divided
into fixed and variable costs. Variable costs are important in determining whether to
produce or not. Fixed costs are important in making decisions on different practices
and different amounts of production.

In short run, the gross returns or total revenue must cover the total variable
costs (TVC). In other words, selling price must cover the average variable costs
(AVC) to continue the production. In long run, gross returns or total revenue must
cover the total cost (TC). Alternatively, stated that the selling price must cover cost
of production (ATC).

In the short run MR=MC point may be at a level of output which may involve
loss instead of profit. The situation of operating the farms, when the price of product
12 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

(MR) is less than average total cost (ATC) but greater than average variable cost
(AVC), is common in agriculture. This explains why the farmers keep farming even
when they run into losses.

Decision Rules:
(i) Short Run:
1. If expected selling price is greater than minimum average total cost (ATC),
profit is expected and is maximized by producing where MR= MC.
2. If expected selling price is less than minimum average total cost (ATC) but
greater than minimum average variable cost (AVC), a loss is expected but the
loss is less than total fixed cost (TFC) and is minimized by producing where
MR= MC.
3. If expected selling price is less than minimum average variable cost (AVC), a
loss is expected but can be minimized by not producing anything. The loss will
be equal to TFC.

(ii) Long Run:

1. Production should continue in the long run when the expected selling price is
greater than minimum average total cost (ATC).
2. Expected selling price, which is less than minimum average total cost (ATC),
results in continuous losses. In this case, the fixed assets should be sold and
money may be invested in more profitable alternatives.

Illustration of the operation of cost principle:

This example depicts that in case of decline of selling price, the loss is Rs. 178.
Now the question is whether the farmer should continue the production or not at the
selling price of Rs. 350. If the farmer does not raise the enterprise A, the loss would
be Rs. 707.00 in the form of fixed cost. If the farmer raised the enterprises A , the
gross income of Rs. 3150.00 exceeds the variable costs (Rs. 2621.00) by Rs. 529.00
By this amount the loss of Rs. 707.00 on account of fixed costs get reduced i.e.,
(Rs. 707-529= Rs. 178). The loss would be reduced to Rs. 178.00 by raising the
enterprise A.
Economic Principles of Farm Management 13

Cost / Returns in cultivation of an enterprise A. Rs./ha

Total variable costs 2621.00

Total fixed costs 707.00

Total costs 3328.00

Yield (quintals) 09.00

Average variable cost 291.22

Average total cost 369.77

Selling price 430.00

Gross returns 3870.00

Net returns 542.00

Suppose the price decline to 350.00

Gross returns 3150.00

Net returns -178.00

3. PRINCIPLE OF FACTOR SUBSTITUTION

This economic principle explains one of the basic production relationship viz,
factor-factor relationship. It guides in the determination of least cost combination of
resources. It helps in making a management decision of ‘how to produce’.

Substitution of one input for another input occurs frequently in agricultural

production. Thus the problem is to find the least cost combination of resources, as
this will maximize profit from producing a given amount of output.

The principle of factor substitution says that go on adding a resource so long as

the cost of the resource being added is less than the saving in cost from the resource
being replaced. Thus, input X1 is being increased and input X2 is being replaced,
increase the use of X1 so long as

Decrease in cost (Added/Replaced) > Increase in cost (Replaced/Added)

Quantity saved of price per unit of added input

The replaced input >
Quantity increased of price per unit of replaced input
14 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

The added input

i.e. MRS > PR
Where,
MRS = Marginal Rate of Substitution
PR = Price Ratio

Profit or Decision rules:

1. If MRS is greater than price ratio (PR), cost can be reduced by using more
added resources i.e.

Δ X2 Px1
> then, increase the use of X1
Δ X1 Px2
Or
Δ X1 Px2
> then, increase the use of X2
Δ X2 Px1

2. If MRS is less than price ratio (PR), cost can be reduced by using more replaced
resource, i.e.

Δ X2 Px1
< then, increase the use of X2
Δ X1 Px2
Or
Δ X1 Px2
< then, increase the use of X1
Δ X2 Px1

3. Least cost combination of resources is at the point where MRS= PR, i.e.

Δ X2 Px1
=
Δ X1 Px2
Or
Δ X1 Px2
=
Δ X2 Px1
Economic Principles of Farm Management 15

Example of selecting a least cost feed or ration:

Price of grain: Rs 4.40 per kg, Price of hay: Rs. 3.00 per kg.
Grain in kg (X1) Hay in kg (X2) Δ X1 Δ X2 MRS Price Ratio
825 1350 - - - -

900 1130 75 220 2.93 1.47

975 935 75 195 2.60 1.47

1050 770 75 165 2.20 1.47

1125 630 75 140 1.87 1.47

1200 520 75 110 1.47 1.47

1275 440 75 80 1.07 1.47

The least cost combination of grain and hay is a combination of 1200 kg of

grain and 520 kg of hay, as the substitution ratio equates price ratio.

4. LAW OF EQUI-MARGINAL RETURNS

This law states that a limited input should be allocated among alternative uses
in such a way that the marginal value products of the last unit are equal in all its
uses. The equi-marginal principle provides guidelines for the rational allocation of
scarce resources. The principle says that returns from the limited resources will be
maximum if each unit of the resource should be used where it brings greatest
marginal returns.

Example: A farmer has Rs. 3000/- and wants to grow sugarcane, wheat and
cotton. What amount of money be spent on each enterprise to get maximum profits.

Amount (Rs.) Marginal Value Products from

Sugarcane (Rs.) Wheat (Rs.) Cotton (Rs.)
500 880 (1) 750 (2) 650(6)

1000 700 (3) 650(5) 560

1500 650 (4) 580 550

2000 640 540 510

2500 630 520 505

3000 605 510 500

16 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

Thus, each successive rupees of 500 is allocated to the crop which has highest
marginal value product remaining after previous allocation. The final allocation is
Rs. 1500 on sugarcane, Rs. 1000 on wheat and Rs. 500 on cotton.

5. PRINCIPLE OF PRODUCT SUBSTITUTIONS

This principle explains the product-product relationship and helps in deciding
the optimum combination of products. This economic principle also guides in making
a decision of what to produce. This principle says that we should go on increasing
the output of a product so long as decrease in returns from the product being replaced
is less than the increase in the returns from the product being added.

Decrease in returns (Added/Replaced) < Increase in return (Replaced/Added)

i.e.
Quantity of output reduced of replace product Price per unit of added product
<
Quantity of output increased of added product Price per unit of replaced product
i.e., MRPS < PR (Price ratio)

Profit rules or decision rules:

1. If MRPS < PR, profit can be increased by producing more of added product.

Δ Y2 Py1
MRPS Y1,Y2 = < then increase Y1
Δ Y1 Py2

Δ Y1 Py2
MRPS Y2,Y1 = < then increase Y2
Δ Y2 Py1

2. If MRPS > PR, profit can be increased by producing more of replaced product.

Δ Y2 Py1
MRPS Y1,Y2 = > then increase Y2
Δ Y1 Py2

Δ Y1 Py2
MRPS Y2,Y1 = > then increase Y1
Δ Y2 Py1
Economic Principles of Farm Management 17

3. Optimum combination of products is when MRPS=PR.

Δ Y2 Py1
>
Δ Y1 Py2

or

Δ Y1 Py2
>
Δ Y2 Py1

Example of an optimum combination of enterprises:

(Py1 = Rs. 280 per quintal; Py2 = Rs. 400 per quintal)
Yield (Quintals) Δ Y1 Δ Y2 MRPSY1Y2 PR
Y1 Y2

0 60 - - - -
20 56 20 4 0.20 0.70

40 50 20 6 0.30 0.70
60 41 20 9 0.45 0.70

80 30 20 11 0.55 0.70

100 16 20 14 0.70 0.70

120 0 20 16 0.80 0.70

Decision – This table depicts that the sixth combination which produces 100 quintals
of Y1 and 16 quintals of Y2 is the optimum or profit maximizing combination.

6. PRINCIPLE OF COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGE

The crops and livestock production can be raised over a broad geographical
area but the yields, production costs and profit may be different in each area. It is
relative yields, costs and profits which are important for application of this principle.
Individual or regions will tend to specialize in the production of those commodities
for which their resources give them a relative or comparative advantage.
18 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

Example of comparative advantage

Crop account per hectare Region A Region B

Wheat Bajra Wheat Bajra

Total revenue (Rs.) 5000 2250 2250 2200

Total cost (Rs.) 4250 2000 2100 2000

Net Returns (Rs.) 750 250 150 200

Return per rupees 1.18 1.12 1.07 1.10

Region A has great absolute advantage in growing both Wheat and Bajra than
region B. Farmers of region A to make the greatest profit should increase acreage
under Wheat as relative advantage. However, the farmers of Region B have relative
advantage in growing Bajra.

7. TIME COMPARISON PRINCIPLE

Many farm decisions involve time. For example, a farmer has to decide between
a cereal crop which would be harvested after about four months or an orchard
which would start giving returns after four/ five years. Further, a farmer has to
decide whether to purchase new farm machinery with 10 years of life or a second
hand one which may have only five years of life. Several other decisions involving
time and initial capital investment could be judiciously taken by compounding or
discounting.

(i) Future value of a present sum

The procedure for determining the future value of a present sum is called
[Link] formula is:

FV= P(1+i)n
Where,
FV= Future value
P= Present sum
i = Interest rate
n = Number of years

Example: Assume that you have invested Rs.100 in a saving account which earns
8 percent interest compounded annually and would like to know the future value of
this investment after 3 years.
Economic Principles of Farm Management 19

FV= P(1+i)n
=100(1+0.08)3
=100(1.2597)
=125.97

The future value of Rs.100 after 3 years will be 125.97.

(ii) Discounting
The discounting is done because sum to be received in the future is worth
somewhat less now because of the time difference assuming positive interest rate.

P
PV =
(1+i)n

Where,
PV= present value
P= future sum
i= rate of interest
n = number of years

Example: Find out the present value of Rs.1000 to be received after 5 years. The
rate of interest to be considered is 8 percent.

P
PV =
(1+i)n

1000
=
(1+0.08)5

= 681

The present value of Rs.1000 is Rs.681/-only.

SUGGESTED READINGS
Efterson J N. 1953. Principles of Farm Management. McGraw-Hill Book Company,
Tokyo.
20 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

Heady E O and Dillon J L. 1961. Agricultural Production Functions Kalyani

Publications, Ludhiana.
Johl S S and Kapoor T R. 1977. Fundamentals of Farm Business Management.
Kalyani Publisher, Ludhiana.
Verma R C and Pareek S. 2001. Farm Management. Rajasthan Hindi Granth
Ekadami, Jaipur.
 Chapter 3

Whole Farm Planning and Budgeting

H.L. Singh

Planning plays an important role in controlling future events. Is consist of a

formal and informal blue print for achieving certain pre-defined objectives, such as
profit maximization or cost minimization and satisfying at the farm level, by organizing
the scarce resources which have alternative uses. The process of planning is based
on fundamental assumptions that objectives can be better realized through systematic
plans prepared well ahead of time than through management by crisis. As with any
economic unit, planning at the farm levels helps achieving bigger economic objectives
than what can possibly be achieved without planning. Moreover, with advancement
in knowledge and technology it is becoming even more important to be able to
anticipate difficulties and mistakes well ahead of time so as to avoid future events
which may otherwise be more stressful and unsuccessful. In practical all farmers
plan but to a varying degree. Generally, the larger and better organized the farm
business, the higher is the degree of planning and vice versa. Few of the related
definitions are as

FARM
A farm is an area of land that is used mainly producing crops and for rearing
other related enterprises. The name is used for specialized units such as arable
farms, vegetable farms, fruit farms, dairy, pig and poultry farms, and land used for
the production of natural fibers, bio fuel and other commodities etc.

PLAN
A plan is typically any diagram or list of steps with timing and resources, used
to achieve an objective. It is commonly understood as a temporal set of proposed
actions through which one expects to achieve a goal.

PLANNING
Planning is the process of thinking about an organizing the activities required
to achieve a desired goal. It involves the creation and maintenance of a plan, such
as psychological aspects that require conceptual skills. There are even a couple of
tests to measure someone’s capability of planning well. As such, planning is a
fundamental property of intelligent behavior.
22 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

Farm planning is a process to allocate the scare resources of the farm to

organize the farm production in such a way as to increase the resource use efficiency
and the income of the farmer.

Farm planning is process of deciding in the present what to do in the future

about the best combination of crops and livestock to be raised through rational use
of resources.

Farm planning is mainly a process of choice making or choosing from among

competitive alternatives. It is concerned with various adjustments the farmer makes
in the existing organizations with the purpose of making the most profitable use of
scarce resources.

Thus it may be concluded that farm planning is the process of observation,

appraisal and analysis of weighing the merits of new and old ideas and then deciding
which ideas to use in the period ahead.”

OBJECTIVES OF FARM PLANNING

The ultimate objective of farm planning is the improvement in the standard of
living of the farmers and immediate goal is to maximize the net incomes of the
farmer through improved resource use planning. When the objective is maximization
of net income, it involves commonly called “the planning horizon” the length of the
planning period on the basis of the farmers situation has to be, therefore, decided.
The main objective is to maximize the annual net income sustained over a long
period of time.

IMPORTANCE OF FARM PLAN

A sound farm plan helps the farmer to achieve the pre-determined objectives in
an effective and systematic manner. Some of the important reasons for making
farm plans are given as under.

1. It enables the farmer to achieve his objectives in relations to his farm and
family in a more organized manner. The process of farm planning may also
encourage him to develop and gather new ideas about farm practices with a
view to achieve the stated objectives.
2. Farm planning enables a careful examination of the existing resources and their
best allocation for achieving higher resource use efficiency, farm income and
farm family welfare. Thus it helps maximizing efficiency and family satisfaction
and minimizing the wastes.
Whole Farm Planning and Budgeting 23

3. A good farm plan serves as a basis for a judicious combining of the existing and
new alternative enterprises. It is a continuous process wherein relatively more
profitable new enterprises keep on replacing the old and less profitable one
over time.
4. Supply needs of various inputs can be identified reasonably ahead of time and
adequate arrangements made for their procurement.
5. The expected income cane be estimated well ahead of time. It helps the farmer
to initiate steps for procuring the required credit. Also investment opportunities
can be planned depending upon the surplus of expected incomes at some future
point of time.
6. A good farm plan helps to prevent many of the stresses and strains in the
business of farming through orderly planning.
7. A properly thought of farm plan may provide cash incomes at points of time
when they may be most needed at the farm.
8. Above all, a farm plan acts as useful money saving device. It is always cheaper
to commit mistakes on a paper than in the business.

COMPONENTS OF FARM PLANNING PROCEDURE

Any systematic farm planning procedure necessarily has the following five
components.

1. Statement of the objective function

2. Inventory of scarce resource and constraints
3. Alternative choice / enterprises available to achieve the given objectives
4. Relationship of inputs to outputs i.e. the input-output coefficients
5. The actual methods and techniques of organizing the scarce resources and
enterprises, with the given input-output coefficients, i.e. the planning technique.

Steps of farm planning: To have a best farm plan, some steps are needed to
follow while farm planning is prepared. They are:

1) Preparing the farm map: The general layout of the farm, number and shape,
irrigation channels can be shown in the farm map.
2) Recording the history of the farm: It is very important to obtain the information
pertaining to utilization of resources and their efficiency. What was the crop
rotations followed previously, etc on the basis of this information planning in
24 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

respect of crops to be grown, crop rotations to be followed; requirement of

credit along with their sources etc can be possible.
3) Planning Bullock and Human Labour Requirement: Next a calendar of
farm operations should be prepared and bullock and human labour requirements
determined for different months. A labour schedule should be developed as to
guide a farmer to appraise the amount of labour need in relation to the availability.
4) Planning the Land Use and Soil Conservation practices: When a full
picture of the resources and their appraisal is obtained, the next step in farm
planning is to adopt such practices which would lead to the best use of land.
While planning the cropping scheme, due importance should be given for soil
conservation. Therefore purposively crops and crop rotations need to be
introducing a plan which will enhance soil conservation.
5) Planning of Livestock Programme: Livestock and crop production is having
supplementary relationship. The size of live stock depends upon size of farm,
cropping intensity, availability of irrigation etc. If irrigation water is ample naturally
cultivator can grow fodder crops throughout year and he can maintain milch
animals more.
6) Planning the Marketing of Produce: Only production is not sufficient to
maximize the returns, good price for the produce is also important. Therefore,
study of market conditions, prices etc. are essential to decide the time of selling.
Similarly the agency through which marketing is to be done must be identified
in view of getting maximum shares in consumer’s price.

CHARACTERISTICS (ATTRIBUTES) OF A GOOD FARM PLAN

The main objective of farm plan is to obtain maximum returns; therefore following
attributes are required to be incorporated into the farm plan

1. The most important characteristics of a good plan is that it should be written.

All the minor details about the organization and operations of farm business
should be clearly specified.
2. It should be forward looking.
3. Good farm plan provides a cropping scheme that includes a most profitable
crop as well as some legumes to maintain fertility of soil.
4. It offers balanced combination of crops and live-stock enterprise leading to
profit maximization.
5. The plan must be able to fulfill the farm and family requirement of the farmer.
6. The farm plan provides a regular employment and income to farm family and
bullock labour, through the development of sounds crop rotations.
Whole Farm Planning and Budgeting 25

7. It is flexible enough to take advantage of any new technology or source of

power.
8. The plan when it is practically implemented should be resulted into least cost.
(i.e. minimum cost).

FARM BUDGETING
Budgeting is a method of analyzing plans for the use of agricultural resources
at the command of the decision maker. Farm plan is a programme of the total farm
activity of a farmer drawn up in advance. Farm plan serves as the basis of farm
budgeting. Therefore, farm plan can be prepared without a budget but budgeting is
not possible without farm plan. Budgeting can be defined as under:

The physical aspects of farm planning when expressed in monetary terms is

called budgeting.

The expression of farm plan in monetary terms by estimation of receipts,

expenses and net income is called budgeting.

Farm budgeting is a process of estimating costs, returns and net profit of a

farm or a particular enterprise.

Budget is a statement of estimated income and expenditure.

We will be concerned with both planning and budgeting as the budget helps us
to evaluate alternative plans and select the one that is most profitable. Therefore,
farm planning and budgeting go side by sides.

TYPES OF FARM BUDGETING

The types (methods) of budgeting are discussed in details here as under:

a) Partial budgeting: During the period of normal operation of the farm business,
small and often marginal changes are required to be made in the existing farm
plan to account for the changes affecting a few aspects of the farm organization.
Partial budgeting is considered to be appropriate to analyze marginal changes
of this nature; hence it is a rough method of analysis. The analysis consists of
accounting for additional costs and returns and then comparing them with the
reduced costs and receipts due to the proposed minor changes in the farm plan.
For example, hiring a tractor instead of using hired oxen, using an improved
method of hybrid maize cultivation over the local method, etc. Thus, the change
considered for partial budgeting may be very small or as big as a complete
enterprise.
26 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

All the changes that can be appropriately analyzed with the help of a partial
budget can be grouped into three categories.

i. Factor substitutions: often involves a change in the production techniques

e.g. hiring a combine harvester instead of harvesting wheat manually.
ii. Product substitution: substitution between any two products, like wheat for
gram can also be analyzed with the help of partial budgeting. Price and
technological change often necessitate substitutions of this type.
iii. Addition or introduction of enterprises without substitution: In this case
the introduction of entirely new enterprises may be considered in the existing
farm plan. Such enterprises may generally be complementary and supplementary
like poultry and piggery.

A partial budgeting is aimed at answering the questions relating to financial

losses and gains due to the proposed minor changes in the farm organization. In this
case four questions need to be answered.

i. What are the extra financial gains?

ii. What are the savings on account of costs?
iii. What are the losses in revenue?
iv. What are the additional costs?

b) Complete Budgeting
Complete or total budgeting is used as an aid to organize the entire farm business.
It is generally used by beginners or by those farmers who want to completely
overhaul their existing farming organization and operation. Therefore, complete
budgeting can be specifically defined as “An estimation of the probable income and
expenditure is made for the farm as a single unit of course, a complete budget is
required when a farm plan is prepared for new farm or when drastic changes are
suggested in the plan of the existing pattern on an established farm”. Complete
budgeting can be prepared for short run (annual budget) and for long run.

It is essentially a process of diagnosis and recommendation which can be split

up into the following steps.

i. Listing existing farm resources and identifying objectives.

ii. Selection of enterprises
iii. Preparation of budgets for the tentatively selected enterprises
Whole Farm Planning and Budgeting 27

iv. Develop a suitable crop plan

v. Develop a livestock plan.
vi. Budgeting of human and other labour requirements
vii. Budgeting the machinery requirement
viii. Estimation of input requirement
ix. Planning for financing the proposed plan.
x. Estimation of returns from the plan.

ENTERPRISE BUDGETING
It is a pre-requisite for the preparation of a complete farm budget or for the
application of farm planning techniques like linear programming, programme planning
and gross margin planning. Also, partial or marginal adjustments in the existing farm
plan often require the preparation of enterprise budgets of activities with respect to
which changes may be contemplated.

An enterprise budget lists down all the expected requirements of inputs and
corresponding expected output, both in physical as well as value terms, for a unit of
a particular activity on the farm. Such budgets are mostly prepared for the production
activities on the farm and necessarily indicate the return over variable costs per unit
of the activities. Under such budgeting only variable cost, over which farmers has
control is accounted so far. Enterprise budget may be positive or normative depending
upon the type of data they make use of .

i. Positive enterprise budget: This type of budget is based on the existing

level of technology as it makes use of the actual input and output data on the
farm.
ii. Normative enterprise budget: The input output data used for preparing
normative enterprise budgets relate to the recommended level of technology.
These budgets therefore, account for the “package of practices” in the area of
region. Extension agencies like universities, government departments,
demonstration units etc prepare normative enterprise budgets.

CASH FLOW BUDGETS

After a complete budget is ready, it is often helpful on a farm to have some
estimates of receipts and expenses for the rest of the year. This requirement is
fulfilled by cash-flow budgets which include details about the proposed receipts,
capital sales, operating capital and family expenditure and the amount to be borrowed
and repayed by the farm. Generally these details are presented according to point
28 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

of time. Therefore, farmers has a picture of when and how much to spend on what.
Similarly, the inflows of expected income give an idea of when and how much to
expect from what.

BUDGETING TECHNIQUE
Alternate or optimum Farm Plan
Alternate or optimum farm plan implies optimum utilization of available resources
in order to obtain maximum possible returns. In other words it is improved version
of existing plan. For preparation of the alternate farm plan different techniques
have been evolved. Important techniques are: (1) production function technique,
(2) linear programming, and (3) budgeting. Here, the budgeting technique has been
discussed. It involves three stages viz.

1. Appraisal of available resources.

2. Estimation of farm and family requirements
3. Estimation of costs, returns and profits of different activities.
4. Developing a plan.

Appraisal of the farm resources

Appraisal of the farm resources both quantitative and qualitative is very important.
The farm resources viz., land labour, capital and management ability is basis for any
farm plan. The resources are always scarce, it is therefore important to know the
constraints of land, labour, capital and management. For example whether land is
irrigated or unirrigated, having good soils or poor soils and what is its size. Similarly,
the labour availability needs to be judged and month wise how much labour force
will be available along with its ability are required to be determined. Capital is
another factor which is very scarce and hence availability of capital along with its
source must be known before developing the alternative farm plan.

Estimation of farm and family requirements

The agricultural produce is required for domestic consumption in the form of
food grains and seeds. Similarly provision of fodder and feed for livestock is also
very important. Therefore, estimation of these requirements should be done before
the preparation of plan so that necessary provision of crops can be done in the
alternate plan.

Estimation of costs, returns and profits of different crops

This is very important step as alternate farm plan includes mainly the profitable
enterprises. Therefore, estimation of costs and returns of each and every crop or
Whole Farm Planning and Budgeting 29

enterprise is required to be done. For this purpose the input output data can be
obtained from the following sources:

i) Experience of the farmer himself or from the neighboring farmers.

ii) Experimental farms.
iii) Field trials conducted by agricultural universities.
iv) Extension agencies conducting demonstrations on farmer’s fields.

Developing a plan
While developing a plan, first of all consider those crops or enterprises which
you want to meet the consumption needs of the family and farm animals. Decide
the area that is to be put under each of these crops. Pick up one crop and allocate
the quantity of limited resources required by it from the quantity available. Repeat
this process for all these crops. Remaining limited resources are now available for
allocation among other crops.

Then take up the crop which promises the highest net income per hectare over
direct expends (cost ‘A’) and decide the maximum possible area which can be put
under the crop considering the availability of the limiting resources. Allocate the
required resources to the crop and substract the same from the total available
resources. Then take up the next profitable crop and repeat the same process. The
above process should continue till all the available resources are completely a finished.
Thus, the above procedure will give the optimum farm plan consistent with the
resources.

ADVANTAGES OF FARM BUDGETING

i. It evaluates the old plan and guides the farmers to adopt a new farm plan with
advantage.
ii. It makes the farmer conscious of the waste (leakage) in the farm business.
iii. It gives comparative study of receipts, expenses and net earnings on different
farms in the same locality and in different localities for formulating national
agricultural policies.
iv. It guides and encourages the most efficient and economical use of resources.
v. It serves as valuable basis for improvements in farm management practices.

LIMITATION OF FARM BUDGETING

The budgeting technique has been often severely criticized. Some of the
important criticism are:
30 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

i. By summing linearity, budgeting ignores the effect of diminishing returns.

ii. The severest problem of budgeting lies in estimating yields and prices. Because
of no considerations of risk and uncertainty elements in estimation in the yields
and prices, budgeting technique has limited utility as planning techniques.
iii. Budgeting can be criticized as a subjective technique of planning. It is based
mostly on hit and trial and the calculations do not proceed systematically as in
some other techniques.
iv. It is very difficult to incorporate several enterprises and constraints in the planning
exercise when budgeting is used.
v. Budgeting may often be an inefficient technique of planning. Because of
subjectivity, some may stop at a plan with lower profits than what could be
obtained by some other more experienced planner.

SUGGESTED READINGS
Johl S S and Kapoor T R. 1977. Fundamentals of Farm Business Management.
Kalyani Publisher, Ludhiana.
Sankhayan P L.1983. Introduction to Farm Management. Tata Mc Graw Hill
Publishing Company Limited, New Delhi.
 Chapter 4

Crop Planning and Management

Raghvendra B. Yadav and Sanjeev Kumar

A plan is a temporal set of intended actions to achieve a goal. Planning is a

basic management function involving formulation of one or more detailed plans to
achieve optimum balance of needs or demands with the available resources. The
planning process (1) identifies the goals or objectives to be achieved, (2) formulates
strategies to achieve them, (3) arranges or creates the means required, and (4)
implements, directs, and monitors all steps in their proper sequence.

Crop planning refers to strategies for growing different crops on a farm

throughout the year in order to meet the requirements through optimization of available
resources. A good crop plan should include information on what is needed to produce
the desired output of different crops. Appropriate decision making is very crucial
for management of the farm. For this purpose a set of activities have to be carried
out before making the crop plan decisions. These activities may include farm layout,
farm operations planning, cropping scheme and crop layout. All these activities
have to be carried out in a synchronized and systematic manner so that the desired
production could be achieved with available resources without compromising the
long term productivity of the farm.

PRINCIPLES OF FARM PLANNING

1. Whole farm planning is a process to analyze the farming operation.
2. Each production system must be planned and combined with the other systems.
3. Both the physical infrastructure and the economical and management inputs
must be planned.
4. Accurate information need to be obtained to ensure proper planning.

Integrated farm planning is one of the components that will contribute to the
success of the farming business. There must be proper planning of the production
system, marketing, quality of products and financial planning.
32 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

STEPS INVOLVED IN WHOLE FARM OR INTEGRATED FARM

PLANNING
1. Setting of goals
2. Making an inventory and assessment of existing farm resources
3. Developing and implementing an action plan
4. Monitoring on-farm processes towards the goal

Step 1: Setting of Goals

Whole farm planning begins with the development of a long-term goal or vision
for the farming business. The farm manager needs to determine the following:

● The vision or aim for the future of the farm.

● The long term goals e.g. improvement of soil fertility, etc. and short term goals
e.g. the planning of tillage methods, diversification of crops or enterprises and
improving the marketing of products.
● The amount of output and income expected from the farm.

Step 2: Inventory and assessment

● These goals should be able to properly plan an inventory of resources which
include natural resources, human resources and financial resources.
● Natural resources can be determined by using a farm map, soil maps, soil testing,
availability of water and vegetation. It can be obtained through the study of
maps and other documents.
● Human resources including manpower availability, their skill levels and training
of the different farm workers.
● The financial assets or resources.

Step 3: Action Plan

The planning that was done in the previous steps needs to be put in action. The
management alternatives need to be identified and evaluated and then be used to
develop an action plan. The action plan must fit in with the goals set in the first step
and must make use of all existing positive resources as it can influence future
planning.

Step 4: Monitoring and Evaluation

● Management alternatives must be evaluated separately to determine which
plan suites the farming business best.
Crop Planning and Management 33

● As the whole farm plan is implemented, there is a need to evaluate the different
options and plans through constant monitoring to determine if it is working in
the desired direction. It might be necessary to make minor adjustments to the
plan as time goes on.

FARM OPERATIONS PLANNING

I. Inventory of Physical Resources
a. Land, soil, water, microclimate
b. Infrastructure: Buildings, Irrigation, Fencing, etc.
c. Access roads
d. Equipments and implements
e. Inputs: seeds, fertilizer, pesticides, medications, etc.
f. Resource needs and gaps:
i. What you have & what you need?
ii. Working life of what you have/are acquiring, plan for replacement, etc.

II. Human Resources

a. Who does what and when?
i. Owners, employees, labourers involved in farm
ii. For each person:
● Skill set
● Preferred tasks
● Availability for labor
● Backup person for task
b. Who is responsible for making sure each task gets done?
c. Timing of peak labor needs
d. Additional labor needed
e. Decision-making procedures for deployment of manpower

CROP PLANNING
Crop planning considers what, when, where and which plants to grow in relation
to their requirements for space, sunshine, water, maturation, season of planting and
34 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

tolerance for each other. It involves a cropping pattern in which different categories
of cereals, pulses, oilseeds, vegetables etc. are raised, followed by a system of crop
rotation to keep the cycle going and to provide a suitable, healthy environment for
plants to grow. Crop plans must include varieties of crops. The following points
need to be considered while making a crop plan:

a) Type of soil: The crops must be planned according to its soil type. Rice, wheat,
sugarcane, cotton and jute all grow well in alluvial soils as these soils are rich in
some nutrients. Similarly black soils are suited for cotton crop.
b) Type of climate - In the summers where temperature is high tropical crops like-
gaur, bajara can be grown while in winter temperate crops like mustard, wheat
etc. can be cultivated (Table 1).
c) Type of rainfall - In the dry regions where the rainfall is scanty and/uncertain,
more dependence on rainfed crops like coarse cereals can be planned. In assured
irrigation rice crop may be cultivated.
d) Type of topography: Crops like rice can be grown in lowland areas, Tea for
gentle slopes and on plain other crops like wheat maize etc.
e) Soil pH: While selecting crops due care should be given to soil pH for e.g. Rice,
carrot, garlic may be grown on acidic soils while wheat maize etc may be
grown on saline soils.

Apart from above the area of farm must be divided based on the according to
preference. The area of experiments must be divided according to the experiment
needs for e.g. Rice should be in lowland area. Again the water requirement of the
crop also need to be considered and crops with high water requirements need to be
sown near to irrigation sources.

CROPPING SCHEME
It is the plan according to which crops are grown on individual plots of a farm
with an object of getting maximum return without impairing the fertility of soil.

Criteria for Cropping Scheme

1. What crop is to be cultivated in a farm?
2. What amount of area is allotted for a particular crop?
3. What should be the relative claim for acreage of the competitive crop?
4. Selection of crops as per the facilities available for power, irrigation, inputs,
labour transport etc.
Crop Planning and Management
Table 1: Crop Calendar 35
36 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

5. Utilization of inputs and other resources available at the farm without wastage.
6. Preparation of budget for each crop.

Characteristics of a Good Cropping Scheme

1. Area under Individual plots: The areas of individual plot for each crop should
be approximately same year after year unless there is a major policy shift.
2. Number of Plots: The number of plots should be equal to the duration or multiple
of it. When the total duration of rotation in cropping scheme is 4, then the
number of plots may be 4 or multiple of it i.e. 8, 12, 16 and so on.
3. Resource use efficiency: Cropping Scheme is related to the profitable use of
productive resources and management.
4. Crop rotation: The rotation should be practiced to break the insect pest
development cycle.
5. Soil Fertility: The cropping scheme must be planned in a manner so that it
helps in maintaining soil fertility and other physic-chemical properties. Inclusion
of one leguminous crop in rotation may be preferred for the maintenance of soil
fertility and other physico-chemical properties.

Example of cropping Scheme:

Plot Kharif Area (ha) Rabi Area (ha) Zaid Area (ha)
No. crop crop crop

1. Maize 2 Potato 2 Sesamum 2

2. Cucurbits 2 Wheat 2 Fallow -

3. Groundnut 2 Wheat 2 Moong 2

4. Brinjal 2 Cabbage 2 Chilli 2

5. Basmati Rice 2 Pea 2 Cucumber 2

6. Radish 2 Cauliflower 2 Watermelon 2

7. Jowar+Cowpea 2 Oat/Berseem 2 Cucurbits 2

8. Okra 2 Pea 2 Cucumber 2

9. Okra 2 Carrot 2 Fallow -

Total 18 18 14
Crop Planning and Management 37

Cropping scheme for a farm of 20 ha with sandy loam soil situated near a city
and having all facilities for intensive cropping.

Net Cultivable area= 20 ha (10 % area under building & layout).

Cropping Scheme:
Total cropped area = 18+ 18 +14 = 50 ha
Cropping intensity % = Total cropped area / Net cultivable area x 100
= (50 / 18) x 100 = 277.78 %.

FARM LAYOUT
Farm layout refers to the compiling of physical structures such as homesteads,
outbuildings, waterways, contours, camps, water supply roads and the layout of
orchards, vineyards or lands. However, the area where the farm is situated, the
topography, the availability of natural resources, the farming practices, the different
enterprises, availability of capital and preference of the owner will also affect the
farm layout.

The main considerations in making a farm layout are to ensure easy availability
of inputs to different enterprises and smooth facilitation of disposal of farm produce.
For this purpose following points need to be taken into consideration in order to
achieve good results:

Irrigation facility
There should be provision of assured irrigation facility on the farm in order to
avoid any situation of drought or heat stress to the standing crop. Care should be
taken that high water requiring crops should be grown near the irrigation source.
Provision should also be made for underground flow of water to avoid seepage and
evaporation losses of irrigation water.

Compost heaps
Application of farm yard manure/compost constitutes an essential part of
maintaining soil fertility and ensuring good crop growth. The compost pits/ heaps
should be prepared near the livestock unit with assurance of water supply so as to
maintain proper moisture in the compost.

Livestock shed
A livestock shed should be constructed by the side of the main road preferably
at a distance of about 100 meters. Buildings should be placed so that direct sunlight
can reach the platforms, gutters and mangers in the livestock shed. The shed must
38 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

be at a higher elevation than the surrounding ground to offer a good slope for
rainfall and drainage for the wastes.

Livestock feed store

At the farm a feed store should be closely placed to the livestock shed so that
feed may be easily transported from feed store to livestock shed. It helps in reduction
of the labour cost in transportation. It also must be far from any chance of fire.

Rainwater harvesting structures

It is an important component of the farm if it is located in the rainfed area. This
structure is constructed to collect and store direct rainwater as well as run-off
water for use in subsequent seasons. The rainwater structure should be constructed
at a low lying location where water from all the areas flow down.

Implements shed/workshop
The implement shed is used for keeping the farm implements and machinery at
one place. This type of shed should be constructed near the cropped area for easy
transportation and handling. If the number of implements and machinery is more, it
is desirable to have a workshop on the farm for their repair and maintenance at the
farm itself.

Fish pond
To establish a fish pond care should be taken that it should be well dugged. For
constructing fish pond, very sloppy land must be avoided, land with one percent
slope be preferred. The pond should be in full sun and not surrounded by trees as
this invites predators, such as fish-eating birds. The soil should not allow water to
seep away.

Input store
The input store is used for storing various types of inputs like seed, fertilizers,
pesticides, etc. required for growing crops in the farm. These inputs need to be
stored with utmost care as many of these are either hygroscopic in nature or
degenerate under high atmospheric humidity conditions. Hence, provision should be
made for controlling temperature and humidity in such stores.

Crop harvest store

All the crop produce harvested from farm are kept in crop harvest store. It
must be a little elevated place where water stagnation does not occur in its vicinity.
It should also have provision for control of temperature, relative humidity and should
be located near the crop field.
Crop Planning and Management 39

Generator facility
Generator facility is required in the farm for carrying out essential operations in
the absence of electric supply. These operations like irrigation, use of power operated
machines and other facilities required in the farm stores are almost essentially to be
performed with a set timeline. The generator unit should be located conveniently at
a place in the farm so that it can be accessed from the point where its electricity is
required.

CONCLUSION
Whole farm planning assesses the physical aspects of the farm with regards to
soil, vegetation and topography. This physical stocktaking of the farm is then the
basis of farm design and layout. This may include soil conservation structures,
water supply, irrigation and the improvement of natural vegetation or the eradication
of alien plants. The whole farm planning enables the manager to consider the natural
resources and take all the internal and external factors into account for decision
making on type of production systems, type of products produced and marketing of
the products. The focus of integrated farm planning is to consider the entire
production of possible agricultural products and to plan the farm infrastructure in
such a way that it complements the production process while ensuring the sustainable
use of the natural resources. The farm manager also needs to develop risk
management strategies as a means of increasing the farm viability.

SUGGESTED READINGS
Kumar D and Shivay Y S. 2008. Modern Concepts of Agriculture: Integrated
Crop Management. URL [Link]
Yawalkar K S. 1992. Vegetable crops of India. Agri-Horticultural Publication House,
Nagpur.
 Chapter 5

Theory and Practice of Orchard Management

Poonam Kashyap

The orchard management refers to broad range of practices designed to

maximize production of high quality fruit and increase grower profitability. A good
management should aim at knowing the basic needs considering all the resources
and providing them all basic inputs in optimum level in order to get more returns
with maximum efficiency. The good orchard management practices should be
planned from the establishment phase of the orchard. The selection of an orchard
management practice depends on factors like climate, location of orchard, topography,
tree spacing, planting system/ orchard design etc. However, it should be combined
with pruning, nutrient and water management, provision for pollination, fruit thinning,
disease and pest management in order to obtain desirable tree growth and vigour
with the aim to promote precocity with high productivity.

ESTABLISHMENT OF AN ORCHARD
Establishment of an orchard is a long term investment and deserves a very
critical planning. The selection of proper location and site, planting system and
planting distance, choosing the varieties and the nursery plants have to be considered
carefully to ensure maximum production.

a. Location and site

The location should be having adequate water supply round the year. The site
must have proper drainage and no water stagnation during rainy season. Irrigation
water should be of good quality. Whether the climatic conditions are suitable for the
fruits to be grown and whether the site is free from the limiting factors such as
cyclones, frost, hailstorms and strong hot winds should also be taken into
consideration.

b. Laying out of orchards

Any method of layout should aim at providing maximum number of trees per
hectare, adequate space for proper development of the trees and ensuring
convenience in orchard cultural practices. The system of layout can be grouped
under two broad categories viz. (a) vertical row planting pattern and (b) alternate
row planting pattern. In the former planting pattern (e.g. square system, rectangular
system), the trees set in a row is exactly perpendicular to those trees set in their
42 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

adjacent rows. In the latter planting pattern (i.e. Hexagonal, Quincunx and
Triangular), the trees in the adjacent rows are not exactly vertical instead the trees
in the even rows are midway between those in the odd rows.

The various layout systems used are the following:

1. Square system: In this system, trees are planted on each comer of a square
whatever may be the planting distance. This is the most commonly followed
system and is very easy to layout. The central place between four trees may be
advantageously used to raise short lived filler trees. This system permits inter
cropping and cultivation in two directions.
2. Rectangular system: In this system, trees are planted on each corner of a
rectangle. As the distance between any two rows is more than the distance
between any two trees in a row, there is no equal distribution of space per tree.
The wider alley spaces available between rows of trees permit easy intercultural
operations and even the use of mechanical operations.
3. Hexagonal System: In this method, the trees are planted in each comer of an
equilateral triangle. This way six trees form a hexagon with the seventh tree in
the centre. Therefore this system is also called as ‘septule’ as a seventh tree is
accommodated in the centre of hexagon. This system provides equal spacing
but it is difficult to layout. The perpendicular distance between any two adjacent
rows is equal to the product of 0.866 x the distance between any two trees. As
the perpendicular distance between any two row is less than unity, this system
accommodates 15 per cent more trees than the square system. The limitations
of this system are that it is difficult to layout and the cultivation is not so easily
done as in the square system.
4. Diagonal or quincunx system: This is the square method but with one more
plant in the centre of the square. This will accommodate double the number of
plants, but does not provide equal spacing. The central (filler) tree chosen may
be a short lived one. This system can be followed when the distance between
the permanent trees is more than 10 metres. As there will be competition
between permanent and filler trees, the filler trees should be removed after a
few years when main trees come to bearing.
5. Triangular system: The trees are planted as in square system but the difference
being that those in the even numbered rows are midway between those in the
odd rows instead of opposite to them. Triangular system is based on the principle
of isolateral triangle. The distance between any two adjacent trees in a row is
equal to the perpendicular distance between any two adjacent rows. However,
the vertical distance, between immediate two trees in the adjacent rows, is
equal to the product of 1.118 x distance between two trees in a row. When
Modern Techniques of Orchard Management 43

compared to square system, each tree occupies more area and hence it
accommodates few trees per hectare than the square system.
6. Contour system: It is generally followed on the hills where the trees are planted
along the contour across the slope. It particularly suits to land with undulated
topography, where there is greater danger of erosion and irrigation of the orchard
is difficult. The main purpose of this system is to minimize land erosion and to
conserve soil moisture so as to make the slope fit for growing fruits and plantation
crops. The contour line is so designed and graded in such a way that the flow of
water in the irrigation channel becomes slow and thus finds time to penetrate
into the soil without causing erosion. Terrace system on the other hand refers
to planting in flat strip of land formed across a sloping side of a hill, lying level
along the contours. The width of the contour terrace varies according to the
nature of the slope. The planting distance under the contour system may not be
uniform.

HIGH DENSITY PLANTING SYSTEM

Planting of fruit trees rather at a closer spacing than the recommended one
using certain special techniques with the sole objective of obtaining maximum
productivity per unit area without sacrificing quality is referred as ‘High density
planting’ or HDP. This is achieved by :

(a) Use of size controlling root stocks: In apple, dwarfing root stocks and
intermediate stocks like MM 106, MM 109, and MM 111 are used to control the
size of the plant. In pears, Quince A, Adam and Quince-C are commonly used
as dwarfing root stocks.
(b) Use of spur type scions: In temperate fruit crops like apple, the cultivars can
be classified into a spur type or non-spur type. The spur types which have
restricted annual growth are alone suitable for high density planting.
(c) Training and pruning methods to induce dwarfness: Under Indian
conditions, apple trees trained under spindle bush, dwarf pyramid, cordon systems
are found to contain the growth of the trees appreciably for HDP systems.
(d) Mechanical device and use of chemicals to control size: Growth regulators
such as daminozide, ethephon, chlormaquat and paclobutrazal are extensively
used to reduce shoot growth by 30 to 0 per cent. This results in increased
flowering in the subsequent years and may be useful in encouraging earlier
commercial fruit production in young trees. Besides chemical manipulation,
mechanical devices employing the use of spreaders and tying down the branches
to make them grow from near horizontal to an angle of 45° from the main stem
are also some of the standard practices to control tree size.
44 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

ORCHARD SOIL MANAGEMENT

Orchard floor management refers to the management of the orchard soil in
such a manner that the fruit trees give higher yield of quality fruits in successive
years for sustainable economic returns. Methods of soil management practices are
described as follows:

1. Clean culture
This type of cultivation is extensively followed in India. This involves regular
ploughing and removal of weeds. The clean culture has many disadvantages viz.,
depletion of humus rapidly due to frequent cultivation, injury to the feeding roots,
the trees may be short lived or stunted in growth, more aeration leading to the
depletion of nitrogen, creation of hard pan in the soil, more soil erosion.

2. Clean culture with cover crops

This type of soil management involves raising of a cover crop or green manure
after removing the weeds. If clean cultivation is attempted during the rains,
considerable erosion is almost sure to occur. It is advisable to plant a green manure
crop between the trees early in the rains and ploughing it into the soil towards the
end of monsoon season. In India, green manure crops like Sunhemp, Cowpea,
Dhaincha, Lupins etc. are more commonly used. Legume cover cropping in grape,
mango, guava and other fruit crops is becoming a common practice in the
management of orchards. Cowpea and French beans grow well under guava and
sapota tree. In some places to prevent soil erosion, certain permanent cover crops
like Calapogonium muconoides, Centrosema pubescens and Peuraria
phaseoloides are raised in the alley spaces.

3. Mulching
This is one of the important soil management practices adopted in certain
countries including India. Crop residues like straw, cotton stalks, leaves, saw dust,
pine needles, coir dust and other materials like polythene films or certain special
kinds of paper are spread in the tree basins and in inter-spaces between trees.
Main objective of mulching is to conserve soil moisture and to control the weed
growth.

4. Sod
In this method, permanent cover of grass is raised in the orchard and no tillage
is given. This may be useful in sloppy lands for preventing soil erosion. But they
compete for soil moisture and available nitrogen. The drawbacks of this system are
the need for increased manuring and water application. They are harmful to shallow
Modern Techniques of Orchard Management 45

rooted trees. Hence sod may be useful with deep rooted trees because soil moisture
will be very low on the top layers.

5. Intercropping
In case of other long duration horticultural crops like tapioca, turmeric, ginger
and banana some area between adjacent plants will be remaining unoccupied by
the main crop for few months. The practice of growing any economic crop in alley
spaces of the fruit trees in the first few years or in the unoccupied spaces of the
long duration crop in the early periods is referred as intercropping. They also act as
a cover crop and the land benefits by the cultivation, irrigation, manuring given to
the intercrops. Vegetables are the best intercrops when compared to millets. The
intercrops grown should be kept well away from the main fruit trees and irrigated
independently. The intercropping should be stopped when trees occupy the entire
orchard space. Thereafter, green manuring or cover cropping should only be
practiced.

6. Chemical weed control

In this method, weeds are controlled by chemicals, referred as weedicides or
herbicides. This practice is based on the principle of selectivity, killing only one kind
of plants. Pre-emergence herbicides like diuron, atrazine, fluchloralin etc. are applied
to the soil prior to emergence of weed seedlings by broadcasting, band application,
soil incorporation or spray on soil surface. Post-emergence herbicides such as
glyphosate, paraquat etc. are applied with the addition of surfactant after the
emergence of weeds.

CROP REGULATION IN FRUITS

Crop regulation is the basis for the regular and quality crop. A range of methods
are used to increase production with enhanced fruit quality by crop regulation. It
can be achieved through manual thinning, chemical thinning, selective harvesting,
training, summer and winter pruning, prevention of pre - harvest fruit drop, etc.

Uses of Plant Growth Regulators (PGRs)

1. Delay bloom:
Autumn application of GA3 and Ethrel cause delaying of bloom in spring in
stone fruit, which can be a useful practice to increase fruit-set in frost affected
areas. Blooming of Red Beaut plum can be delayed by several days with fall
application of GA3 and Ethrel to help in better synchronization of flowering period
with cultivar Santa Rosa, inter-planted for cross pollination. Concentration of plant
growth regulators and time of application depend upon fruit crop and environment.
46 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

2. Thinning:
In blossom thinning, chemicals are applied at bloom, whereas in fruit-lets thinning,
chemicals are sprayed a few days after petal fall i.e. after fruit set. In apple application
of NAA at 10 ppm, 7-15 days after petal fall during the heavy cropping year (On-
Year) causes satisfactory thinning and increases return bloom. In mango, fruit drop
is exceptionally high as only approximately 0.1% of the perfect flowers develop
fruits to maturity. Post setting drop of Alphonso mangoes can be controlled by foliar
application of 25 ppm of NAA or 2,4-D. In Neelum 2,4-D at 30 ppm proved effective
control of fruit drop without having any adverse effect on fruit size.

3. Pruning:
Opening up of the centre of the trees by topping off or thinning of branches
have been reported to decrease biennial bearing in Mulgoa, Neelum and Bangalora
cultivars. This improves light penetration into the interior of tree canopy. However,
these practices have been unsuccessful in those cultivars which have inherent
problem to bear irregularly.

4. Fruit set:
In citrus, fruit yield is often limited due to poor fruit set. Experiments with the
use of PGRs have given some encouraging but, inconsistent results. Fruit set in
Washington Navel Orange can be increased with the foliar application of 2,4-D at
8 ppm. In India, a foliar application of 2, 4-D or 2,4,5-T has been reported to be
beneficial in improving fruit set and quality in mandarin.

5. Fruit drop:
Excessive fruit dropping in citrus is a major problem in India. If lack of soil
moisture is the cause, use of organic mulching material like leaves or black polythene
mulch can reduce the extent of fruit drop. Auxin, particularly 2,4-D at varying
concentrations is very effective in controlling pre-mature/pre-harvest fruit drop in
citrus. Sprays of 2,4-D at 8 ppm at 1.2 cm diameter stage in Valencia orange, and
at 15 ppm in Pineapple and 2,4,5-T at 30 ppm in Jaffa and Mosambi are useful
when applied in October. 2,4- D have also been found to be useful in reducing fruit
drop in sweet lime and Darjeeling mandarin.

6. Fruit thinning:
Application of NAA at 350 ppm or Ethrel at 200 ppm in Kinnow mandarin
during the ‘On Year’, 40 days after full bloom effectively controls fruit drop and
reduce the tendency of alternative bearing.
Modern Techniques of Orchard Management 47

7. Alternate bearing:
Alternate bearing has been one of the major problems. Most of the south
Indian varieties are regular- bearer, whereas north Indian ones alternate-bearer.
Paclobutrazol is a promising chemical for flower induction in mango. Soil drenching
with Paclobutrazol (5 g and 10g/tree) results in minimum outbreak of September to
October vegetative flushes. It gives early and profuse flowering and more annual
yield without affecting fruit size and quality.

8) Mango malformation:
It is one of the most important disorders, causing huge losses. It is a major
problem in Punjab, Delhi and Uttar Pradesh. However, it has also been noticed in
Gujarat, Maharashtra, Bihar, West Bengal and Orrisa. Of the two types of mango
malformation, vegetative malformation is more common in nursery seedlings and
young plants. Floral malformation affects trees at the bearing stage. In vegetative
malformation or bunchy top, compact leaves are formed in a bunch at the apex of
shoot or in the leaf axil and growth of shootlet is arrested. Floral malformation
directly affects the productivity. The incidence of disorder varies from variety to
variety. De-blossoming alone or coupled with a spray of 200 ppm NAA lowers the
number of malformed panicles significantly.

DISEASE MANAGEMENT IN ORCHARD

1. MANGO
(a) Powdery Mildew (Oidium mangiferae): Powdery mildew is one of the most
serious diseases of mango affecting almost all the varieties. The characteristic
symptom of the disease is the white superficial powdery fungal growth on
leaves, stalks of panicles, flowers and young fruits. The affected flowers and
fruits drop pre-maturely reducing the crop load considerably or might even
prevent the fruit set. Rains or mists accompanied by cooler nights during
flowering are congenial for the disease spread.

Control: Sprays of following three fungicides at 15 days interval are recommended

for effective control of the disease:

i. Wettable sulphur 0.2 per cent (2 g Sulfex / lit. water).

ii. Tridemorph 0.1 per cent (1 ml Calixin / lit. water).
iii. Dinocap 0.1 per cent (1 ml / g Karathane / lit. water).

(b) Anthracnose (Colletotrichum spp): The anthracnose disease is of widespread

occurrence. The disease causes serious losses to young shoots, flowers and
48 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

fruits under favourable climatic conditions of high humidity, frequent rains and
a temperature of 24-320 C. It also affects fruits during storage. The disease
produces leaf spot, blossom blight, withertip, twig blight and fruit rot symptoms.
Tender shoots and foliage are easily affected which ultimately cause ‘die back’
of young branches. Older twigs may also be infected through wounds which in
severe cases may be fatal.

Control: Trees may be sprayed twice with Bavistin (0.1%) at 15 days interval
during flowering to control blossom infection. Spraying of copper fungicides (0.3%)
is recommended for the control of foliar infection.

(c) Die back (Botryodiplodia theobromae Pat.): Die back is one of the serious
diseases of mango noticed at any time of the year but it is most conspicuous
during Oct.-Nov. The disease is characterized by drying of twigs and branches
followed by complete defoliation, which gives the tree an appearance of scorching
by fire.

Control: (i) Prune the diseased twigs and spray with copper oxychloride (0.3%)
on infected trees. Pruning should be done in such a way that the twigs are removed
2-3 inches below the affected portion. (ii) In small plants, pruning of twigs is followed
by pasting of copper oxychloride.

(d) Phoma blight (Phoma glomerata) : The symptoms of the disease are noticeable
only on old leaves. Initially, the lesions are angular, minute, irregular, yellow to
light brown, scattered over leaf lamina. As the lesions enlarge, their colour
changes from brown to cinnamon and they become almost irregular. Fully
developed spots are characterized by dark margins and dull grey necrotic centres.
In case of severe infection such spots coalesce forming patches measuring
3.5-13 cm in size, resulting in complete withering and defoliation of infected
leaves.

Control: The disease could be kept under control by spray of copper oxychloride
(0.3%) or mancozeb (0.3%) just after its appearance and subsequent sprays at 20
day intervals.

(e) Bacterial canker (Xanthomonas campestris pv. Mangiferae indicae):

Canker disease of mango, caused by a bacterium is prevalent in Andhra Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, U.P., Bihar, Delhi, Haryana,
Madhya Pradesh and probably in several other mango growing areas. The
disease causes fruit drop (10-70%), yield loss (10-85%) and storage rot (5-
100%). Many commercial cultivars of mango including Langra, Dashehari,
Amrapali, Mallika, and Totapuri are susceptible to this disease.
Modern Techniques of Orchard Management 49

The disease is found on leaves, petioles, twigs, branches and fruits, initially
producing water-soaked lesions and later turning into typical cankers. The disease
first appears as minute water-soaked irregular lesions on any part of leaf or leaf
lamina. The lesions are light yellow in colour but with age, enlarge and turn dark
brown to black. In severe infections the leaves turn yellow and drop off. Cankerous
lesions appear on petioles, twigs and young fruits. The water soaked lesions also
develop on fruits which later turn dark brown to black.

Control : Three sprays of streptocycline (100 ppm) or Agrimycin-100 (100 ppm)

after first visual symptom at 10-days intervals effectively control the disease. Monthly
sprays of Bavistin (1000 ppm) or copper oxychloride (3000 ppm) were also found
effective.

2. GUAVA
(a) Wilt: This is a serious disease occurring in northern and eastern India as well
as other parts of the world. The exact cause of the disease is still not known but
the pathogens, viz., Fusarium oxysporum, Fusarium solani, Macrophomina
phaseoli, Rhizoctonia bataticola and Caphalosporium spp. may initiate the
disease. It is characterised by yellowing of leaves followed by drying of leaves
and twigs from the tip and complete wilting of trees within 10-15 days. The
disease occurs more severely in alkaline soils.

Control: 1) Removal of infected trees should be done to prevent the spread of the
disease. 2) Severe pruning and then drenching with 0.2 per cent either Benlate or
Bavistin 4 times in a year and spraying twice with Metasystox and Zinc sulphate.
3) Soil treatment with 1.82 kg. lime or gypsum/tree 4) Application of 6 kg neem
cake + 2kg. gypsum per plant. 5) Oil cakes like neem cake, mahua cake, kusum
cake supplemented with urea @ 10 kg and 1 kg respectively also check the disease.
6) Maintenance of proper tree vigour by timely and adequately manuring, inter-
culture and irrigation enable them to withstand infection. The pits may be treated
with formalin and kept covered for about 3 days and then transplanting should be
done after two weeks. 7) use of bio- control agents like Trichoderma spp. and
Streptomyces chibaensis for the control of wilt.

(b) Anthracnose (Gloesporium psidii): The affected plants begin to die back
from the top of the branch while, shoots, leaves and fruits are readily affected.
The growing tips gradually turn dark brown and the black necrotic areas extend
backwards causing dieback.

Control: The disease can be controlled by spraying the trees with phytolon 2 g per
litre of water.
50 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

(c) Fruit canker (Pestalotia psidii): This is characterised by small to medium

raised dark brown cankerous spots on fruit surfaces. The fruits infected in the
early stages fail to develop properly. Young infested fruits get cracked.

Control: The disease can be controlled effectively by spraying of Dithane Z-78 or

Difoltan 0.2 percent at monthly intervals during June to October.

(d) Cercospora leaf spot (Cercospora sawadal): Water soaked patches under
the leaf are the characteristic symptoms of this disease. The infection can be
minimised by spraying of 0.3 percent copper oxychloride.

3. APPLE
(a) Scab (Venturia inaequalis): It is one of the most important diseases of apples.
Cool, wet weather is necessary for apple scab infections. Scab is characterized
by olive green lesions on leaves. Early season infections frequently occur on
the lower leaf surface, but lesions can be found on the upper surface as well.
Extensive infections can cause early defoliation and may reduce the next year’s
crop yield. Small, dark lesions occur on the fruit, often on the sepals or near the
calyx end. Apple scab infections do not rot the fruit but may cause cracking as
the fruit enlarge.

Control: Where scab is a problem, fungicides need to be applied from green tip
through petal fall or first cover. Additional applications may be needed in cool, wet
seasons. Fungicide applications can be made on either a protectant or post-infection
schedule. The spray schedule to be followed for the control is as follows:

(b) Bitter Rot (Colletotrichum spp.): It is the most important summer rot disease
of apples. In some seasons it has caused losses approaching 100% in just a few
days. Fruit infections can occur soon after bloom and appear as small grey to
brown flecks, which may not enlarge until later in the summer. The most
damaging fruit infections occur more than a month after petal fall. Small, sunken,
brown lesions form, sometimes surrounded by a red halo. The halo is especially
visible on green or yellow fruit.

Control: To effectively control black rot, remove all dead wood from the tree and
ground, including current season pruning. This wood needs to be burned, removed
to a landfill, or chopped and composted. Chopped wood should not be used as
mulch in the orchard until it has been thoroughly composted.

(c) Powdery Mildew (Podosphaera leucotricha): It is one of the most important

apple diseases worldwide. Losses occur from the reduced grade of infected
fruit and from stunting of leaves and defoliation. Infected terminals and leaves
Modern Techniques of Orchard Management 51

Tree Stage Name of Chemical Quantity of

Chemical for 200
lit. of water
Green tip Captan 600g
or Dodine 200g
or Ziram 600 ml
Pink bud Mancozeb 600g
or Difenoconazole 30 ml
Petal Fall/ Pea Stage Carbendazim 100 g
or Thiophanate Methyl 100 g
or Hexaconazole 100 ml
Fruit development (20 days after 4th spray) Dodine 150g
or Propineb 600g
or Zineb 600g
Pre-Harvest (20-25 days before harvest) Captan 600g
or Ziram 600 ml

are stunted, distorted, and covered with a silver grey mat of mycelium. Severe
infections can result in premature defoliation and fall blooming. Fruit infections
are characterized by a net-like russet.

Control: Use plant varieties of apple with resistance to powdery mildew. Cultivars
such as Jonathan, Idared, Rome, and Gala are susceptible whereas Red and Golden
Delicious are more resistant. Remove infected shoots early in the spring. Spraying
the affected plants with Wettable suphur can control the disease significantly.

INSECT-PEST MANGEMENT IN ORCHARD

1. MANGO
(a) Mango stem borer (Batocera rufomaculata):
Symptoms of damage: Grub tunnels in the sapwood on the trunk or branches.
Grub bore into the sap wood and make irregular tunnels. Drying of terminal shoot in
early stage. Fross comes out from several points along with oozing of sap out of the
holes.

Management:
1. Removal and destruction of dead and severely affected branches of the tree.
2. Removal of alternate host, silk cotton and other hosts.
3. Use of tolerant mango varieties viz., Neelam, Humayudin.
52 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

4. Application of Swab Coal tar + Kerosene @ 1:2 or Carbaryl 50 WP 20 g / l can

be done after scraping the loose bark to prevent oviposition by adult beetles.
5. Padding with monocrotophos 36 WSC 10 ml in 2.5 cm /tree soaked in absorbent
cotton gives effective control.
6. Application of copper oxychloride paste on the trunk of the tree.

(b) Shoot borer (Clumetia transversa):

Symptoms of damage: Terminal shoots show tunnel from top to down wards.
Stunting of seedlings with terminal bunchy appearance.

Management:
1. Field sanitation
2. Collect and destroy the infested plant parts.
3. Summer ploughing is done to expose the pupae.
4. Spraying of carbaryl 50WP 0.1%.

(c) Mango hoppers (Idioscopus niveoparsus, I. clypealis, Amirtodus

atkinsoni):
Symptoms of damage: Nymphs and adults suck the sap of inflorescence. Presence
of honey dew secretion on lower leaves and development of shooty mould. Clicking
sound - movement of jassids amidst leaves. Hoppers provide shelter in the cracks
and crevices of the barks on the tree.

Management:
1. Avoid close planting as the incidence very severe in overcrowded orchards.
2. Orchards must be kept clean by ploughing and removal of weeds.
3. Wettable sulphur @ 2 g/lit may be sprayed after spraying carbaryl to avoid mite
resurgence.
4. Application of neem oil @ 5 ml/lit of water should be done.

(d) Fruit fly (Bactrocera dorsalis):

Symptoms of damage: Maggot bore into semi-ripen fruits with decayed spots and
dropping of fruits. Oozing of fluid from the affected areas. Brownish rotten patches
on fruits.
Modern Techniques of Orchard Management 53

Management:
1. Collection of fallen infested fruits and disposal by dumping in a pit.
2. Summer ploughing to expose the pupa.
3. Application of Methyl Eugenol sex lure traps to attract the adult flies.
4. Bait spray - combining any one of the insecticides and molasses or jaggery 10
g/l
a) Fenthion 100EC 1ml/l,
b) Malathion 50EC 2 ml/l,
c) Dimethoate 30 EC 1 ml/l,
d) Carbaryl 50 WP 4 g/l. two rounds at 2 weeks interval before ripening of
fruits.

Biological control: Field release of natural enemies Opius

compensates and Spalangia philippines

2. GUAVA
(a) Fruit fly (Dacus dorsalis hendel):
Symptoms of damage: The eggs are inserted under the rind of the fruits. The
adult flies emerge out in the month of April and starts laying eggs. The mature
maggot comes out of the fruit and drop on the ground to form pupa.

Management:
1. The fallen and infested fruits should be collected and buried deep into the soil.
2. Ploughing around trees to expose pupa to be destroyed by heat and predators.
3. The adult flies may be trapped and killed by poison baiting or bait spray (20 ml
malathion + 200 g molasses in 20 liters of water)
4. The hedges around the guava trees may be sprayed with endosulfan (0.1%),
carbaryl (0.1%) or Quinalphos (0.05%).

3. APPLE
(a) European Red Mite (Panonychus ulmi):
Symptoms of damage: European red mites feed on leaves. Severe mite injury
produces browning and loss of color in the leaves commonly referred to as bronzing.
Extensive foliage injury may reduce the quality and quantity of fruit.
54 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

Management:
1. Predators like Ambelacious fallacies, Zetzellia mali, Chrysoperla spp.,
Stethorus punctum, renders good control.
2. Spray of IPOL orchard spray oil (2 %) with Lindane (0.05 %) at half inch
green stage of apple.

(b) Woolly Apple Aphid (Eriosoma lanigerum):

Symptoms of damage: Both the adult and nymph cause damage by sucking of
sap. Nodules like structures or galls are formed on aerial and underground parts of
plant. Hypertrophy of the affected tissues of plant.

Management:
1. Removal and destruction of infested nursery plants.
2. Parasitoid Aphelinus mali provides significant control.
3. Preadators like Coccinella septempunctata, Chilomenus bijugus, Ballia
ancharis, Syrphus confractors are effective in checking pest population.
4. Carbofuran, aldicarb and phorate granules 1 g ai/nursery plant.

TRAINING AND PRUNING OF FRUIT TREES

Young trees are pruned to train them to become structurally sound, to make
them easy to care for and to ensure the production of high quality fruit.

Objectives of pruning
● Control size for easier care in maintaining and picking fruit
● Increase strength – develop strong limb structure
● Distribute sunlight evenly throughout tree
● Regulate fruit bearing – removes excess fruitwood
● Renew fruitwood – to continue strong buds and flowers
● Remove undesirable wood- dead, broken, and crossing branches.

The optimum time of the year to prune fruit trees is the dormant season viz.,
December and January.
Modern Techniques of Orchard Management 55

Training/Pruning Systems
1. Central Leader System
The central leader training system,
the commonly used system for training
apple, pear, cherry, plum and pecan
trees, removes all strong upright shoots,
leaving only the strongest branch to
grow through the centre of the canopy.
Three or four evenly spaced branches
are chosen for scaffold whorls in the
following years, with the first whorl
about 2 to 3 feet above ground and
about 18 to 24 inches of vertical space between branch whorls along the trunk.
Spreaders placed between the trunk and branches spread the branch angles to a
desirable range of about 60 degrees. A pyramidal shape ensures even sunlight to
upper and lower branches. The central leader can be headed back to maintain the
desired height at maturity.

2. Modified Central Leader System

Also called the multileader system,
the modified central leader system is
much like the central leader, but multiple
vertical branches are trained instead of
a single, main leader. The system works
best with three to five leaders so the
tree is well balanced. Rather than
removing the competing vertical
branches in the first two years after
planting, the desired number of leaders are left on the tree and each is trained in the
same way as with a central leader system. Spreaders are almost always required in
order to open up the space between individual leaders. Apple, pear, plum and pecan
trees are among the most common fruits trained to this system.

3. Open Centre System

Peaches, nectarines and plum trees
are commonly trained to an open centre
system, which maximizes spacing
between branches and encourages
short, wide trees that allow easier
access to the fruit. Whips are headed
56 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

back to about 30 inches above the soil surface at planting to encourage branches
just below the cut. The central leader is removed, leaving three to five evenly
spaced scaffold branches growing from the trunk in a vase shape. The open centre
reduces the need for pruning to thin branches because sunlight reaches the centre
of the tree more easily.

4. Espalier
Espalier training systems work well for training apples
and pears in small garden spaces. Espaliers require a
wire trellis system with about 18 inches of vertical space
between each row of wire and a vertical stake for each
tree with about 12 to 20 feet of space between trees.
The central leader is cut back to force branching; the
center bud is trained vertically to the post and the two
side buds are tied to the horizontal wires with soft twine.
The leader is cut back when the tree reaches the top wire. Frequent pruning is
needed to control branches sprouting from the horizontal branches and limit the
number of fruiting spurs.

5. Tatura trellis
The Tatura trellis is a close-planting system for tree fruits, in which trees are
trained to form a V shaped canopy. A trellis structure is needed to train the trees in
forming the V, and to provide some support for the tree when carrying the crop.
Each row of trees requires a trellis. The trellis consists of two end frames,
intermediate frames, wires, and anchors. The capital outlay for materials and labour
for the trellis structure may be as high as 30 per cent of the total establishment
costs of the planting. Also, a failure of the trellis may lead to significant crop loss.
Therefore, design and erection of the trellis must be carefully considered. Generally
there are 2 basic shapes of canopies – Y shaped trees which have a vertical trunk
and two opposing arms of the tree trained to either side of the trellis, and V shaped
trees, where the whole tree is leaned to one side of the trellis while the next tree in
the row is leaned to the other side.

6. Spindle Bush
The system is best suited to densities up to 2,000
trees. At planting a number of laterals are selected
to form part of the permanent scaffolds in the bottom
third of the tree. Competing laterals that develop at
the end of the unpruned central leader have to be
removed in a very early stage. As the leader grows
more scaffolds are selected and spaced equally.
Modern Techniques of Orchard Management 57

Leader dominance is important and if it is lost will result in a reduced tree canopy,
whereas if it becomes too strong lateral growth and development will be reduced.
These systems can be free standing, however mostly utilise some form of support
(either 2 to 3 wire trellis or individual supports). As tree densities get higher and row
spacings get more restricted, variations on the spindle system such as the vertical
axis, slender spindle and super spindle are favoured.

7. Vertical Axis

A vertical central leader (axis) is developed

with relatively ‘weak’ fruiting branches arising
around the leader. Tree density is between 1,000
to 2,500 trees/ha at a spacing of 4-5 m x 1-2 m
and height can reach up to 3 metres. Maintaining
apical dominance is important in the vertical axis
system, particularly during early stages of
development to ensure weak fruiting branches and
therefore, no heading of the leader occurs.
Branches are systematically renewed to prevent them from becoming permanent
scaffolds. Support of 2 to 3 wire trellis is required. Similar to the spindle system,
vertical axis systems are planted ideally using well feathered nursery trees.

8. Palmette
The palmette and its variations are generally limited to wide intra-row spacings
(>2.0 to 2.5 m) with a tall tree which makes it best suited to planting densities of 700
to 1,500 trees/ha. There are a number of kinds of palmette training all with a central
leader with scaffolds in the plane of the row only. Tiers of scaffolds are chosen in
each season and tied to wires to reduce vigour and promote spurring. These systems
have been popular because the bending of branches on trellises controls growth
and provides a balance of fruiting and vegetative growth.

CONCLUSION
Orchard management practices are important for ensuring higher yield and
quality of fruits through integrated management of soil, irrigation, tree canopy and
nutrition. These inputs are dependent on each other as water and nutrients cannot
be separated from the soil that supports the root system which, in turn, dictates the
performance of the canopy and eventually the yield. Use of suitable cultural practices
of orchard floor/ soil management promotes beneficial insects. It creates a conducive
micro-environment which controls the disease and insect-pest problems and hence,
reduces the susceptibility to damage and loss. Proper layout of orchard along with
suitable training and pruning helps in attaining the required balance of vegetative to
58 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

reproductive growth. Improved light and water management is developed through

training systems. Pruning promotes hormonal and growth regulators distributions,
thus giving a proper framework to the tree. The mechanization of orchard operations
is facilitated by newly developed tree management systems which improves the
light penetration in the trees and hence, promotes proper colour and quality
development in fruits.

SUGGESTED READINGS
Bose T K and Mitra S K. 1990. Fruits: Tropical and Subtropical. Naya Prakash
Publishers. p-838.
Chattopadhyay T K. 2010. A Textbook on Pomology : Fundamentals of Fruit
growing. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi. p-323.
Gourley J H.2007. Modern Fruit production. Read Books. p-596.
Kumar N.1997. Introduction to Horticulture. Rajalakshmi Publications epamoodu
Junction, Nagercoil. pp: 47-50.
 Chapter 6

Principles and Procedures for Plant Protection

Chandra Bhanu

Crops are affected by a number of pests which include weeds, insect-pests,

disease causing pathogens (fungi, chromists, bacteria and mollicutes, viruses and
viroides, parasitic algae, protozoa etc.), nematodes, rodents, birds, snails, parasitic
plants [Link] per a conservative estimate, weeds, insects and diseases together
cause 31-43% average annual losses in crop yield worldwide. The crop losses in
developing countries are higher than developed [Link] India, the estimated
crop losses due to various pests range between 10-30 percent. Among different
pests, weeds cause 33%, insect pests 26%, diseases 26%, rodents and others cause
15% losses in crop yield.

Use of appropriate plant protection strategies is a key to the success of any

agricultural farm. On an agricultural farm, crops are mainly affected by weeds,
diseases, insect-pests, bird’s damage, rodents, wild bores, blue bulls etc. In storage,
different types of beetles, weevils, lepidopterons attack the grains/seeds which are
to be managed efficiently to save the stored produce. Farm managers should have
a clear cut strategy to manage crop pests on their own farm. Correct identification
of weeds, pests and diseases of crops are first essential step in plant protection
which facilitates in choosing the correct steps for their [Link] descriptions
of individual category of pests aregiven in the following section for their easy
identification and formulating strategy for their management.

CATEGORY OF CROP PESTS ON FARM

1. WEEDS
Weeds are unwanted plants growing themselves without being sown. These
are number one enemy of crops. They compete with crops for space, light, water
and nutrient and cause quantitative and qualitative losses to crops. From management
point of view, weeds can be categorized in two ways:

a. On the basis of growing site:

i. Weeds of cropped area: For management of this category of weeds, selective
herbicides recommended for a particular crop are used in integration with other
weed control measures at a particular crop stage.
60 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

ii. Weeds of non-cropped area: For management of this category of weeds, non-
selective herbicides which kill all or most of the weed species in wastelands,
roadsides, barren lands etc. are used. Paraquat, glyphosate, gluphosinate (for
almost all kind of weeds) and 2,4-D (for most of broad leaved weeds) are
example of herbicides used under these situations.

b. On the basis of major weed category (Fig.1):

i. Grassy weeds or narrow leaved weeds (Graminae or Poaceae family weeds
which are monocots): For managing these types of weeds in broad leaved
crops like pulses, most of oilseeds, vegetables etc., herbicide quizalofop-ethyl
(Targa super) offers selective advantages and can be used to control most of
the grassy weeds.

Grassy weeds

Echinochloa glaberescens Cynodon dactylon Dactyloctenium aegyptium

Broad leaved weeds

Commelina benghalensis Phylanthus niruri Medicago denticulata

Principles and Procedures for Plant Protection 61

Sedges

Cyperus rotundus Fimbristylis miliacea Scirpus sp.

Fig. 1. Major weed categories

ii. Broad leaved weeds (weeds of other families which are generally dicots): For
managing these types of weeds in crops of grass family (wheat, rice, maize,
sugarcane, sorghum, pearl millet etc.), 2,4-D offers selective advantage. There
are reports of phytotoxicity of 2,4-D in some varieties of wheat, hence care
should be taken during the use of this herbicide in sensitive crop varieties. Also,
some of the weeds species like Medicago denticulata, Phyllanthus niruri,
Physalis minima etc. are showing resistance 2,4-D at some localities in North
India hence, species composition of crop weeds must be checked before
selecting this herbicide.
iii. Sedges (weeds of Cyperaceae Family): This category includes some of the
difficult to control weeds like Cyperus rotundus (Motha) which form
underground tubers. Many species of Cyperus are major weed problem in rice
and many other kharif crops. There are not much herbicidal options for
controlling these weeds in crops. The herbicide 2,4-D applied in rice and other
crops suppresses sedges to some extent. Imazethapyr applied in soybean and
green/black gram also controls sedges. The herbicide Bispyribac Sodium applied
in rice as post emergence also controls sedges to a great extent. Halosulfuron
Methyl is a new molecule introduced in India for the control of Cyperus rotundus
and other weeds in sugarcane which is otherwise very difficult to control.

2. INSECT-PESTS AND DISEASES

Diagnosis or identification is the process of gathering information about a plant
problem and determining the cause. Once the cause has been determined, it is then
possible to recommend a solution or remedy. Identification of insect-pests is quite
easier based on the presence of various life stages (egg, larva, nymph, pupa, adult
62 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

etc.) and nature of damage caused by different life stages of that particular insect.
However, identification of plant diseases is comparatively difficult and for a farm
manager, it is essential to identify the symptoms produced on crop by a particular
disease. On the basis of symptoms, the major categories of plant diseases (Fig. 2)
are described in brief as below:

i. Rusts: Rust diseases are very easy to identify. In this disease, different coloured
pustules (yellow, orange, red, brown, black etc.) are produced on leaf, stem or
other parts of plants which are mostly dusty, but may be compact in some
cases.
ii. Powdery mildews: Superficial growth of fungus on host surface giving a dusty
or powdery appearance. Generally white powdery growth is seen on most of
the crops.
iii. Downy mildews: The superficial growth is a tangled cottony or downy growth
of fungus sporangia. These diseases are called by lower fungi group.
iv. Smuts: Smut means sooty or charcoal like powder. Infected plant parts show
a black or purplish black dusty mass. Symptoms usually appear on floral organs.
However, leaves, stem or root may also show symptoms depending upon the
host and type of smut. Bunt of wheat also comes under smut diseases.
v. White blister (rusts): The white blister like pustules break open the epidermis
and expose a white powdery mass of spores. Systemic infection causes
malformation of stem, leaves and floral organs. Generally cruciferous crops
are affected by the white blister. This is also a disease caused by lower fungi
group.
vi. Necrosis: Death of cells, tissues or organs due to parasitic infection. Leaf
spot (confined dead area on leaf), blight (extensive dead area on leaf or foliage),
stripe (dead leaf area along the vein), cankers (dead area roughened, harder
and raised), rot (extensive death of tissues making it soft and putrefied) are
included under this category.
vii. Scab: Roughened or crust like lesion on diseased organ.
viii. Damping off: Topple down of newly emerged/emerging succulent plants due
to infection and death of basal stem portion. This is often seen during nursery
stage.
ix. Anthracnose: Ulcer like lesions on twigs, stem, pods, fruits caused by specific
group of fungi.
x. Die-back: Death of twigs and branches from the tip backward.
xi. Wilts: The leaves and foliar portion of plant loose turgidity, become flaccid and
droop. In advance stage, the infected plant completely dies.
Principles and Procedures for Plant Protection 63

xii. Mosaic: Different colour pattern on leaves seen in case of virus infected mosaic
diseases with yellow and green patches on leaves.

3. PRINCIPLES OF PEST MANAGEMENT

The under-lying principle in any pest control programme is that the crop must
be protected,while interfering as little as possible with factors which affect the
long-term maintenance of theproduction system. A farm manager or farmer must
have the idea about possible crop pests occurrence in his locality and should formulate
a clear cut strategy to prevent/control them at every stage of crop, right from crop
planning to harvesting and storage. The cheapest and most reliable way to deal
with pest and weed problemsis to anticipate and avoid them, if [Link]
pesticides are needed, choose materials andapplication methods that are cheaper
and effective without adversely affecting other organisms or thenatural environment.
The basic principles of pest and disease management are given as below:

I. A strong and healthy plant will have less insect-pest and disease problems.
Insufficient nutrition makes a plant more vulnerable.
II. Some crop varieties are more susceptible to disease than others that are more
resistant.
III. Damage done by pests and diseases can never be completely avoided. Aiming
for complete control, especially with chemicals can:

❅ Also damage natural enemies of the pest or disease

❅ Cost more money than you get from extra yield
❅ Pollute the environment
❅ Damage human health
❅ Create resistance of the pest or disease against the chemical used

Hence, we should try:

❅ Preventive measures
❖ Follow proper crop rotation to break pest, weed or disease cycle. Mixed
cropping can reduce the amount of losses caused to main crop. Avoid planting
of susceptible crop in sick plots.
❖ Deep ploughing and land configuration (planting of ginger, pigeon pea
on bunds avoids many diseases)
❖ Proper tillage of field to enhance predation of pest stages
64 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

❖ Use stale seed bed for weed control

❖ Use resistant varieties of crops
❖ Seed/planting materials treatment: Try to treat the seeds with fungicides,
insecticides or bioagents to avoid the initial attack of insectsand soil/seed
borne pathogens. This is the best and cheapest method of pest control in
many cases e.g. loose smut of wheat.
❖ Use of physical barrier (wrapping polythene barriers at base of tree avoids
mealy bug attack on mango)
❖ Frequent scouting and diagnostic survey of field for early detection
of pests particularly during prone stages of crops
❖ Proper crop spacing and sanitation prevents fast spread of diseases:
Transplanting of rice (particularly basmati type) at wider row to row and
plant to plant spacing and keeping 2-3 rows unplanted at every 3 meters
avoids the attack of many diseases.
❖ Balance crop nutrition: Application of potash and micronutrients like Zn,
Fe and others keep plants healthy and more resistant to insect-pests and
diseases.
❖ Proper water management of crop
❖ In rice and sugarcane, release of parasitoides like Trichogramma
spp. controls many lepidopteron borers.

❅ Chemical control: If chemical control is necessary, start with cheaper and

less destructive pesticides and lesser use of broad spectrum, highly hazardous
pesticides. During chemical control of pests keep following points in mind:

❖ Use pesticides in rotation: Do not use a single pesticide frequently and

regularly on the same crop/field to avoid the buildup of resistant races/
biotypes of weeds, insect-pests or pathogens.
❖ Use recommended pesticides as per the attack of weed, insect-pests or
disease type. During chemical weed control in crops, use selective herbicides
according to weed flora (narrow leaved, broad leaved or mixed) in the
field. For weed control in non-cropped area or for killing perennial weeds,
use non-selective broad spectrum herbicides like Glyphosate (systemic) or
Paraquat (contact) herbicides according to infestation of weed flora.
❖ Use proper dose of pesticides and desired quantity of solution
according to size of farm. For controlling insect-pests and diseases, 800-
1000L water solution and for controlling weeds, 500-600L of water solution
is required for spraying one hectare of field.
Principles and Procedures for Plant Protection 65

Rust Smut Powdery mildew Downy mildew

White rust Leaf spot Leaf blight Canker

Tuber rot Scab Damping-off Anthracnose

Die back Wilt Sripe Yellow mosiac

Fig. 2. Symptoms of common type of diseases

❖ Use of proper nozzle type: For controlling insect-pests and diseases, use
solid cone or hollow cone nozzles. For spraying herbicides, use flat fan or
cut nozzles for proper control.
❖ Use 2,4-D application with extreme care to avoid herbicide drift in remote
fields.
66 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

❖ Apply pesticides during day time when pollinators are least present in the
field (late afternoon time).
❖ During rainy days, spray pesticides at least before three hours of rainfall
❖ Never use spurious pesticides which will increase only production cost
without sufficient level of pest control.
❖ For chemical control of fungal diseases use fungicides as per following
categories of fungal pathogens:
I. Diseases caused by lower fungi: For diseases like damping-off of
vegetables, white rust of crucifers, late blight of potato and tomato,
downy mildews, other Pythium and Phytophthora diseases, use
Metalaxyl, Fosetyle-AL or Cymoxanil based fungicides for soil
drenching, seed treatment or spraying.
II. Diseases caused by higher fungi: For diseases caused by higher
fungi like rusts, smuts, many leaf spots and blights use recommended
fungicides for the particular disease. Mancozeb, carbendazim, wattable
sulphur, copper oxychloride are some of the examples used for managing
these diseases.
❖ Use proper air tight containers and apply fumigants for controlling stored
grain pests.
❖ Use proper safety measures during pesticide application to avoid operational
hazards.

INSECT-PEST AND DISEASE MANAGEMENT IN IMPORTANT

CROPS
The important insect-pests and diseases of some major field crops and their
management are given in Table 1 as below:
Table 1. Management of important insect-pests and diseases in crops
Crop Insect-pest/Disease Causal organism/ Key symptoms/ Management
Scientific name marks of identification

1. Wheat A. Diseases
1. Rusts Puccinia graminis Rusty appearance on Grow resistant
tritici (Black stem leaves and other plant varieties, alternate
rust), parts. 250EC @1ml/L
P. recondita (Brown and Mancozeb
rust), 75WP@2g/L
P. striiformis (yellow water.
rust)
Principles and Procedures for Plant Protection 67

Crop Insect-pest/Disease Causal organism/ Key symptoms/ Management

Scientific name marks of identification

2. Leaf Blight Bipolari ssorokiniana Small oval and discoloured Spray of Mancozeb
and Alternaria lesions appear on leaves 75WP@2g/L water
triticina and later become irregular
and large in size and brown
to grey in colour.

3. Loose Smut Ustilago segetum Every heads of affected Seed treatment with
plant are converted into a Carboxin (Vitavax)
loose, black mass of @1g/kg seed before
spores and no grains are sowing.
formed.

4. Karnal bunt Tilletia indica Only few grains of ear Spray of

are bunted due to local propiconazole 250
infection. EC @ 1ml/L at
flowering stage

5. Powdery mildew Blumeria graminis White powdery flocculent Alternate spray of

tritici growth of fungus later propiconazole 250
turns grey or reddish EC @ 1ml/L or
brown as cleistothecia Mancozeb 75WP
develops. @2g/L water or
wattable sulphur @
0.25%.

6. Cyst nematode Heterodera avenae Infected plants are Follow crop

dwarfed and pale in rotation, apply
colour like nutritional granular nematicides
deficiency. Such e.g. carbofuran
symptoms are found in (furadan) @ 30kg/ha
patches and these patches in soil.
enlarge year by year if
not managed properly.

B. Insect pests
1. Aphids Macrosiphum sp. Numerous small greenish Spray dimethoate
black wingless aphids are 30EC @1ml/Lwater.
present below leaf surface
or in spaces of spikelets

2. Army worm Mythimna separata Larvae feed on basal Spray DDVP

portion of stem leaving (Nuvan) @ 1ml/L
upper portion fallen on water
ground. They generally feed
during night and hide in
soil during day time.
68 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

Crop Insect-pest/Disease Causal organism/ Key symptoms/ Management

Scientific name marks of identification

2. Rice A. Diseases
1. Blast Magnaporthe Spindle shaped spots Seed treatment with
grisea with brown margin and carboxin+thirum
straw centre which may @3g/kg seed. Spray
coalesce to make larger carbendazim+
blasted areas on leaves. mancozeb @1.5g/L
Necrotic areas on neck or tricyclazole
region cause neck blast. (beam) @0.6ml/L
water. Apply potash
and micronutrients
in rice crop.

2. Sheath blight Rhizoctonia Lesions develop on Balance crop

solani sheaths of lower leaves nutrition. Avoid
near the water line when excessive
plants are in the late application of
tillering or early internode nitrogen. Spray
elongation stage. These carbendazim+
lesions expand and its mancozeb @1.5g/L
center become bleached or propiconazole
with an irregular tan-to- 250EC @1ml/L
brown border and extends water.
to upper plant parts, includ-
ing leaf blades, causing
extensive, tan, irregularly
shaped lesions with
brown borders.

3. Khaira disease Zinc deficiency Symptoms appear at 2-4 Apply zinc sulphate
weeks age. Brown spots @20kg/ha before
appear on the older leaves. transplanting. Spray
These spots enlarge and zinc sulphate @75g
coalesce making the leaf + urea@100g/15L
brown. Tillering and tank. Repeat spray
growth are reduced and if necessary.
plant remains stunted.

4. Bakanae or foot Fusarium moniliforme Pale yellow elongated Seed treatment with
rot disease seedlings in nursery. carbendazim @1g/kg
Infected seedling after or Carboxin+Thiram
transplanting may die @3g/kg seed before
during hot weather. sowing. Spray of
Elongation and death of carbendazim @1/L
infected culms also water at basal
continue at advanced portion of hill in
stage of crop. standing crop.
Principles and Procedures for Plant Protection 69

Crop Insect-pest/Disease Causal organism/ Key symptoms/ Management

Scientific name marks of identification

B. Insect pests
1. Yellow Stem borer Scirpophaga Caterpillars bore into Apply granular
incertulus stem causes dead hearts insecticide e.g.
and white heads. carbofuran (furadan)
@ 30kg/ha in soil.
Release Trichogra-
mma parasitoid
@50000-100000/
ha, 4-5 times
at fortnightly
intervals starting
from the tillering
stage.

2. Brown plant Nilaparwata lugens Nymphs and adult Maintain good

hopper suck the plant sap aeration in the field
mainly near basal by spaced planting.
portion of hills. Heavy Spray imidacloprid
infestation results into 17.8SL@1ml/5L
yellowing and withering water.
of leaves and ‘hopper
burn’ (death of plants
in pockets).

3. Gall midge Orsiolia oryzae Maggots enter into Spray dimethoate

growing point of tillers 30EC @1ml/Lwater.
and reach the bud where
they lacerate and feed till
pupation. This stimulates
the tillers to grow into
a tubular gall or ‘silver
shoot’ resembling onion leaf.

4. Gundhi bug Leptocorisa Both nymphs and adults Dusting of methyl

varicornis suck the cell sap from parathion powder
developing grains which @20kg/ha
results into unfilled chaffy
grains.

3. Chick A. Diseases
pea
1. Wilt Fusarium Branches and leaves of Grow resistant
oxysporum affected plants droop varieties. Seed
f. sp. ciceris down and finally die at treatment (5g/kg
advance stage of disease. seed) and soil
Brown discolouration application (2.5kg/
may be seen after tearing ha) of Trichoderma
the tap root. formulations.
70 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

Crop Insect-pest/Disease Causal organism/ Key symptoms/ Management

Scientific name marks of identification

2. Ascochyta blight Ascochyta rabiei Circular spots with Grow resistant

concentric rings on varieties. Spray
leaves, pods, stem. Under chlorothalonil @800
wet and humid weather ml/ha at fortnightly
disease spread very fast interval.
and destroy whole crop
within few days.

B. Insects pests
1. Pod borer Helicoverpa Larva feeds on leaves Biological control
armigera and developing pods with NPV (250LE/
keeping some portion ha) or Bt (0.5kg/ha
inside and some outside with UV protectant).
the pods. Spray insecticides
like quinalphos @2
ml/L. Use bird
perching in the field.

2. Cut worm Agrotis ipsilon Caterpillars cut the main Dusting of methyl
stem or branches. parathion powder
@20kg/ha

4. Pigeon A. Diseases
pea
1. Wilt Fusarium Branches and leaves Grow resistant
udum of affected plants droop varieties. Seed
down and finally die at treatment (5g/kg
advance stage of seed) and soil
disease. Brown discol- application (2.5kg/
ouration may be seen ha) of Trichoderma
after tearing the tap root. formulations.

2. Stem blight Phytophthora Blighting of branches Spray metalaxyl+

drechsleri and main stem resulting mancozeb (3g/L) at
in death of whole plant. fortnightly interval

B. Insect pests
1. Pod fly Melanogromyza obtusa Maggots bore and feed Spray endosulfan
into pods causing empty @2ml/L
pods at maturity

5. Moong A. Diseases
bean/
Urd bean
1. Yellow mosaic Gemini virus Bright yellow to green Grown resistant
transmitted by colour pattern on leaves varieties of Urd like
Principles and Procedures for Plant Protection 71

Crop Insect-pest/Disease Causal organism/ Key symptoms/ Management

Scientific name marks of identification

white fly Pant Urd 31 and

Bemisia tabaci moong like Meha
and Samrat. Seed
treatment with
Imidacloprid 17.8SL
@5ml/kg seed
followed by spray of
dimethoate 30EC
@1ml/L water at 25
and 45DAS. Rouge
out infected plants
till 45 DAS.

6. Mustard A. Diseases
1. White rust Albugo candida White colour blisters Spray metalaxyl+
mainly on lower side mancozeb (3g/L) at
of leaves fortnightly interval

2. Alternaria blight Alternaria spp. Dark colour small to Spray mancozeb

large spots in concentric @ 0.25% at
rings on leaves and pods fortnightly interval

B. Insect pests
1. Aphids Lypaphis erysimae Numerous wingless Spray dimethoate
nymph and adults infest 30EC @1ml/Lwater.
growing branches and
suck the sap. This stops
the growth of flowering
branches.

7. Sugar- A. Diseases
cane
1. Red rot Colletotrichum falcatum Loss of colour and droop- Grow resistant
ing of 3rd or 4th leaf from varieties. Avoid seed
top are earliest symptoms. setts from infected
As disease advances, entire crop. Treat the seed
top withers. The cane setts with 0.5%
shrivels, rind shrinks and Bavistin+ 0.1%
become longitudinally Thiram before
wrinkled. Red patched sowing.
with ash coloured patches
seen on mid rib of leaves.

2. Pokah bong Fusarium Leaf chlorosis, leaf Treat the seed setts
moniliforme twisting, knife-cut of with 0.5% Bavistin+
leaf and top rotting on 0.1% Thiram before
leaves. sowing. Two sprays
of carbendazim
72 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

Crop Insect-pest/Disease Causal organism/ Key symptoms/ Management

Scientific name marks of identification

(0.1%) in May and

June.

B. Insect pests
1. Early shoot borer Chilotraea Larvae bore into main Spray chlorpyrip-
infuscatellus shoot and produce hos 20EC @2ml/L
dead hearts which can or chlorantranillipore
be pulled out easily.
380ml/ha in 800L
water or apply
granular insecticides
like Carbofuran @ 40
kg/ha. Release of
Trichogramma
parasitoid @50000-
100000 parasitized
eggs /ha in the month
of March-April.

2. Top borer Tryporyza nivella Larvae bore into top Spray chlorantran-
portion of shoot which illipore (Coragen)
results into drying of 380ml/ha in 800L
central whorl and dead water during May-
hearts. June or apply
granular insecticides
like Carbofuran
@40kg/ha or
chlorantranillipore
(Ferterra) @20kg/ha
in late June to early
July. Four to five
releases of
Trichogramma
parasitoid @50000-
100000 parasitized
eggs /ha in the month
of March-April and
July to September.
These recommend-
ations are also
effective against
other borers of
sugarcane.

3. White grub Holotrichia serrata Grubs feed on roots Apply fungal bio-
below the soil making agent Beauveria
plant weak. Death of bassiana @2.5kg/ha
Principles and Procedures for Plant Protection 73

Crop Insect-pest/Disease Causal organism/ Key symptoms/ Management

Scientific name marks of identification

whole clump in case of with well rotten

severe infestation. FYM during land
preparation. Follow
crop rotation and
apply summer
ploughing.

8. Potato A. Diseases
1. Late blight Phytophthora infestans Small watery brown Spray metalaxyl+
patches develop on tip mancozeb (3g/L), or
or margin of leaves and cymoxanil+
extend inwards. Under mancozeb (3g/L) or
suitable conditions, mancozeb (2.5g/L)
disease spread very fast under favourable
and can destroy whole weather for disease.
crop within few days.

2. Early blight Alternaria solani Brown coloured spots Follow crop

on leaves with charact- rotation. Apply
eristic concentric rings. recommended doses
of fertilizers and
micronutrients.
Spray mancozeb
(@0.2%) or zineb
(@0.2%) at
fortnightly interval.

B. Insect pests
1. Aphids Myzus persicae Nymph and adult suck Planting of main
and others (also the cell sap and results season crop when
transmits potato into stunted plant growth. temperature become
viruses like potato Also transmits many down. Spray
leaf roll virus, potato virus diseases and thus dimethoate 30EC
virus X, A, S and Y become serious hindrance @1ml/L water.
causing different type in seed potato crop.
of mosaic)

2. Cut worm Agrotis ipsilon Caterpillars cut branches Dusting of methyl

or whole stem from the parathion dust
base. around affected area
in the field.
Drenching of soil
around affected area
with chlorpyriphos
(2ml/L).
74 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

Crop Insect-pest/Disease Causal organism/ Key symptoms/ Management

Scientific name marks of identification

3. White grub Holotrichia spp. Grubs feed on roots and Apply fungal
tubers making tunnels bioagent Beauveria
in tubers. bassiana @2.5kg/ha
with well rotten
FYM during land
preparation. Follow
crop rotation and
apply summer
ploughing. In
endemic area apply
phorate 10G
@25kg/ha in soil.

9. Brinjal A. Diseases
1. Phomopsis blight Phomopsis vexans Numerous light brown Use healthy disease
coloured spots mainly on free seeds. Treat
lower leaves. Infection on seeds with carbend-
branches causes partial azim @2g/kg seed.
or complete wilting of Spray carbendazim
plant. Fruit rotting initially @ 0.1% at fortnig-
starts with soft and htly interval.
spongy but later converts
into dry rot.

2. Sclerotinia rot Sclerotinitia Rotting of main stem Spray carbendazim+

sclerotiorum and branches with charac- mancozeb @2.5/L
teristic whitish growth water.
of fungus. This causes
partial or complete
wilting of plant. Big size
sclerotia can be seen after
tearing of infected stem
at later stages.

B. Insects pests
1. Shoot and Lucinodes arbonalis Larvae bore into young Avoid rationing.
fruit borer Serious pest of brinjal twigs and fruits making Follow crop
fruits unfit for consum- rotation. Spray
ption. neem oil 2ml/L or
DDVP (Nuvan) 1ml/
L. Release of
Trichogramma
parasitoid @50000-
100000 parasitized
eggs /ha.
Principles and Procedures for Plant Protection 75

Crop Insect-pest/Disease Causal organism/ Key symptoms/ Management

Scientific name marks of identification

10. Okra A. Diseases

1. Yellow vein Both viruses are Yellowing of veins, Control vector
mosaic virus transmitted by white stunting of plant and whitefly by alternate
(YVMV) and fly Bemisia tabaci yellow coloured fruits spraying of neem oil
enation leaf in case of YVMV and 2ml/L or dimethoate
curl virus severe cup shaped curling 30EC 1ml/L at
(ELCV) of leaves in case of ELCV fortnightly interval.

B. Insect pests
1. Leaf hopper or Amrasca devastans Nymph and adult suck Before flowering,
Green Jassids the cell sap. Severe infest- spray acephate
ation results into hopper 75SP (1ml/L) or
burn which looks like imidacloprid 17.8SL
blighting of crop. 1ml/4L water.

2. Shoot and fruit Earias vittella Larvae bore into young Collect and destroy
borer twigs and fruits making affected fruits.
fruits unfit for consu- Spray neem oil 2ml/
mption. Infested fruits L or indoxacarb
become rolled. 14.5SC 0.75ml/L.
Release of
Trichogramma
parasitoid @50000-
100000 parasitized
eggs /ha.

11. Tomato A. Diseases

1. Late blight Phytophthora infestans Small watery brown Spray metalaxyl+
patches develop on tip mancozeb (3g/L), or
or margin of leaves and cymoxanil+
extend inwards. mancozeb (3g/L) or
Under suitable condit- mancozeb (2.5g/L)
ions, disease spread very under favourable
fast and can destroy weather for disease.
whole crop within few
days. Fruit infection also
occurs and causes rotting
of fruits.

2. Tomato Yellow Transmitted by white Yellowing and curling of Control vector

Leaf Curl Virus fly Bemisia tabaci leaves with leathery leaf whitefly by alternate
pattern. Stunting in growth spraying of neem oil
and no flowering and 2ml/L or dimethoate
fruiting if infection occurs 30EC 1ml/L at
at early stage of crop fortnightly interval
growth. particularly at initial
growth stages.
76 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

Crop Insect-pest/Disease Causal organism/ Key symptoms/ Management

Scientific name marks of identification

B. Insects pests
1. Fruit borer Helicoverpa armigera Larvae bore into fruits Spray neem oil 0.1%.
making them unfit for Release of
consumption. Infested Trichogramma
fruits later become rotted parasitoid
due to secondary @250000-500000
infection. parasitized eggs /ha.
Spraying of
quinalphos 2ml/L.
Avoid spraying at
fruit harvesting
stage.

12. Cole A. Diseases

crops
(Cauliflower
and cabbage)
1. Leaf spot Alternaria brassicae Brown coloured Spray mancozeb,
spots with characteristic 0.25% or
concentric rings. chlorothallonil,
0.25%.

2. Sclerotinia rot Sclerotinia sclerotiorum Water soaked rotting of Spray mancozeb

curd, petiole, stalk and 0.25% or
stump region. Charact- carbendazim 0.1%.
eristic white growth of at flowering stage.
fungus mycelium can be
seen on rotting organs.

B. Insect pests
1. Tobacco Spodoptera litura Larvae feed on leaves Use light traps for
caterpillar and also on curd or head collecting and killing
reducing its market adults. Spraying
quality. of quinalphos 2ml/
L or DDVP 1ml/L.
Avoid spraying at
harvesting stage.
2. Diamond Plutella xylostella Larvae feed on the Spraying of
black moth leaves and causes quinalphos 2ml/L
shot hole like appear- or DDVP 1ml/L.
ance in the leaves.
Principles and Procedures for Plant Protection 77

CONCLUSION
Pests and diseases are natural entities and regularly attack our crops and
sometimes cause economic losses in yield and quality. The aim of a farmer or farm
manager should be to manage the economic losses caused by a pest or pathogen
and not the total control of all kind of crop enemies. It is also important to maintain
the population of natural enemies of pests and pathogens through maintaining
biodiversity at farm. Always follow the rule “prevention is better than cure”. It is
absolutely vital for the growers to maintaina “hands-on” management approach in
production. Weeds may be shaded out by the developing crop, and pests anddiseases
may be present, but reduced to such a low level that the manager could decide
totolerate the problem without taking active measures for control. However,
awareness and sufficient knowledge backup is neededbefore the action decision is
taken. Routine visits or scouting to the field must be made frequently for quick
detection and management.

SUGGESTED READINGS
Agrios G N.2005. Plant Pathology. Elsevier Academic Press, USA. p-922.
Awasthi M D. 1998. Pesticide residues in food chain in India – Fruits and vegetables.
Pesticides Man and Biosphere. Shukla O P Omkar and Kulshretha (Eds.).
APH Publishing Corporation, New Delhi, India. pp: 160-212.
Chatterjee P B. (1997). Plant Protection Techniques. BhartiBhawan, Gaya, India.
p-324.
Dhaliwal G S and Arora R.1996. Principles of Insect Pest management. National
Agricultural Technology Centre, Ludhiana.
Lucas J A. 1998. Plant Pathology and Plant Pathogens. Blackwell Ltd. London.
Nath V and Aggrawal R A.1982. Insect pests of crop and their control. Bharti
Publication, Delhi. p-139.
Singh R S. 2005. Plant Diseases. Oxford and IBH Publication Company Pvt. Ltd.,
New Delhi. p-720.
Singh R S. 2009. Introduction to Principles of Plant Pathology. Oxford and IBH
Publication Company Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
 Chapter 7

Gender Sensitive Farm Tools

Nisha Verma

India is mainly an agrarian country and farming is one of the main occupations
accounting for 33 per cent of the GDP (Gross Domestic Product). Around 78 per
cent of the economically productive women in the country are engaged in various
activities related to agriculture and allied enterprises as compared to 63 per cent of
men. About 6.5 per cent of the power used in crop production and related activities
in the country is contributed by about 241 million workers, of which about 42 per
cent (i.e. 101 million) are female workers. By 2020, the ratio of agricultural workers
to the total workers is expected to decline to 40 per cent from the current 52 per
cent, though the total number would remain the same. From these about 50 per
cent would be women against 42 per cent at present (Gite, 2012).

Farm women perform hard physical work in planting crops with care and
maintenance, harvesting and processing, marketing and bartering of product
simultaneously (Samants, 1995). Manual operations viz. weeding, sowing,
transplanting require a huge labour force (35 percent) in crop farming. Amongst
them weeding accounts for about 25 per cent of the total labour requirement (Nag
and Datt, 1979). Women in animal husbandry and livestock sector constitute 69
percent of the labour force (Economic Survey 2002-03).

Current farming practices used by women farmers has considerable degree of

ergonomic/ health impact on their body causing them immense pain and hardship.
Some of these agricultural practices are found to have profound health risks on
women. Manual operations involve enormous drudgery, as women workers, who
perform most of the operation in India, have to work in awkward postures i.e.
bending and squatting in sweltering weather. Drudgery is generally conceived as
physical and mental strain, agony, fatigue, monotony and hardship experienced by
human being, while all these result in decline in performance of men and women
alike. Use of traditional tools for long hours with in appropriate working postures in
field leads to drudgery (Singh 2014).

Since women workers play a major role in the country’s agriculture and due to
that, attention needs to be given to their capabilities and limitations during design
and operation of various farm equipments, so as to get higher productivity, enhanced
comfort and ensure better safety (Yadav et al., 2010). A continuous work in
80 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

awkward posture and without proper rest-pause adversely affects workers’ mental
and physical well-being. Table 1 presents the drudgery level of farm women while
using traditional methods/age old technologies in the farming systems of Western
plain zone of Uttar Pradesh.

Table 1 : Drudgery level of farm women with prevailing technologies in the farming
systems of Western plain zone of Uttar Pradesh
Farm operations Technique used Drudgery level Reasons

Sowing Placing the seeds Slightly heavy · Pain in lower back due to long
in soil with the hours of work in bending
help of thumb posture.
and hand hoe · Pain/swelling in wrist and thumb.

Paddy Manual transplan- Heavy · Pain in lower back due to long

transplanting ting in puddled hours of work in bending posture
field in deep puddled soil.
· Discomfort/swelling in legs in
moving forward and backward in
wet field.
· Discomfort/swelling in thumb
and wrist due to transplanting of
seedlings in wet field.

Vegetable / Transplanting Slightly heavy · Muscular pain in different body

flower through digging parts due to squatting posture.
transplanting the soil using · Muscular stress and pain in wrist
hand hoe muscles due to digging of soil
through hoe and placing the
seedling for long hours.
· Lower working capacity due to
poor grip, cuts, wounds and skin
irritation.

Weeding By using hand hoe Moderately heavy · Muscular pain and tiredness due
to working in awkward (squat-
ting) posture along with monoto-
nous and repetitive position for
long hours.
· Decrease in working capacity due
to poor grip, cuts, wounds and
skin irritation.

Manual weeding Heavy · Severe cuts, wounds and skin

irritation.
· Muscular pain and tiredness due
to working in awkward (squat-
ting) posture along with monoto-
nous and repetitive position for
long hours.
Gender Sensitive Farm Tools 81

Farm operations Technique used Drudgery level Reasons

Detopping Traditional sickle Moderately heavy · Lower working capacity due to

poor grip, cuts, wounds and skin
irritation.
· Tiredness, energy expenditure
and shoulder pain due to cutting
force.
Detrashing Removal of trash Heavy · Severe cuts, wounds and skin
through hand irritation.

Traditional sickle Moderately heavy · Lower working capacity due to

poor grip, cuts, wounds and skin
irritation.
· Tiredness, energy expenditure
and shoulder pain due to cutting
force.

Stripping of Beating through Heavy · Tiredness, heavy energy expen-

groundnut logwood diture and shoulder pain due to
beating force.
· Lower working capacity due to
poor grip cuts, wounds and skin
irritation.

Removal of pods Heavy · Muscular stress and pain in

from plant through fingers due to monotonous and
hand repetitive movements of fingers
for long hours.
· Very poor working capacity.

Dehusking of Through hand Heavy · Muscular stress and pain in

maize shoulder finger, wrist and palm
muscles, tiredness due to pull
force using wrist during maize
dehusking.
· Lower working capacity.

Shelling of maize Beating through Heavy · Tiredness, heavy energy expen-

logwood diture and shoulder pain due to
beating force.
· Lower working capacity due to
poor grip cuts, wounds and skin
irritation.
Grain removal Heavy · Immense pain in fingers due to
by fingers continuous muscular stress
during repetitive actions of
fingers for long hours.
· Very low working capacity.
82 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

Farm operations Technique used Drudgery level Reasons

Carrying load Over the head Heavy · Carrying head load causing
(fodder/ grains/ muscular stress on shoulders and
vegetables) neck and strain on eyes as well.
· Severe pain in different body
parts
· Extreme energy expenditure and
tiredness.

Harvesting of By using Heavy · Muscular pain in lower back due

field crops/ sugar traditional sickle to bending or squatting posture.
cane/ fodder crops · Injuries while harvesting through
traditional sickle.

By using Moderately heavy · Muscular pain in lower back due

serrated sickle to bending or squatting posture.
· Decrease in working capacity due
to poor grip, cuts, wounds and
skin irritation.

Harvesting of By using hoe Heavy · Immense pain in shoulder, palms

roots/tubers and or spade and lower back due to digging of
other crops crops from deep into the soil
(potato, groundnut, through pulling force.
onion, garlic, · Decrease in working capacity due
radish etc.) to poor grip, cuts, wounds and
skin irritation.

Threshing of Beating through · Pain in shoulders due to beating

paddy and other hands force.
field crops · Cough and respiratory tract
allergies due to inhalation of dust
and dirt particles.

Drudgery can be reduced by providing gender-friendly farm tools and equipments

which increase the productivity of workers with safety and comfort. Time scheduling
is also needed for achieving such task. The designing of gender sensitive tools
should include the gender-perspective such as wearing, long hair, purda system,
anthropometry, muscular strength, aerobic capacity, etc. So one way of reduction
of drudgery can be through quantifying the particular field operation. For example,
if work is being performed by a farm women with traditional tools in bending/
squatting posture, it can be reduced by providing women friendly farm equipment
(equipment assessed/developed considering gender-perspective).

Men have generally done better in the use of agricultural engineering technologies,
while women are left behind. It is generally felt that, the available agricultural
technologies are not women friendly as they are not designed taking into consideration
the women’s ergonomic measurements. There exists a communication gap between
Gender Sensitive Farm Tools 83

design engineers and farm planners and also the lack of women’s access to articulate
their felt needs (Shirahatti et al., 2010). With this backdrop, Govt. of India has
encouraged the scientists to work for women in agriculture by establishing national
research centres for women and promoting pro-women programmes in different
facets of agriculture and allied enterprises. There are some studies carried out in
different research centres to reduce the drudgery of farm women and to overcome
the labour deficits during peak season. The improved gender sensitive tools that are
suitable for women farmers of Western Uttar Pradesh are given below:

A. TOOLS FOR LAND PREPARATION

1) Multipurpose tool: This tool can be used as hoe,
rake and spade. This tool is used for breaking up of
compact ground, clod breaking and weeding from
one side. It is used as rake for crop/weed residue
collection from one side and removal from other side.
From the third side levelling of soil can be done. Its
long handle is useful for maintaining the straight body
alignment to the centre of gravity, thereby avoiding
musculoskeletal disorders due to working in wrong postures. It is having
hardened and tempered steel blades. It is light in weight and minimizes energy
expenditure and increases working capacity.

2) Hoe: This tool is used for hoeing, clod breaking and

soil aeration and levelling of soil. This tool can be
effectively used in hard soil from one side. From the
other side it can be used for collecting the weeds
and crop residues. It has 760 mm long tubular steel
handle with comfortable plastic grip that is helpful in
keeping the body straight and requires less
expenditure of energy.

B. TOOLS FOR SOWING AND TRANSPLANTING

1) Dibbler: It is suitable for planting seeds of different

crops e.g. maize, pigeon pea, wheat etc. Dibbler
contains fertilizer application attachment along with
the seed box in order to enhance the fertilizer use
efficiency and to provide the crop a better stand.
With the use of this tool yield can be increased up to
84 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

20 per cent. The tool is helpful in maintaining straight body posture and in
relieving the from the muscular stress and pain.

2) Four row paddy transplanter: It is used for

transplanting the paddy crops in four rows at a time.
It is light weighted (25 kg) and covers an area of
245 m 2 / hour. The overall dimension of the
transplanter is 820 mm x 1970mm x 900mm. It
consists of frame, floats, seedling tray, operating
handle, fingers (pickers/ tray), drive unit and depth control mechanism. It saves
about 61 per cent cardiac cost of workers per unit area and helps in avoiding
bending posture. Line sowing helps in promoting the use of mechanical weeders,
thereby reducing drudgery during weeding operation. The productivity of workers
is increased by more than six times as compared to the traditional method.

3) Vegetable/ flower seedling transplanter: Seedling Planter

is made up of stainless steel. It has a handle, clutch, spring,
connecting rod and mouth end. It is 3 feet in length and the
diameter of the hole is 2 inches. It is very light weighted (1.9
kg). The saplings are loaded in the stainless steel (SS)
chamber at the top and the clutch is released to make a hole
on the soil to plant the seedling directly on the bed. It reduces
labour cost, and weed growth. With the planter three labours are required to
plant of 1 ha area while in traditional method minimum 30 labours would be
needed to do the same work. It reduces muscular stress in the lower back and
knees.

C. TOOLS FOR INTERCULTURAL OPERATIONS

1) Cultivator: This tool is ideal for breaking compact ground

while weeding and cultivating in one action between the two
rows of the crops. It has 90 cm long tubular steel handle
with comfortable plastic grip which keeps straight body
alignment and reduces muscular stress and energy
expenditure.

D. TOOLS FOR PLANT PROTECTION

1) Battery operated knapsack sprayer: This sprayer is used
to spray in all agricultural and horticultural crops and can be
operated by dry lead-acid battery. It has heavy duty
diaphragm pump capable of discharging 2.2 litres water per
minute. The tank is light-weighted, ergonomically designed
Gender Sensitive Farm Tools 85

and having 16 litres capacity with thick resilient shoulder pads which are very
comfortable even with a full load.

E. TOOLS FOR CROP HARVESTING

1) Improved sickle with plastic/wooden handle: Improved

sickles are very light weighted 217 g with wooden handle
and 186 g with plastic handle. Both are having serrated blades
made up of high carbon steel which follow the friction and
sheer principle to cut the plant with less force. Handles of
the improved sickles are specially designed to reduce stress on grip muscles
while cutting fodder and field crops in order to avoid hand injuries.

2) Brush cutter: Brush cutter is the most durable, efficient

and labour saving harvesting equipment which can be used
for cutting various types of crops like paddy, wheat, sugarcane,
etc. alongwith the cutting of dry grasses. The crop attachment
makes the machine to cut and collect the crop at same time.
This is very light weighted and efficient cutter (7-10 kg). Vibration dampening
device reduces the operators fatigue and improves the working efficiency.

3) Sugarcane detrasher: This is used

to remove dry leaves and green leaves
for collection of fodder. Its cost of
operation is less than Rs 900 per
hectare. It is easy in handling and collection of leaves, and can be used in all the
varieties of sugarcane. It helps in avoiding serious cuts and wounds of hands
that occurs in traditional method of trash and top removal.

4) Improved cane cutting knife: It is used for cutting

sugarcane, bushes and dead branches. Its blade is hardened
and tampered and is made up of high carbon steel. Its blade
size is 305 mm long and total length is 457 mm. It is having
comfortable plastic grip which helps in increasing the working efficiency capacity
and in reducing the muscular stress and pain.

5) Light weighted spade: Light weighted spade can be used

for digging of roots/tubers and other crops e.g. potato,
groundnut, radish, onion and garlic crops from the soil. The
spade is very light weighted and it is having long handle which
helps in keeping straight body alignment, thereby increasing
the working efficiency.
86 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

F. TOOLS FOR THRESHING

1) Multi-crop thresher: This equipment has been used for
threshing maize, wheat, paddy, sorghum, bajra, ragi etc crops.
This thresher consists of three types of sieves which helps in
threshing for different types of crops. It consumes 1.5 to 1.9
litre fuel per hour. Cleaning efficiency is 93 to 95 per cent.
This thresher helps in avoiding muscular stress and heavy
pain in diffe rent body parts occurrs in traditional threshing.

CONCLUSION
Women farmers are doing various farm operations viz. sowing, transplanting,
hoeing, weeding, harvesting, threshing, winnowing, etc. either manually or by using
traditional tools which involves lot of energy expenditure alongwith musculoskeletal
problems. Possible interventions through introducing various gender sensitive
improved farm tools related to the farm operations systems help in increasing the
efficiency and productivity of farm women. Using gender sensitive tools by farm
women helps in reducing drudgery, increase in working capacity and efficiency
which result in better productivity and improvement in quality life of farm women.

REFERENCES
Gite L P. 2012. Research highlights of AICRP on Ergonomics and safety in
Agriculture, CIAE Technical bulletin No. 152. CIAE, Bhopal.
Nag P K and Datt P. 1979. Effectiveness of some simple agricultural weeders with
reference to physiological responses. Journal of Human Ergology 8: 13-21.
Samants R K. 1995. Women in Agriculture: perspective, issues and experiences.
MD Publication Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. p-109.
Shirahatti S Kammar S and Prakash K V. 2010. Agricultural engineering interventions
to increase the efficiency of women in agriculture: some studies from India.
International Journal of Agricultural Engineering 3(2): 243 -250
Singh S P. 2014. Drudgery reducing farm equipment and technique to assess MSD’s
in agricultural work published in compendium “ICAR Sponsored 21 days winter
school on Drudgery Reduction Technologies for women to Enhance Productivity
and Safety in Agriculture.
Yadav R Pund S Patel N C and Gite L P. 2010. Analytical Study of Strength
Parameters of Indian Farm Workers and its Implication in Equipment Design.
Agricultural Engineering International: the CIGR Ejournal. 12(2): 49-
54.
 Chapter 8

Management of Livestock Farm

Mahesh Kumar

The term “livestock” has two merging words, “live” and “stock”, signifying the
fact that animals are property in addition to living beings. Broadly, livestock refers
to any breed or population of domesticated animals kept by humans for a useful,
commercial purpose of providing food, fibers, draught power fuel and manure to
their owners. Livestock sectors are critical for the rural economy, especially the
small and marginal farmers. They not only contribute to the income but act as best
insurance against any natural calamity. Animal husbandry practices have varied
widely across cultures and time periods. Originally, livestock were not confined by
fences or enclosures, but management practices have largely shifted to intensive
animal farming, sometimes referred to as “factory farming”. These practices
increased yield of the various commercial outputs, but have led to increased concerns
about animal welfare and environmental impact.

CONTRIBUTION OF LIVESTOCK IN INDIAN ECONOMY

Livestock sector plays a major economic and cultural role in numerous rural
communities. It is one of the most important agricultural subsectors worldwide
which provide meat, milk, eggs, blood, hides, draught power, fuel and manure for
soil nutrient replenishment. Also, being a source of cash income, livestock help the
poor to escape poverty. Large numbers of poor farmers and herders depend on
livestock for their livelihoods. Animal densities are strongly correlated with human
densities and are highest in areas of intensified agriculture, especially in and around
irrigation systems.

Importance of livestock in Indian economy can be judged from the fact that
contribution of this sector to the GDP in the year 2012-13 was 4.11 per cent and
25.6 per cent of total value of output in total Agriculture, Fishing and Forestry
Sector GDP.

PURPOSE OF LIVESTOCK REARING

Livestock are used by humans for a variety of purposes, many of which have
an economic value. They provide food and non-food items to the people. Livestock
products include:
88 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

1. Food: The livestock provides food items such as milk, meat and eggs for human
consumption. India is number one milk producer in the world. It is producing
about 137.7 m. tones of milk and 8.89 million tonnes of meat annually. The
value of milk group and meat group at current prices was Rs 4,06,035 crores in
the year 2013-14.

2. Fibre and skins: The livestock also contributes to the production of wool, hair,
hides, and pelts. Leather is the most important product which has a very high
export potential. India is producing about 47.9 million Kg of wool per annum.

3. Draught power: Despite increased availability of mechanical power, the Indian

farmers especially in rural areas still depend upon animals for various agricultural
operations. The bullocks are saving a lot of fuel which is a necessary input for
using mechanical power like tractors, combine harvesters etc. Pack animals
like camels, horses, donkeys, ponies, mules etc. are being extensively used to
transport goods in different parts of the country in addition to bullocks. In
situations like hilly terrains mules and ponies serve as the only alternative to
transport goods. Similarly, the army has to depend upon these animals to transport
various items in high altitude areas.

4. Dung and other waste materials: Dung and other animal wastes serve as
very good farm yard manure and the value of it is worth several crores of
rupees. In addition, it is also used as fuel (biogas, dung cakes).

5. Storage: Livestock are considered as “moving banks” because of their

potentiality to dispose off during emergencies. They serve as capital and for
landless agricultural labourers it is the only capital resource they possess.
Livestock serve as an asset and in case of emergencies they serve as guarantee
for availing loans from the local sources such as money lenders in the villages.

6. Weed control: Livestock are also used as biological control of brush, plants
and weeds.

7. Cultural: Livestock offer security to the owners and also add to their self
esteem especially when they are owning prized animals such as pedigreed
bulls, horses and high yielding cows/ buffaloes etc.

8. Sports / recreation: People also use the animals like cocks, rams, bulls etc.
for competition and sports. Despite ban on these animal competitions, the cock
fights, ram fights and bull fights are quite common during festive seasons.

9. Experimental Animals: Livestock are also reared for conducting various

experiments at many research institutes. The purpose of these experiments
Management of Livestock Farm 89

may be to enhance animal productivity and also for conducting trials before use
in human beings.

DISTRIBUTION OF LIVESTOCK POPULATION IN INDIA

Our country is blessed with rich biodiversity and we are proud to have wide
domesticated animal diversity with many breeds within each species. As per 2012
livestock census by Department of Animal Husbandry, dairying and fisheries,
Government of India, the total livestock population consisting of cattle, buffalo,
sheep, goat, pig, horses and ponies, mules, donkeys, camels, mithun and yak in the
country is 512.05 million. The total livestock population has decreased by about
3.33 per cent over the previous census. The total bovine population (cattle, buffalo,
mithun and yak) is 299.9 million which shows a decline of 1.57 per cent over previous
census (2007). In 19th Livestock Census, 37.28 per cent were cattle, 21.23 per
cent buffaloes, 12.71 per cent sheep, 26.40 per cent goats and 2.01 per cent pigs.
Mithun, Yaks, Horses, ponies, mules, donkeys and camels taken together contribute
0.37 per cent of the total livestock population.

FARM MANAGEMENT
Management of livestock farm is both an art and a science. It is a science
influenced by years of research and is an art developed by centuries of practical
experience. The organization of various activities and coordination among these
activities involving all the key factors affecting animal production performance in
the directions for improvement is the main task of a farm manager. The ultimate
goal of an animal farm is to convert resources into products in the most viable and
economical way.

The main motive of the manager of a commercial animal farm is profit

maximization, but the managers of an animal farm of a research institute have extra
responsibility as they have to keep the farm in such a way that it sets an example
for farmers and other animal rearers. The guiding points in decision making are
environmental aspects, welfare of animals, product quality and overall economics
of the farm. The good farming practices of a livestock farm are described in the
following sub headings:

Housing Management
Various buildings are constructed at a livestock farm which includes adult animal
houses, milking barn, calving pen, calf pen, young stock/ heifer shed, dry animal
shed, bull pen, isolation shed, quarantine shed and accessory buildings like general
store room, milk room, feed store and hay or straw shed.
90 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

Appropriate housing that promotes excellent health and high welfare for different
livestock species is an essential aspect of sustainable animal production. Animals
too need shelter which can protect them from vagaries of seasons, parasites and
other stray animals and which are conducive to good health and comfort. Livestock
may be successfully housed in a wide variety of condition, ranging from close
confinement to little restrictions except at milking time. The floor and manager
requirement of dairy animal is given in table 1 below:

Table 1: Floor space requirement of animals

Types of animal Floor space per animal (sq. ft.)
Covered area Open area Manger length per animal (Inches)

Cows 20-30 80-100 20-24

Buffaloes 25-35 80-100 24-30

Young stock 15-20 50-60 15-20

Pregnant animals 100-120 180-200 24-30

Bulls 120-140 200-250 24-30

There are two types of housing systems for animals:

a) Loose housing: In this type of housing animals are kept loose in an open
paddock except at the time of milking and treatment. A shed is constructed
along one side so that animals can be provided with shelter during very hot, cold
or rainy day. Cost of construction of such system is cheaper and future expansion
is possible. The animals have chance to move freely so that they will get sufficient
exercise. If required 10-15 percent more animals can be accommodated,
however, for shorter period.

In this system, common feeding and watering arrangement is possible. Clean

milk production is also possible because the animals are milked in a separate milking
barn. Some of the disadvantages of this system are that loose housing is not suitable
for colder and heavy rainfall areas. It requires more floor space and there is
competition for feed. Attention of individual animal is not possible. A separate milking
barn is needed for milking of animals.

b) Conventional barn: These barns are completely covered with roofs and the
side walls are provided with windows or ventilator located at suitable places to
get more ventilation and lighting. In this system of housing, the animals are
confined and secured at neck chain. The animals are fed as wells as milked in
Management of Livestock Farm 91

the same barn. It is applicable for temperate and heavy rainfall region. The
advantages of this system are that exposure to harsh environment is minimum
and individual care can be given. Separate milking barn is not required. But this
type of housing is very costlier and also future expansion is difficult. It is not
suitable for hot and humid climatic conditions.

Cleaning and proper sanitation of animal housing is necessary to eliminate all

micro-organism that are capable of causing disease in the animals and to avoid
contamination of the milk for hygienic production. The floor should be clean and dry
as far as possible to avoid injury from slip. Removal of dung, urine and liquid waste
not only help in decreasing bad smell but it also restrict growth and multiplication of
flies and other insects that spread deadly diseases to the animals eg. Babesiosis,
Theileriosis etc. All of dung and used straw bedding should be disposed and animal
house should be washed with liberal use of tap water. Feed and fodder left over in
the manger should be removed daily. Periodical cleaning of water troughs eliminates
the growth of algae, bacterial and viral contaminations and thus keeps the animal
healthy.

Disinfection of animal sheds means making these free from disease producing
bacteria and is mainly-carried out by sprinkling chemical agents such as bleaching
powder, Iodine and lodophor, sodium carbonate, washing soda, Slaked Lime (Calcium
hydroxide), Quick Lime (Calcium oxide) and phenol. Sunlight is the most potent and
powerful sanitizer which destroys most of the disease producing organism, therefore
door and windows should be kept open during day time.

Nutritional management
The animals need nutrition for maintenance of their body functions and also for
production. The feed contains carbohydrates, protein, fat, mineral, vitamins and
water. Feeding a balanced diet; avoiding over feeding and providing abundant supplies
of cool and clean water will help to optimize feed and nutrient use on an animal
farm. The amount of nutrients required by an animal depends on the species, sex,
age, physiological stage and the production levels of the animals. Animals are fed
with dry roughage, green fodder and concentrate based on their body weight as per
requirements. Supplementation of diet with mineral mixture is also essential. It is
necessary to feed animals as per feeding schedule. Negligence in feeding may
aggravate the productive or reproductive problems.

Feeding after birth till maturity

The nutritional management starts right from birth of calf. A calf after birth
should be fed colostrum within 2 hours and be sure to feed the calf enough of
colostrum between 2 to 2.5 liters daily for the first 3-4 days following its birth.
92 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

Colostrum provides antibodies, which are absorbed intact in the first few days of
the calf’s life. Milk replacer is fed to calves from 10 days after birth. Most of the 3
months old calves, irrespective of birth weight have their rumen developed for
microbial fermentation. It may not therefore be necessary to feed milk or milk
replacers at this age because of high cost of feedings. Calf starters containing 22
per cent digestible crude protein (DCP) and 72 percent total digestible nutrients
(TDN), may be fed from 3 months onwards. High quality calf starter is necessary
along with adequate quantity of minerals and vitamins. The calves after weaning
should be kept in separate stalls up to a minimum period of 3 months to eliminate the
suckling instinct.

Feeding of pregnant cows

Feeding during gestation is based on body weight and growth of foetus. First
and second time pregnant cows need special attention as they gain in body weight
and fetal dry weight increase exponentially. In last three months of pregnancy foetus
growth is higher, so allowances are given for foetus growth also. Good quality
legume hay, concentrate mixture of grains, cakes and by-products in equal parts
may be given in required quantities. A week before calving, bulky and laxative
concentrate mixture should be fed.

Feeding after calving

The cow needs a small amount of feed during the first day of calving. Some
hay or silage will be sufficient. From the next day a concentrate mixture0.5 kg per
animal can be fed and full quantity should be resumed in a week. The degree of
energy deficit during first few weeks after calving is closely correlated with the
interval of first estrus, conception rate of first service, service per conception.

Feeding of lactating cows

Plenty of good quality hay is best for dairy cows. When good quality hay is not
available, succulent fodder or silage can be fed. The quantity of concentrate feeding
depends upon the quality of roughages fed or the pasture on which the animals are
grazed. Generally beyond certain level of production, which is sustained by the
roughage component itself, for every additional kg of milk, about 0.45 kg of
concentrate mixture may be needed. The protein level in the mixture varies from 15
to 20 per cent depending upon the protein content in the roughage feed. The
requirements of protein and energy can be met according to any systems of feeding
as shown in the example given below in table 2:
Management of Livestock Farm 93

Table 2: Requirements of cow weighing 400 kg (10 kg milk)

Requirements Dry matter Digestible Crude Total Digestible Metabolite Energy
(DM) (kg) Protein (DCP) Nutrient (TDN) (ME) (Mcal)
(kg) (kg)

Maintenance 6.0 0.25 3.0 10.8

Production 3.2 0.50 3.7 13.8

(DCP 0.05 kg/kg milk
TDN 0.37 kg/kg milk
ME 1.38 Mcal/kg)
Total 9.2 0.75 6.7 24.6

Following points should always be kept in mind for feeding of animals:

● Use feed ingredients high in nutrient availability so that nutrients present in

feedstuffs are readily available and utilized by the animal.
● Remove spill or waste feed as it is often wet, covered with saliva and will spoil
and rot if left in manger.
● Monitor feed, forage and water quality to ensure the adequate consumption of
un-contaminated feeds and water. Toxins in the feed or water may also influence
animal production. For example, during a drought year, forage quality will often
decline, and toxins such as nitrates may be taken up from the soil by plants and
influence animal production. Likewise, some oil cakes may contain aflatoxin, a
liver damaging compound secreted by molds infecting the feed. Feed additives
and supplements like mineral mixture, hormones and antibiotics should be used
as prescribed on the label, or under the care of a veterinarian. Examples of
additives are products like monensin or bovatec, which affect fermentation in
the bovine rumen and improve performance and feed efficiency. Hormones
such as anabolic implants and steroids that improve production performance
and growth rate and antibiotics, which when used properly in the diet, can
result in improved feed efficiencies and health.

Reproduction Management
Future of any livestock farm depends on the progeny produced, thus management
of reproduction is very important which involves following points:

● A female calf should be inseminated when she has acquired minimum body
weight e.g. in case of crossbred cows if body weight is above 250 kg then it is
fit for breeding.
94 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

● Heat detection of breedable female animals should be done regularly and with
utmost care. If oestrus signs are observed in the morning, then inseminate the
animal in the evening. If oestrus signs are observed in evening, then insemination
should be carried out at next day morning.
● Generally Artificial insemination (A.I.) is practiced for large animals like cow
and buffalo. Semen should be collected from disease free bulls or if procured
from outside agency, the agency should be certified by Central Monitoring Unit
(CMU) of Government of India.
● Frozen semen should always be stored in liquid nitrogen containers and semen
straws should be taken from the container just before use.
● If natural service is done, e.g. in case of sheep and goat, then it should be
ensured that the male are free from diseases.
● Insemination should be done as per breeding plan of the farm and proper AI /
service records should be maintained.
● Once the animal has been declared pregnant, special care for feeding etc. must
be ensured and expected date of calving should be noted.
● Reproductive rest of 45 – 90 days after calving should be given before AI.

Health Management
Good animal husbandry starts with proper health care and management.
Livestock production is greatly affected by diseases. Proper knowledge of these
diseases is a must to plan and organize effective animal health-care. So, every
livestock manager should note the following precautions to maintain health of animals:

● Isolate sick animals from healthy animals such that transmission of infection
does not occur and where necessary, cull diseased (if incurable) animals.
● Keep newly arrived animals separate from resident stock for an appropriate
period to monitor them for diseases and infections. Avoid overcrowding in the
house.
● Ensure that equipments and instruments used in animal husbandry are
suitably cleaned and disinfected between each use.
● Dispose off dead animals at the earliest so that other animals cannot come into
contact with carcasses.
● Get accurate and early disease diagnosis by qualified veterinarian.
● Avoid unnecessary medication.
● Eliminate ticks, lice, mites and control predatory animals.
Management of Livestock Farm 95

● Consider droppings as potential source of diseases. Keep the animal house

clean and dry.
● Keep the feed and water uncontaminated.
● Ensure periodic vaccination.
● Maintain record of incidence of diseases and treatment given.
● Ensure that people working with animals are properly experienced and
trained for the tasks they perform and follow good hygienic practices .
● Ensure that facilities and equipments are properly designed and maintained
to prevent physical injury.
● Ensure that animals are handled and transported appropriately.

Seasonal Management
The changes in climate are a regular phenomenon and it is very important to
protect animals from extreme weather conditions.

Summer Season: Heat stress can severely impact both production and
reproduction. Very high environmental temperature can result in heat stress. Common
sign of heat stress are increased body temperature (> 102.6o F), panting (>80 breaths/
minute), laziness, weary, sharp decrease in feed intake (10 to 15%) and milk
production (10 to 20%), and adverse effect on reproductive performance of animals.
To prevent heat stress, following steps should be considered:

● Animals should not be exposed to direct sun.

● Windows and ventilators should remain open.
● Use exhaust fans, mister, showers etc. so as to keep ambient temperature low.
● Abundant drinking water is needed due to greater consumption during hot
weather.
● Ration formulation can be used to minimize heat production potential of the diet
through the use of grains, fats, and high-quality forage.
● Adequate high-quality fiber must be used to maintain rumen function and cow
health.
● Ration energy can be increased by using grains and other highly fermentable
carbohydrates.
● Ration protein content and quality must be altered with heat stress. Excess
degradable protein can have negative effects on intake and efficiency.
96 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

● Mineral content (especially potassium, sodium, magnesium) should be increased.

Other elements and vitamins should be adjusted to offset reduced feed intake.

Winter season: Care for livestock in cold climates requires some attention to
those basic needs like water, food and shelter so that animals can cope with the
additional physical stress of winter. Providing adequate water, appropriate feed
amounts and some shelter from wind, cold rains or wet snow will ensure that the
animals handle winter conditions with no ill effects.

Water is the first essential nutrient and adequate water intake is just as critical
in winter as it is in hot weather. To ensure adequate intake, water should be above
40C so some type of heating system is recommended. Animals should always receive
proper feed adjusted for their production needs, but in winter, it is especially critical
to have adequate amounts available and replaced on a regular schedule, since food
is the “fuel” that keeps the metabolic fires going. For livestock that primarily eat
forages, extra rations of grain are less effective than having a sufficient supply of
good quality forages such as alfalfa or grass hay available at all times, since fiber
digestion produces body heat for these types of livestock.

Proper bedding should be provided to the animals and make sure it is kept as
clean and dry as possible. Any animal that is shivering needs additional warmth, but
very hypothermic (cold) animals will often stop shivering and need immediate
attention. Avoid large temperature changes (from very cold to very warm) as these
conditions can cause pneumonia.

Rainy season: During this phase of the year environmental humidity is very high
and chances of feed getting moldy are also very high. This reduces the quality of
the feed and other forages resulting in poor intake by animals and high toxicity due
to aflatoxins etc. Therefore store animal feeds in a dry place. Animals need dry
bedding material for resting because wet, damp or soiled bedding contributes to
health problems. Animals still need water during this period and chances of water
contamination are more during this weather. Due to damp conditions, bacterial
multiplication is high during such times and cows are likely to get teat diseases.
Each time the cow leaves the milking parlour, ensure the teats are dipped in a teat
dip and dried.

Product management
Milk is the main product from a dairy farm, produced basically as food for
human consumption. A farm manager must therefore aim at maximizing on milk
output and at the same time he must ensure that milk is produced in clean and
hygienic conditions so that it is fit for human consumption. Milk is a very good
media for bacterial and other micro-organisms development. As such, disease hazard
Management of Livestock Farm 97

in public can easily be predisposed by infected milk during production, handling and
marketing. Dirty milk also has will have short self-life. Some of the precautions to
be observed during milking are as follows:

● Check for mastitis with a strip cup or any other method.

● Isolate sick animals and milk them last (Their milk should not be mixed with
good milk).
● Wash udder, teats and flank of the animal with clean water preferably add a
disinfectant. Wipe with a clean cloth.
● Always groom and cut the hair around the udder.
● Dispose fore-milk tie tails of troublesome animals when milking. Milker should
be healthy and clean. Their finger nails should be trimmed. Cover their heads
when milking as guard to falling hair. Avoid smoking during milking time.
● Milking area should be located away from bad smells and odours and It should
be cleaned after every milking.
● Use seamless utensils preferably aluminum or stainless steel. Use cans, sufurias
or metal buckets in milking.
● Scrub with a brush using hot water mixed with a detergent e.g. soap or detergent
and rinse with cold water and place the utensils to dry on a rack upside down
during the day.
● Utensils should be stored at night in a safe and clean place, which is well
ventilated. Do not excite the animals.
● Regularize milking intervals.
● Squeeze the teat and do not pull. All milk should be got from the udder i.e. avoid
incomplete milking. Use a teat dip after milking.
● Filter immediately after milking and use a white filter cloth.
● Disinfect, wash and dry the filter cloth after use.
● Store milk in cool and clean place.

Waste management
A lot of dung and urine are generated in an animal farm. The disposal of these
is a tough challenge. Effective animal waste management demands that waste
generated must be disposed off as infections, can spread through dung. It will also
be used by various flies and insects as a place to lay their eggs. The most common
environmental concern with animal wastes is adverse effects on the atmospheric
98 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

air with offensive odors and release of large quantities of methane which might
contribute to the greenhouse effect.

Proper disposal and returning of nutrients back in the soil without pollution and
spreading of diseases/pathogens is required for efficient utilization of wastes on
large farms. There are many uses of animal dung. It can be used to fertilize soil for
crops, can be dried and used for fires or may be mixed with clay to make building
materials. Animal manure is rich in nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. In addition
to providing supplemental nutrients for crop growth, manure has several beneficial
effects on soil properties. Utilization of these nutrients by proper technique is highly
desirable for efficient utilization of the animal wastes. Some of the techniques used are:

● Composting and vermicomposting

● Biogas production (anaerobic fermentation).
● Use as fish feed in fish ponds.
● For growing algae (diluted slurry).

Water management
Water represents 60 to 70 per cent of the body weight and is essential for
animals in maintaining their vital physiological functions. Animals are heavily
dependent on water, the National Commission on Integrated Water Resources
Development (1999) had suggested that the direct watering requirement of livestock
is about 5 billion cubic meters a year based on a norm of 18-30 litres per caput per
day. Therefore, when water requirement of livestock is poorly managed, it will pose
a heavy tax on water resources and also contribute to the degradation and
contamination of water bodies. Water-use in a livestock system is for three purposes:

I. Drinking water : Livestock need water as all living beings for mere survival.
II. Embedded water : Water is used for growing feeds and fodders for the
livestock.
III. Service water : Water is necessary for various farm-operations viz. take
cleaning etc.

The dairy waste management system should be designed to reuse waste water
through irrigation thus to utilize flushed manure nutrients for growing fodder crops
etc. If used water is properly channelized for irrigation and water amounts are
small in relation to irrigation needs for crop production, then liberal use of water for
cow washing, cow cooling, and manure flushing is not a problem. For some farms it
might make sense to consider constructing storage structures for holding waste
water until it is needed for irrigation.
Management of Livestock Farm 99

Animal welfare
There must be reasonable expectation that research involving animals will
contribute significantly to present and future knowledge, which may eventually lead
to the protection and improvement of the health and welfare of either humans or
animals. Any animal research project implies a potential violation ethical norms and
values. However, experimentation on animals is covered by provisions of the
Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, 1960 and Breeding of and Experiments on
Animals (Control & Supervision) Rules of 1998, 2001 and 2006 framed under the
Act. These are enforced by the Committee for the Purpose of Control and Supervision
of Experiments on Animals (CPCSEA), a statutory body under the Prevention of
Cruelty to Animals Act, 1960. Under these provisions, the concerned establishments
are required to get themselves registered with CPCSEA, form Institutional Animals
Ethics Committee (IAEC), get their Animal House Facilities inspected, and also get
specific projects for research cleared by CPCSEA before commencing the research
on animals.

Further, breeding and trade of animals for such experimentation are also
regulated under these rules. no establishment shall perform any experiment on animals
unless it is registered. In an amendment bought out in 2006 in the Rules for Breeding
of and Experiments on Animals (Control & Supervision), powers to permit
experiments on small animals were given to Institutional Animal Ethics Committee
(IAEC) of the establishments. Only proposals for conducting experiments on large
animals are required to be sent to CPCSEA for approval.

CONCLUSION
Livestock management is the practice of efficient, productive, and ethical care-
taking of any agriculture related animal. It has a long chain of activities, involving
the combination and co-ordination of human, physical and financial resources in a
way of uplifting animal production performance. There are many different aspects
that are involved in proper livestock management such as proper feed rations, correct
dosages of medicine, intelligent breeding practices, adequate living conditions, etc.
There are many practices that are used throughout livestock production such as
heat detection, artificial insemination, rotational grazing, castration, weaning,
supplementing rations, and administering medicine. For efficient livestock
management, the utmost care must be taken on all these aspects for obtaining the
desired output.

SUGGESTED READINGS
Banerjee G C. 2008. A Textbook of Animal Husbandry. IBH [Oxford] Publishing
Company, New Delhi.
100 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

Dhama P S. 2011. Handbook of Animal Husbandry. Indian Council of Agricultural

Research, New Delhi.
Moran J. 2005. Tropical Dairy Farming: Feeding Management for Small Holder
Dairy Farmers in Humid Tropics. Landlinks Press, Collingwood, Austria.
Ranjhan S K and Pathak N N. 1993. Textbook on Buffalo Production. Vikas
Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
 Chapter 9

Breeding, Feeding and Health Care Management in

Poultry
S. Malik

It is believed that the Indian Poultry Industry is 5,000 years old. Since last four
decades it has witnessed remarkable growth from backyard to commercial poultry
industry. India, with poultry population of 729.21 million (2012) and estimated more
than 74,752 million eggs production (2013-2014), ranks among the top three countries
in egg production. The total poultry meat production of the country is 1.917 million
tonnes (2013-2014) and India ranks 5th in broiler production in the world. The per
annum growth rate of poultry industry is 10-15 per cent in broiler and 5-7 per cent
in layers. Broiler chicken industry has now occupied the second place in volume in
the world just after pork. The chicken meat represents 25 per cent of total meat
production from farm animals.

If we compare the performance of broiler production between 1953 and 2012,

the market age reduced from 80 days to 40 days and feed efficiency improved
from 3.52 to 1.70 kg feed per kg body weight. Meanwhile there is marked
improvement in body weight from 1.52 to 2.25 kg. In case of egg production, there
is vast improvement during this period. The per annum egg production of white
leghorn recorded 340 eggs. Considering the availability, the per capita per annum
availability of poultry meat and eggs were 190 g and 5 eggs, respectively in 1950-
51, which has now increased to 1.56 kg. poultry meat and 61 eggs in 2013-2014,
respectively.

But still we are far behind from the recommendation of Nutritional Advisory
Committee of Indian Council of Medical Research (11.0 kg poultry meat and 180
eggs per capita per annum). Moreover, India’s 75 per cent of egg produce is
consumed by the 25 per cent population living in urban and semi-urban areas. The
improvement in egg production and broiler performance was achieved by the
continuous effort through applied research in breeding, nutrition and health sector.

POULTRY BREEDS AND VARIETIES

A. Egg Purpose
(i) Commercial: White leghorn breed and its different strains / varieties developed
by public and private sector can be used for commercial egg production. The
102 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

age at sexual maturity of White leghorn is 140 days and on average its egg
production is 320 eggs in a laying year.
(ii) Backyard System: The improved layer varieties have the potential of producing
160-200 eggs in a laying year at the organized farm conditions and 140-170
eggs in a laying year in free range conditions. The birds have on average 1.5-
2.0 kg body weight in females and 2.5-3.5 kg. body weight in males. The major
varieties developed for egg production by different Institutes/Organizations are:
Gramapriya, Krishna J., CARI Gold, CARI Nirbheek, CARI Shyama, CARI
Hitcari, Gramalaxmi and Kalinga Brown.

B. Meat Purpose
(i) Commercial: Broiler hybrids developed by private sector are available for
commercial broiler production. These strains/varieties can achieve 2.25 kg body
weight in 40 days with feed efficiency 1.7 kg feed per kg body weight. The
import varieties under commercial production are Vencobb-100, Vencobb– 400
and Saguna broiler
(ii) Backyard System: The varieties developed for meat purpose have the potential
to gain 1.40-1.60 kg. body weight in 8 weeks of age in semi intensive conditions
but the dual purpose varieties may gain only 1.20-1.40 kg. body weight during
the same period. The varieties developed for meat and dual purpose by different
Institutes/Organization are: Vanaraja, Krishi- Bro, CARI Dhanaraja, CARI
Devendra, Giriraja, Swarndhara, Nandanam – 1 & 2, Kuroiler, Satpuda Deshi.

STORAGE OF FERTILE EGGS

The temperature for holding fertile eggs before incubation varies between 10-
21°C. At very low and very high temperature, the eggs do not hatch well.

HATCHING OF EGGS
Hatching is the production of chicks from fertile eggs. In chicken hatching
period is 21 days. Hatching of fertile eggs can be done in two ways:

(i) Natural hatching: When the fertile eggs are placed under the broody hen, the
bird provide heat from her body to the eggs. The eggs also get humidity (moisture)
from nest as well as from the soil and oxygen from the air. Birds have natural
instinct for rearranging (turning) of eggs to make certain that they are well
covered and uniformly getting temperature. The native (desi) hens are excellent
for this purpose. This method is suitable only for small scale chick production
because one hen can hatch only 10-15 eggs at a time.
Breeding, Feeding and Health Care Management in Poultry 103

(ii) Artificial hatching: By this method, incubators are used for hatching of eggs.
Incubators are more efficient and suitable for large scale chick production. In
incubators system the total incubation and hatching period is divided into two
parts. The first period is called incubation period, which is 18 days and second
period is called incubation and hatching period, which is 3 days long. The
requirements of temperature and humidity for both the periods are slightly
different. For successful hatching four factors are very important, viz.
Temperature, Humidity, Gaseous environment and turning of eggs.

INCUBATION
The temperature in incubation period is maintained in between 99.5 – 100.5ºF
(37.5 to 38.00C). Very high or low temperatures reduce hatchability by increasing
embryonic mortality, weak and deformed chicks. The relative humidity should be
60 per cent during incubation period. Dry and wet bulb thermometers are used to
determine humidity. The reading of the wet bulb should be around 85.

The oxygen concentration should be 21 per cent, which is generally available in

normal air. More or less oxygen concentration decreases hatchability. On average
the CO2 concentration should not go beyond 0.5 per cent. The oxygen and CO2
concentrations are maintained by proper ventilation and exhaust system in the
incubator and hatcher. Turning of the eggs should be done at least 4 times in a day.
Turning of eggs is essential during incubation in order to improve hatchability.

HATCHING
The eggs are transferred to a separate machine called Hatcher during this
period. The eggs with live embryos are only transferred to the hatcher. The
temperature of the hatcher is maintained at 980F (37.00C) and relative humidity
between 70- 80 per cent. The oxygen and CO2 requirement is same as in the case
of incubation period. The turning of eggs is not required during this stage.

For small scale chick production, machines are available in which incubation
and hatching (21 days) can be performed in the same machine. Eggs are set in
upper trays for incubation during first 18 days and shifted in lower trays during the
last three days for hatching. However, hatchability is slightly lower in comparison to
separate incubator and hatcher.

CANDLING OF INCUBATED EGGS

The eggs should be candled on 7th day to remove infertile eggs and on 18th day
to remove dead germs. Candling is performed in dark room using Egg Candler
fitted with electric bulb, and according to behaviour of light, the eggs can be classified
into fertile and infertile eggs as follows:
104 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

Transparent eggs - Infertile eggs

Translucent eggs - Dead germ
Opaque eggs - Live embryo
The eggs with only live embryos should be transferred into the hatcher machine.

BROODING OF CHICKS
Brooding is the care and management of new born chicks for successful rearing
without hen. During this initial phase of brooding, young chicks can not regulate
their body temperature, so they require artificial heat to sustain body temperature.
The young chicks needs shelter /brooder house upto 6 weeks of age to save from
predators viz. crow, rats, snake, fox, stray dog and raccoon. Brooder house should
be separate from other houses. There should be adequate ventilation in the brooder
house to maintain the balance of oxygen and carbon dioxide. Adequate care should
be taken to avoid direct and chilled wind of high speed.

Brooder house should be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected with a disinfectant

solution (Kohrosolin/Phenyle) much before arrival of chicks. All the equipments,
feeders, waterers and hovers should be thoroughly cleaned and kept in working
order. Poultry diseases are highly contagious and therefore, movement of workers
should be restricted in brooder house. There should be 2-3 inches thick layer of dry
saw dust/rice husk or other locally available material in the brooder house. The
moisture of the litter should be between 20-25 per cent as higher moisture may
create ammonia problem which cause ill effect on chicks.

Optimum temperature of brooder house maintains good growth rate and reduce
mortality in chicks. The starting temperature should be 350C during the first week
and it should reduce 50C per week during the successive week till 210C. The heat
source of 2 watts /chick is adequate upto 6 weeks of age. The season of brooding
also define the requirement of heat. Monitoring of chicks’ behaviour is also very
essential. If the temperature is higher than required, the chicks will stay away from
the source of heat; if it is lower the chicks come closer to the source of heat.
Brooders should be warmed for up 24 hours before the chicks’ arrival. The chick guard
may be prepared by locally available material. The per chick brooder space is 45-65
cm2.
Table 1: Floor, Feeder and Drinker space of different categories of chicken.
Particulars Chick Grower Adult

Floor space ½ -1.0 ft2 2.25 ft2 3.25 ft2

Feeder space (linear cm) 2.5-6.50 6.5-10.0 14 .0
Drinker space (linear cm) 0.50-1.50 1.50-2.50 2.50
Breeding, Feeding and Health Care Management in Poultry 105

NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS OF POULTRY

(i) Average per day requirements of feed and water for the birds
The average per day requirements of feed and water of different age groups of
birds are mentioned in the table 2. If birds will not provided water for two days, the
birds start moulting and cease egg production. The quantities mentioned in table
may be slightly varying according to season and breed / variety of birds.
Table 2: Average per day requirements of feed and water.
Age (Weeks) Amount of Water/ 100 birds (L) Feed consumption/ bird (g)
0-4 2.8-4.0 6-30

5-8 12-14 32-50

9-12 20-25 55-70

13-16 35-40 70-80

16 -20 45-50 80-100

20 and above - do - 100-150

(ii) Feeding requirements of Poultry

The ISI requirements of chicken feeds of different categories of birds are
presented in table 3. Feeding balanced feed is essential, because when feeds lacks
essential protein type, minerals and vitamins, much more will be eaten, and much
less will be produced.

ENERGY SOURCES
The energy sources are used in feed at the levels of about 50-70 percent.
Moreover, they also add about 25-35per cent of total protein requirement of poultry.
All the monocotyledon crops are the good source of energy. The major energy
sources are Maize, Barley, Rice, Rice polish, deoiled rice polish, Oat, Wheat, Wheat
Bran, Pearl millet, Sorghum, Sal seed, Broken/Damaged food grains, Tapioca meal,
Hominy fees, dried poultry waste, molasses, Mango seed kernel and small millets.

Yellow maize is the major source of carotene (precursor of vitamin A) and

xanthophylls, a pigment deposited in broilers and egg yolk. Due to fibre and manganese
in oats, mixing of oats in the feeds reduces the incidence of cannibalism, feather
picking and hock disorders. Wheat bran is excellent source of manganese, iron and
a good source of riboflavin, pantothenic acid, choline, niacin and thiamine. Germ-
free caged layer droppings can be used as feed ingredient for poultry. It is high in
calcium and phosphorus and has about 10-12per cent of protein.
106 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

Table 3: ISI requirements of chicken feeds

Particulars Broiler Starter Broiler Finisher Layer chick starter Grower Layer
(0-5 weeks) (6-9 weeks) (0-6 weeks) (7-20 (21-80
weeks) weeks)

Energy (Kcl/Kg) 2900 3000 2700 2700 2800

Protein (%) 22.0 19.0 22.0 16.0 18.0

Crude Fibre (%) 6.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 8.0

Calcium (%) 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.75

Available 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5

phosphorus (%)
* Mineral mixture and vitamin mixture as per ISI.

Fats as Energy Source

Mutton fat, Beef tallow, lard and edible oils @ 3-8 per cent included in the
ration are used as source of fat for poultry.

Protein Sources
The protein of the feed supplies amino acids to the body. The quality of the
protein of particular ingredient is dependent on the composition of amino acids in
the ingredient. So the amino acids are divided into two groups viz. essential amino
acids and nonessential amino acids. The maximum protein synthesis occurs, when
all the essential amino acids are present in the feed in proper proportions as required
for growth and production. The excess of the amino acids goes waste as the amino
acids are not stored in the body.

Vegetable Protein Sources

All the dicotyledonous crops (mainly pulses and oilseeds) are the good source
of protein. Soybean cake, Ground nut cake, Mustard cake, Cotton seed cake, Maize
gluten meal, Maize gluten feed, Cluster bean meal, Sesame meal, Sunflower meal,
Ram til cake, Linseed meal and Penicillin mycelium waste are some of the sources
of vegetable protein.

Animal Protein Sources

Fish meal, Meat meal, Meat cum bone meal, blood meal, liver residue meal,
hatchery by product meal, feather meal and silk worm pupae meal are the sources
of animal protein.
Breeding, Feeding and Health Care Management in Poultry 107

The animal protein sources contain higher levels of limiting amino acids (lysine
and methionine) than vegetable protein sources. The animal protein sources are
good source of calcium and phosphorus and supply vitamin B12 through natural
sources. Fish meal is chief source of all the required amino acids and good source
of riboflavin, pantothenic acid, choline, vitamin B12, calcium and phosphorus.

MINERAL SUPPLEMENTS
Oyster shell meal (38per cent Calcium), Bone meal, Ground limestone (Calcium)
and Di-calcium phosphate are good sources of mineral supplements. Salts should
be given only in required amount as, too much can become poison for poultry.

UPPER LIMIT (PER CENT) OF FEED INGREDIENTS USED IN

POULTRY RATIONS
For formulating low cost ration, one should know how much maximum an
ingredient can be mixed in the poultry ration. By this way costly feed ingredient
may be avoided by using cheap locally available feed ingredients without hampering
the production level.
Table 4: Upper limit of different feed ingredients
Ingredients Chicks-/ Ingredients Chicks-/
Growers/ Growers/
layers layers
Energy Sources: Vegetable protein sources:

Maize 60 Groundnut cake/ Soybean meal 40

Wheat/ Pearl millet 50 Groundnut cake (Deoiled)/ Safflower 20
cake/ Linseed meal/ Maize gluten
meal/feed

Rice Polish 40 Mustard cake 10

Sorghum (White)/ Barley 20-40 Cotton seed meal 5

Tapioca meal 25 Animal protein Sources:

Rice polish (Deoiled) 20 Fish meal 15

Oats 10-20 Liver residue meal 10

Wheat bran 10-15 Meat meal 5-10

Poultry manure meal 10 Silk worm pupae meal/ Meat cum 6

bone meal
108 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

Ingredients Chicks-/ Ingredients Chicks-/

Growers/ Growers/
layers layers

Molasses/Salseed meal 5-10 Blood meal/ Feather meal/ Poultry / 5

(deoiled) hatchery by product meal
Fats as Energy Sources:

Mutton fat, Beef tallow, 3-8

lard and edible oils

SUGGESTED RATIONS FOR LAYERS AND BROILERS

Some of the suggested rations for egg type and meat type chickens are given
below.

Table 5: Suggested rations for Layers

Ingredients Starter Grower Layer
(kg/100 kg body weight) (0-6 weeks) (7-20 weeks) (above 20 weeks)
1 2 1 2 1 2

Maize 10.0 44.10 27.0 — 35.0 20.0

Broken Rice 38.0 — — 41.0 — 25.0

Rice polish — 18.0 40.0 40.0 30.0 30.0

Wheat bran — 6.80 15.0 — 3.30 —

Rice bran (deoiled) 8.1 — — — — —
Groundnut cake 40.0 6.0 5.0 11.0 10.0 10.0
Maize gluten meal — 6.0 5.0 — 10.0 —
Mustard cake — 6.0 — — — —
Fish meal/fish offal 2.50 12.0 6.0 6.0 4.0 5.0
Meat meal — — — — — 6.0
Bone meal 1.60 2.0
Lime stone — — 0.60 1.0 5.0 1.0
Methionine 0.06 — — — — —
Choline chloride 0.06 — — — — —
Antibiotic & coccidiostat 0.10 — — — — —
Breeding, Feeding and Health Care Management in Poultry 109

Ingredients Starter Grower Layer

(kg/100 kg body weight) (0-6 weeks) (7-20 weeks) (above 20 weeks)
1 2 1 2 1 2

Salt 0.45 0.50 0.80 0.50 0.50 0.50

*Minerals Mixture. 0.68 0.56 0.50 0.40 0.50 0.40
*Vit. premix 0.05 0.04 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10
* Mineral mixture and vitamin mixture as per ISI.

1. Broken Rice, deoiled rice bran or broken rice can be mixed in place of maize as
a principle source of energy upto 80 per cent.
2. Groundnut meal can be replaced with Til cake (100%), sunflower (100%) or
mustard (50%).
3. Rice polish can be replaced with rubber seed cake, tapioca or mango kernel
cake.
4. Rice bran (deoiled) can be replaced upto half with by - products from pineapple
pulp, banana peel, tea garden waste, cabbage waste, jack bean, apple waste,
orange pulp.

VACCINATION AND HEALTH MANAGEMENT

The vaccination of birds is very essential to save the birds from deadly viral
diseases because there is no curative medicine for viral diseases. The vaccination
schedule in poultry is mentioned in table7.

MEDICATION AND DEBEAKING SCHEDULE

Regular monitoring and deworming of birds for internal parasites is very
important due to scavenging nature of birds, which exposes them to internal parasites.
Debeaking of birds is not required in rural poultry production. The beak helps in
foraging and scavenging of insect etc. in the backyard of the farmer. But in case of
more birds (100-200 or more) with the farmers, the birds may start cannibalism or
may start eating eggs also. Therefore, debeaking of birds in this case may be
performed. Deworming is also essential for the flock to avoid any adverse affect
on their growth and production performance.

DIRECTION FOR MINIMIZING LOSS FROM DISEASES

(i) Keeping fresh and clean drinking water in plenty in the backyard is most essential.
(ii) Chicks should be procured from reliable source and from disease free flock.
110 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

Table 6: Suggested rations for Broilers

Ingredients Starter (0-5 weeks) Finisher (6-20 weeks)
(kg/100 kg body weight) 1 2 1 2

Maize 14.0 49.0 15.0 50.0

Broken Rice 30.0 — 40.0 —
Rice polish 10.0 — — 20.38
Rice bran (deoiled) — 8.21 — —
Groundnut cake 14.0 20.0 10.0 13.0
Sunflower cake 14.0 20.0 12.0 —
Animal fat 3.0 — — —
Fish meal/fish offal 10.0 — 10.0 10.0
Blood meal 3.18 — 1.30 —
Silk worm pupae meal (deoiled0 — — — 5.0
Bone meal 1.0 — 0.60 1.0
Limestone — — 0.60 —
Methionine 0.06 0.06 — —
Choline chloride 0.06 0.06 — 0.02
Antibiotic & Coccidiostat 0.10 0.10 — —
Salt 0.50 0.45 0.40 0.50
*Minerals & Vit. Mixture. 0.10 2.12 0.10 0.10
* Mineral mixture and Vitamin mixture as per ISI.

Table 7: Vaccination schedule

Age (days) Name of the Vaccine Dose Route of Administration
01 Marek’s disease (HVT strain) 0.2 ml Subcutaneous
4-7 New Castle disease (Ranikhet One drop Intraoccular/Intranasal
disease) - F1 / Lasota strain (Eye/nasal)
14 day Infectious Bursal disease One drop Intraoccular/Intranasal
(Gumboro) - MB strain (Eye/nasal)
35 day New Castle disease (Ranikhet 0.5 ml Subcutaneous
disease) – *R2B strain
42 day Fowl Pox 0.2 ml Wing web prick
*Repeat R2B at every 6 months interval.
Breeding, Feeding and Health Care Management in Poultry 111

Table 8: The debeaking and medication schedule

Age Programme

1- 4 days Antibiotic course, Electrolytes and Vitamins solution

5-8 days Probiotic course

9-15 days Vitamins solution

16-22 days Coccidiostate / Coximer

23-30 days Calcium supplements (Ascal / Vetkal)

31-42 days Liver tonics, first Debeaking

42-50 days First deworming

13-16 weeks Second Debeaking and second deworming

Growers and Adults Vitamins solution and Calcium supplements

(iii) Watch the birds at the morning on daily basis. If the birds show any abnormal
behaviour, e.g. not consuming feed and water or symptoms of any disease or
mortality, the affected bird should be immediately isolated from the other birds.
Prompt action should be taken to arrange treatment by Veterinary Surgeon.
The suggested medicine should be given to all the birds of the flock.
(iv) If any disease spread in the farm, keep the movement of the birds restricted.
Keep the shelter area clean and disinfected. Vaccinate the birds if the disease
is viral.
(v) Birds should be vaccinated and de-wormed at regular intervals as per the
direction of Veterinary Surgeon.
(vi) Different species of poultry like chickens, ducks, turkey, etc. should not be
kept in the same premises, but should be raised separately to avoid transmission
of diseases.
(vii)The litter should be kept dry and the houses should be ventilated.

CONCLUSION
Poultry still has good scope for development considering the gap in availability
and demand of the poultry products. For the sustainable development of poultry the
following steps are suggested. Firstly Breeding technologies should be used for the
development of the quality poultry products, not only the improvement in quantity.
Secondly, availability of poultry feed is major problem in some areas of the country
so formulations of cheaper balance ration using locally available feed ingredients
112 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

should be developed on regional basis. Thirdly, development of thermostable vaccines

for viral diseases in small doses particularly for Ranikhet disease is essential for
avoiding the cold chain system, which is difficult to maintain in the country.

SUGGESTED READINGS
Alalade O A and Iyayi F A. 2006. Chemical composition and the feeding value of
Azolla (Azolla pinnata) meal for egg type chicken. International Journal
of Poultry Sciences 5(2): 137-141.
Das K C Malik S Prabhakaran P and Kalita H C. 2005. Performance of broiler
chicken as affected by replacement of starter ration with mixed tree leaves
meal. International Journal of Poultry Sciences 40: 128-131.
Fasenko G M Robinson F E Danforth B L and Zelter I. 2000. An examination of
fertility, hatchability embryo mortality and chick weight in double verses single
yolked broiler breeder eggs. Canadian Journal of Poultry Sciences 80:
489-493.
Malik S and Singh N P. 2009. Strategy for sustainable rural poultry production in
NEH Region. (In) Food Security and Sustainable Agriculture. U-Day
Publishers and Advertisers, New Delhi. pp: 278-288.
Malik S. 2013. Rural Poultry Production: The need and strategy for sustainable
development. Westville Publishing House, New Delhi.
McArdle A A and Panda J N. 1970. A poultry guide for the villager. Department of
Agriculture, Ministry of Food and Agriculture, Government of India, New
Delhi.
Sonaiya E B. 1995. Feeding resources for small holder poultry in Nigeria. World
Animal Review 1: 25-33.
Viroji Rao S T. 2006. Research Priorities and Policy Options for Backyard Poultry
Development to 2020. Proceedings of National Seminar on Poultry
Research Priorities to 2020, 2-3 November 2006, CARI, Izatnagar. pp:
244-249.
 Chapter 10

Fish Pond Management

Peyush Punia and A.K. Prusty

The fisheries sector has been playing a very important role in the Indian economy
through employment generation, contribution to food and nutritional security, and
earning valuable foreign exchange through export. Fisheries sector in India is
undergoing a transformation and contributes to the livelihoods for large section of
economically underprivileged population of the country. The emerging production
technologies, higher economic growth, population explosion and sift in dietary pattern
are driving rapid growth in production and demand for food of animal origin. As per
the present reports the fisheries sector in India has recorded faster growth as
compared to the crop and livestock sector. However, due to various reasons the
spread of aquaculture has not been uniform in the country, it has spread extensively
in the eastern part of the country. Efforts should be made to spread it across the
country wherever the suitable endowments exist.

Though fish culture in ponds is known to be practiced in India, particularly in

the Eastern region, productions achieved by traditional methods are low except in
some cases where the fish farmer is fortunate enough to have supplies of treated
sewage for his ponds which helps in achieving larger fish yields. The average
production from freshwater fish ponds in India is estimated to be around 600 kg/ha/
yr. The fish production in experimental ponds has reached upto 10-15 t/ha/yr, while
on an average it is around 2 t /ha/yr in Fish Farmers Development Agencies (FFDA)
ponds. Though the modern technologies of fish culture are available in the country,
still the traditional methods of aquaculture are being followed in different parts of
the country.

PRINCIPLES OF MIXED FARMING COMPOSITE FISH CULTURE

Mixed farming of fishes is aimed at fuller utilization of pond productivity so that
high fish yields are resulted. Technology of mixed fish farming or multi-species
culture are the use of fast growing non-predatory food fishes which effectively
utilize food both the natural kind as well as supplementary fish food; use of non-
compatible species of fish so as to avoid serious competition between the different
verities; stocking optimum number of each kind of fish so that the different ecological
niches are adequately populated and exploited and contribute to the fullest strata-
wise fish production the increase of productive potential of the pond by stimulating
natural fish food production through fertilization and use of supplementary feeds to
114 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

provide adequate food for the large number of fish stocked to realize high yields.
Periodical harvesting is to be followed and then restocking the replenished stock
with same species and number harvested. The objective is not just attaining a large
fish crops but optimum production of marketable fish from ponds.

HOW TO START FISH CULTURE?

As we need land for the crops, the same way we need pond for fish culture. In
villages there are natural ponds of different types and sizes.

Selection of Natural Ponds

Fish ponds of 0.2 - 5.0 hectare ponds are suitable for carp culture but 0.4 ha
pond is ideal. Black / gray clayed soil is suitable for fish culture. The pond should be
free from flooding. The pond should be full of water throughout the year. There
should be nearby canal or water pump to replenish the loss of water due to seepage
and evaporation.

Repairing of Natural Ponds

Usually the natural ponds have drawbacks like eroded bunds, uneven bunds,
uneven bottom, non-existence of water inlets and outlets etc. To make the pond
bottom even there is need to remove the soil from raised portion of pond bottom and
deposit it in the low lying areas so that pond bottom is smooth. Dugged out soil can
be used to raise the height of the pond bund. Water inlet and outlet are to be provided.
Both inlet and outlet should be enclosed with small meshed nets to avoid the escape
of cultured fishes from pond and entrance of wild fishes from outside the ponds.

Construction of New Ponds

The success in carp culture and high production of table-size fish through carp
culture depend largely on the designing and construction of pond. The basic principle
involved in designing and construction of carp culture ponds are of very specialized
nature and vary from region to region depending upon several factors like topography,
soil type, water supply, etc.

Site selection
The site should have continuous water supply, electrical supply, roads, and cheap
availability of labour. An ideal site should be away from flood influence and at the
same time should not be far away from water resources. The selection of a suitable
site for construction of ponds for carp culture mainly depends upon the soil type, the
topography and water supply.
Fish Pond Management 115

The soil of a fish must retain water for which it should have enough clay to
make the pond water tight. The types of soil best suited for the pond are in general
impervious. These are clays, silty clays, clay loam etc. Porous (sandy or gravelly)
and peaty soils must be avoided as these will neither retain water nor permit
compaction.

The topography or surface features of the area proposed for construction of

ponds for carp culture should generally be flat or gently sloping towards the outlet.
The site should be so selected that the earth available by excavation should, as far
as practicable, balance with the earth required in filling or raising dykes (bunds).

A dependable source of water supply must be available near the site. There
should be enough water to fill the pond and maintain water level, which should not
fluctuate more than 60 cms. Equally important is the need for avoiding excess
water. The common water sources for carp culture pond are rivers, streams, springs,
canals and surface run off from rainfall. Any of these would be suitable provided
control of supply is possible and water is not contaminated.

Soil characteristics for fish culture

The soil characteristics at the selected site should be as follows:

a) Colour - Black/gray
b) Soil pH - 6.5 to 7.5
c) Water holding capacity - 60%
d) Sand - 40%
e) Silt - 30%
f) Clay - 30%
h) Available Nitrogen - 30 to 50 mg/100 g
i) Available Phosphorous - 6 to 16 mg/100 g

Water quality parameters

The physico- chemical characteristics of the pond water should be as follows:

a) Water temperature - 25 to 320C

b) Turbidity - less than 20 ppm
c) Total alkalinity - 75 to 150 ppm
d) Total hardness - 40 to 150 ppm
e) Dissolved Oxygen - 5 to 8 ppm
116 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

f) Nitrate - 0.2 ppm

g) Phosphate - 0.5 ppm

Designing of pond
While designing fish ponds the first step should be to study the survey report
and maps on the soil type, topography, water supply etc. The area of the pond
should be larger so that fishes will have larger run for a healthy growth. The width
of the pond should not normally exceed 40 m, so that relatively small net and limited
number of men would be sufficient to catch the fish. The area of pond should be 0.2
to 5.0 hectares but ideal pond should be of 0.4 hectare. Very large ponds are difficult
to manage particularly in controlling the overgrowth of weeds. It is better to have a
rectangular pond.

The slopes of the ponds and bunds may generally be 1½ : 1 (1½ horizontal: 1
vertical) to 2½: 1 (2 ½ horizontal: 1 vertical). The bottom of pond should be generally
slopping towards the outlet. For easy and complete draining of ponds, the pond
bottom should fall above the ground water table.

The free board above the water level to top of bund should be 0.9 to 1.0 metes
which will help in avoiding the flooding of pond. The width of pond bund on all sides
should be around 3 to 4 meters. Pond should have controlled inlet and outlet, so that
water can be filled in and drained out easily at will. The inlet and outlet should be
covered with small meshed netting to avoid the entrance of wild fishes and escaped
of cultured fishes.

Construction of pond
Once the designing is over it is necessary to prepare the detailed estimate of
the items of work to be carried out as per the design. The probable cost of
construction is to be estimated. As far as construction and supervision pond are
concerned, the following may be taken into consideration for achieving good results:

Construction time: The time to build a pond and to fill it with water is an important
point for pond management. The most desirable time to finish a pond construction is
late summer, so that the pond may be filled immediately by rain water during monsoon.
If a pond is built during winter or early summer and is not filled with water
immediately, weeds may grow and may cover pond bottom.

Preparation of site: Before construction of pond is started, the site should be

cleared by removing all trees, bushes etc. including their roots. No woody material
should be left because the same will eventually rot and may later produce leakage.
Fish Pond Management 117

Trees and bushes should be cut on the banks about 5 meters from the pond water
line to facilitate proper sunshine over the water area and leaves of the trees may
not fall in water.

Actual construction: After the clearance of the area, it is necessary to mark the
outline of the ponds and dykes. The excavation can be carried out either by manual
labour or by using bulldozer. If a bulldozer is used, final shaping should be given by
manual labour. The sides and bottom of the pond should be properly finished and
rammed to proper level as per blueprint and design. The dykes of the pond should
be strong enough to withstand weather action. For big ponds erosion of dykes is a
problem for which grass turfing is suggested.

Drainage arrangement

Suitable drainage arrangement should be provided so that whenever necessary,

the fish pond can be emptied and refilled. Installation of drain pipes with controlling
valves is also a convenient method for drainage of ponds. The drain pipe should be
installed at the lowest point of the pond so that the entire water can be let out. The
size of the drain pipe depends on the size of pond and volume of water running in
and out of the pond. Different types of pipes may be used of which, asbestos
cement, concrete spun pipes, cast iron pipes, etc. are of more common types.

MANAGEMENT OF STOCKING POND

Stocking pond management envisages the exploitation of pond space and
resources to the fullest advantage for the production of marketable fish per unit
area of water.

Management of Stocking Pond

Stocking pond management comprises the following stages:

a) Pre-stocking management.
b) Post-stocking management.

Pre-stocking management
The pond management should be completed one month before the stocking of
seed. Proper management practices of fish culture in the pond on scientific lines
enhance the fish production. The practices to be followed are as follows: (a) control
of noxious vegetation (b) removal of fish enemies and (c) fertilization, liming and
raking.
118 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

Control of noxious vegetation

Excessive weed growth can exert adverse effects on the pond with regards to
living space, sun light penetration, oxygen circulation, sheltering of fish enemies.
These water plants also extracts the nutrients from the soil for their development
which otherwise would have been used for the natural food production for fishes in
water. The water plants also make the netting in the pond difficult. So it is essential
to remove the water plants from the pond including their roots. If the roots are left
out they will again grow and the hardened roots will accumulate the silt which will
be hazardous for the ecology of the pond.

Usually there are following types of water plants which grow as weeds in fish
ponds:

i) Bottom rooted- Plants which are rooted at the bottom of ponds and spreading
within the bottom layer of water, e.g. Vallisneria, OIttelia.
ii) Submerged rooted- Plants which are rooted at the in the bottom soil or on the
deeper margin of pond and ramifying in the volume of water, e.g. Hydrilla,
Potamogeton, Charra etc.
iii) Marginal rooted-
● Plants which are rooted on the marginal region of the surface layer of
water and ramify on thr surface of water and also on the adjoining land e.g.
Ipomoea, Jussiaea, Marsila.
● Plants which are marginally rooted and ramifying within the marginal region
of water volume, e.g. Typha, Pharagmites, Cyperus etc.
iv) Emergent & rooted- Rooted at the bottom but the leaves spreading on the
surface of water, e.g. Nymphaea, Nymphoides, Nelumbo.
v) Floating vegetations
x) Surface floating:
● With roots, e.g., Pista, Spirodela, Lemna, Azolla, Eichhornia.
● Without roots, e.g. Wolffia
y) Submerged floating, e.g. Ceratophyllum

For removal of aquatic weeds, following methods of weed control can be used:

Manual means: This method can be used against emergent and submerged weeds.
Chains or roll of barbed wire dragged through the beds to entangle the weeds
which can be skimmed out. Twisted straw rope can also be employed for this
purpose.
Fish Pond Management 119

Mechanical means: The submerged weeds can be removed with the help of weed
cutter which are easy to handle.

Chemical means: When weed control is not possible by manual/mechanical method,

it can be done controlled by applying chemicals @ 0.50 to 0.70 gallons/ liter of
water.

i. 2,4-D and Dalapan for emergent weeds and grasses.

ii. Simazine, Diuron 3 and Ammonia for submerged weeds.
iii. Paraquat 1 against floating weeds.

Chemical methods should not be practiced in village ponds as the toxicity of

chemical in water last long which can be harmful for the villagers who usually use
this water.

Biological means: Biologically weeds can be controlled by using fishes like grass
carps @ 150 to 200 kg/ha in fish ponds which feed on vegetation. These fishes give
production without damaging the natural pond system.

Removal of fish enemies

The perennial ponds also harbor unwanted animal, like crabs, frogs, turtle and
some other predatory fishes. The presence of unwanted fishes may pose problem
as they may compete for food, oxygen, space and prey on the newly stocked baby
fishes. To remove them from the pond, following control methods are adopted:

● Complete draining or pumping out the water during the summer months. After
removal of water the pond is allowed to dry up. After every crop also the pond
should be dried until the pond will develop cracks and this will help in eradication
of unwanted and harmful micro-organisms from bottom of the pond.
● When it is not possible to dry the pond, repeated operation of netting operation
should be carried out for removal of weed fishes and unwanted animals.
● Application of Mahua oil cake @ 2,500 kg/ha/m of pond water has been found
to be very effective in controlling fish enemies. The mahua oil cake is soaked in
a tub with water. After getting completely soaked the mahua oil cake is mixed
with water and sprayed in the ponds. Then with repeated netting this cake gets
thoroughly mixed in water. Within 6 to 8 hours all the fishes get killed. The killed
fishes are suitable for eating. The toxic effect of mahua oil cake will last for 15
to 20 days. After that this cake will serve as fertilizer to the pond and will help
to develop the natural feed in the pond.
120 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

Fertilization, liming and racking

For increasing the natural fertility, stocking ponds require to be fertilized
depending on the quality of the soil. A combination of both inorganic and organic
fertilizers is recommended in pond possessing neither too clayey nor too sandy soil
with medium organic contents. Stocking ponds should be initially fertilized two to
three weeks in advance of introduction of fingerlings.

Liming of Pond: The pond water should be slightly alkaline for the better growth
of fish. Lime keeps the water in alkaline form and also helps to keep the fish
enemies at bay. It also increases the calcium contents in the water which helps in
the growth of fish. Normally liming in fish pond @ 250 kg/ha hastens mineralization
of organic matter thus increasing pond productivity and helps in maintaining the
sanitation of the pond. Direct application/ spreading of lime on the pond bottom and
keeping the pond bottom dry at least two weeks would be very effective for
increasing productivity and controlling parasites. It can also be spread over the
water surface. In order to maintain slightly alkaline pH in the fish pond, the amount
of lime required for different types of soil pH are mentioned in table 1.
Table 1: Lime application rate
pH level Soil medium Lime application rate (Calcium carbonate kg/ha)
4.0-4.5 Highly acidic 1,000

4.6-5.5 Medium acidic 700

5.6-6.5 Low acidic 500

6.6-7.0 Neutral 200

Manuring of pond: Manure fresh raw cow dung initially @ 10,000 kg/ha and later
10,000-15,000 kg/ha in 7 to 11 installments or poultry droppings initially @ 5,000
kg/ha and later @ 1,000 kg/ha every quarter (organic manures) in combination
with either ammonium sulphate + single super-phosphate + calcium ammonium
nitrate in the ratio of [Link] @ 1,400 to 1,800 kg/ha/yr in 4 to 10 installments or urea
and triple super-phosphate @ 100 kg/ha each month (inorganic fertilizers) . About
15 to 20 days prior to transfer of fingerlings in the pond, both inorganic and organic
fertilizers should spread on the pond surface. If mahua oil cake is used in the pond,
the dose of manure should be reduced to half. It may be noted that if the colour of
water turn green, the inorganic manuring should be stopped. When the colour of
pond water turns deep brown, the organic manure should be stopped.

Racking: Repeated racking of the pond bottom releases the obnoxious gases
accumulated.
Fish Pond Management 121

STOCKING OF PONDS
The major consideration in stocking should be the economics of fish production
as stocking of ponds is done for getting maximum quality and quantity of fish under
most economical conditions. Stocking depends on the size of the pond. A sound
stocking programme could be evolved if the food requirement (i.e. quantity of food
consumed in unit time) of different age or size group of fishes, and quantity of fish
food within the pond are known. If, however, such information is not available, then
stocking will be on empirical experience.

Healthy fingerlings of 120-150 mm size should be stocked. Carps seed to be

stocked can be easily procured from nearby government or private hatcheries or
from fish seed farms. Before the stocking of fingerlings in the pond it should be
ensured that sufficient natural feed has developed in the pond. The fish should be
stocked early in the morning or evening, when water is having minimum temperature.
Before the seed is stocked the seed should be acclimatized to the pond temperature
for 10-15 minutes in the fingerling containers only.

Selection of Fish Species

The fulfillment of the objective of fish culture to ensure maximum production
per unit area and time calls in for fuller utilization of pond resources. Efficient fish
species of complementary feeding habits are selected to ensure less inter-specific
and intra-specific competition of growth. The selected species should withstand the
climate of the region, be compatible, grow fast, be resistant to diseases, and be able
to utilize the natural food, and artificial feed.

In mixed culture of Indian major carps alone – catla (Catla catla, zooplankton
surface feeder), rohu (Labeo rohita, herbivorous column browser subsisting on
plankton, periphytic organisms and decaying vegetable matter), and mrigal (Cirrhinus
mrigala, an illiophage bottom feeder) are cultured.

Mixed culture of exotic carps along with Chinese silver carp

(Hypophthalmichthys molitrix, a phytoplankton surface feeder), grass carp
(Ctenopharyngodon idella, an aquatic vegetation column feeder) and common
carp (Cyprinus carpio var. communis, an omnivore scavenging the bottom) are
cultured. In composite culture of both the Indian and exotic carps all the above six
species are brought together.

Species Combination
Manipulation of the species ratio is for minimizing the inter-specific and intra—
specific competition for food available at various trophic levels and zones in a pond.
Either single species or more than one species occupying different niches could be
122 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

utilized in a pond for exploiting the food available at various zones. Manipulation in
the numbers of species could be done for ensuring attainments of market sizes by
all species involved. The combination details are given below in table 2.
Table 2: Species, stocking ration and number to be followed in fish culture
Fish Species 3-Species culture 3-Speces culture 4-Speces culture 6-Species culture
Ratio Number Ratio Number Ratio Number Ratio Number

Rohu 3.0 1,500 - 3.0 1,500 3.0 1,500

Catla 4.0 2,000 - 3.0 1,500 1.0 500

Mrigal 3.0 1,500 - 2.0 1,000 1.5 750

Silver carp - 4.0 2,000 - 2.0 1,000

Grass Carp - 3.0 1,500 - 1.0 500

Common carp - 3.0 1,500 2.01,000 1.5 750

Stocking Density
For profitable fish culture, the stocking ponds should be stocked at a rate below
the “carrying capacity” which could be raised. Stocking density varies depending
on the type of fish culture selected. In India, with the improvement in management
practices the stocking density of 5,000 fingerlings/ha are profitable.

POST- STOCKING OPERATION

The pond stocked, would have rich crop of zooplankton consequent on mahua
oil cake poisoning which would be utilized by the fishes introduced. This potentiality
for producing plankton could be increased manifold, the details of which have already
been discussed under pre-stocking operations.

Supplementary Feed: The carps relish on available protein rich natural feed of
phyto and zooplanktons developed in the fish pond. However, it may not meet the
demand of the fish for better growth. This food shortage is obviated in ponds under
intensive fish culture by resorting to artificial feeding, is termed ‘supplementary
food’. Artificial feed could be of either plant or animal origin. Supplementary food
alone can effectively increase the caring capacity many times for natural level of
production and in combination with fertilizers boosts production further up.

A mixture of rice/wheat bran and mustard/groundnut oil cake in the ratio of 1:1
@ 2 per cent body weight is recommended as artificial feed. The feed is made in
balls and kept under water in gunny bags having small holes at the two corners.
The first feed can be given in the morning after sun rise. No feed should be given
after 4 PM. When the fish is young at that time the feed is to be broadcasted in the
Fish Pond Management 123

powder form twice a day from one side of pond in the direction of wind flow. The
quantity of the feed can be increased or decreased as per the natural feed present
in the pond and water temperature. In cold months the feed intake of the fish is less.

HARVESTING
Morning hours are most suitable for fish harvesting because during morning
hours the atmospheric temperature is low. The morning harvested fish are safer
and takes more time to putrefy. Harvesting can be carried out profitably and
effectively under low water level conditions. Fishes should be removed when they
are in prime conditions and are in heavy demand. Periodical harvesting of marketable
sized fishes in ponds under culture would help in providing space by reducing the
pressure of density on the pond which also provides scope for left over smaller
fishes to attain the marketable size.

Depending upon the availability of the fingerlings, replenishment of the removed

number could be done so as to obtain sustained yield of fish. Netting is the effective
means for harvesting in ponds. At the time of final harvesting it is better to remove
whole of water. It has two advantages, one all the fishes are caught, secondly the
emptied pond is dried and gets direct sunlight which makes the culture of pond
healthier. By this method one can make the pond ready for further culture of fish in
the same pond.

PROBLEMS OCCURRING IN FISH PONDS

Some of the problems encountered in fish culture ponds and their possible
solutions are enumerated below:

Sl. No. Problem Solution

1. Reduction in water level restricting Replenishment water with water
space for growing fishes
2. Depletion of oxygen by algal blooms Feeding and manuring should be
and organic pollution caused by decay stopped till blooms disappear.
and decomposition of unutilized feed
3. Accumulation of metabolites Replacement or replenishment of
water
4. Dissolved Oxygen depletion in pond Use of fountain type or peddler type
aerators
5. Parasitic infection Use of antibiotics, periodical check-
up of healthiness of the fish and the
hygienic conditions of the pond
which could be improved by the
application of lime.
124 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

FISH DISEASES
There is no probability of fish disease in the pond when one takes care of pond
oxygen and proper scientific management is followed. But when the ecology of
pond gets polluted, there is possibility of fish disease. When the fish disease is
occurring the following precautions should be followed:

● Diseased fish should be kept in separate pond, and then treated.

● Medicines to heal up the fishes should be used.
● The fishes from diseased pond should not be shifted to other ponds where the
healthy fishes are stocked.
● The fishes which die due to disease should be immediately removed and buried
in the soil far away from culture farm.
● The fishes should not be kept in crowded condition or under stress.
● Before stocking of fishes in the culture pond, the diseased fishes should first be
removed.
● The pond water should always be clean and suitable for fish culture.

CONCLUSION
By adopting the improved techniques of fish management and with continuous
harvesting, it has been possible to raise marketable fish even under high stocking
densities increasing the overall production manifold. Recent advances have shown
that reconditioning and reuse of water permits very heavy stocking and with intensive
feeding offers great scope for further increasing pond fish production.

SUGGESTED READINGS
Boyd C E. 1995. Bottom Soils, Sediment and Pond Aquaculture. Chapman and
Hall, New York, USA. p-348.
Handbook of Fisheries and Aquaculture. 2013. Indian Council of Agricultural
Research, New Delhi Publication.
Thomas P C. 1998. Current and Emerging Trends in Aquaculture. Daya Publishing
House, New Delhi, India. p-414.
 Chapter 11

Principles of Selection of Enterprises for Multi-

Enterprise Farm
N. Ravisankar and A.S. Panwar

Multi-enterprise farms play significant role in maintaining the sustainable soil,

livestock and human health. Enterprise means a systematic purposeful activity. The
process of producing a particular farm commodity is called a farm enterprise. Small
farms particularly in Asia including India usually are multi-enterprise farms and
they produce more than one commodity. For example, if a farm produces, rice,
vegetables, milk and egg. It has four enterprises. Multi-enterprise farm combines
many purposeful farm activities to produce many commodities in time and space
dimension using the principles of minimum or no competition and maximum
complementarity. Multi-enterprise agriculture system helps to increase productivity
and profitability through integrated use of water, nutrient, and energy in small farms.
It has the potential to reduce cultivation cost by synergetic recycling of byproducts/
residues of various components within the system and ensure a regular source of
income and employment. The multi-enterprise agriculture system adopted on a small
piece of land also helps to improve the economic conditions of resource poor farmers
and provide better opportunities for employment at farm level by producing 6 Fs
(food, feed, fodder, fibre, fuel and fertilizer)

Integrated Farming System constitutes one or few major enterprises gradually

aligning with few more complementary and supplementary enterprises, is constantly
evolving, and after a stage, the farming system becomes self-contained (‘closed
system’, where the required inputs are generated from within the system),
economically remunerative and ecologically sustainable.

WHY MULTI-ENTERPRISE FARM?

Income through arable farming alone is insufficient for bulk of the marginal and
small farmers. Activities such as dairy, poultry, fish culture, sericulture, biogas
production, edible mushroom cultivation, agro-forestry, agri-horticulture etc assumes
critical importance in supplementing farm income. It fits well with farm level
infrastructure and ensures fuller utilization of byproducts. Enterprise diversification
is one of the most commonly used risk management strategies by growers. A farm
manager is often confronted with the problems as to what enterprises to select and
126 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

the level at which each enterprises should be taken up. How far he can go or should
go in combining enterprises with another depends partly on the interrelationships
between different enterprises and the inputs and output generated.

CONCEPT
The multi-enterprise farms uses two dimensions viz., time and space for
improving the number of commodities or activities in the farm. Time concept relates
to increasing crop/other enterprise intensification in a situation where there is no
constraints for inputs including irrigation. In other words increasing the cropping
intensity in areas where the production potential viz., land is underutilized even with
full resources potential. It is a time bound programme for most of the field crops. It
is considered for 365 days or 12 months. In case of long duration crop and perennial
crop, the duration of each rotation will vary from 2-3 years depending upon the
duration of constituent crop. The areas where, only one crop (100%), two crops
(200%) and three crops (300%) are raised in a year leaving the land fallow for 2-8
months, the cropping intensity has to be increased to 200%, 300% and 400%
respectively, well within the same one year. This will provide an opportunity to
increase gross cultivable area in a year and will ultimately help to enhance the
productivity per unit area per unit time.

In case of rainfed areas where there is no possibility of increasing the intensity

of cropping with time, the ‘space concept’ can be applied. In space concept, crops
are arranged in a tier system combining two or more crops with varying field
durations as intercrops by suitably modifying the planting method. Building of crops/
other agricultural allied components in a vertical dimension (otherwise called multi-
tier system), the land equivalent area can be increased. Thus by making use of
these time and space concepts either in irrigated or rainfed areas within a specified
time (a year) and unit area of land (a hectare), productivity is sought to be increased
by repeated and or intensified cropping and other activities.

ENTERPRISE SELECTION FOR INTEGRATION

The integration should aim for complementary combination of farm enterprises
adopting the principles of efficient recycling of farm and animal wastes, minimizing
the nutrient losses, maximizing the nutrient self-sufficiency through efficient cropping
system and crop rotation. Integration of farm enterprise in multi-enterprise
farm depends on several factors such as:

1. Soil and climatic features of the selected area

2. Availability of the resources such as land, labor & capital
Principles of Selection of Enterprises for Multi-Enterprise Farm 127

3. Present level of utilization of resources

4. Economics of proposed multi-enterprise model and credit facilities
5. Market facilities for produced commodities
6. Technological know-how on various enterprises
7. Household demand
8. Institutional infrastructure for integrating the enterprises
9. Managerial skill of farmer/farm manager
10. Social customs prevailing in the locality

The multi-enterprise farm should also fulfill the following principles of sustainable
agriculture for its long term sustainability in terms of productivity and profitability:

● Environmental soundness.
● Maintenance of soil health.
● Self sufficiency for resources.
● Promotion of plants and animals diversity.
● Sustainable livelihood.

TYPES OF ENTERPRISES AND INTERACTION IN MULTI-

ENTERPRISE FARM
There are five types of enterprise categories found in multi-enterprise farm
which are given below:

● Independent enterprises,
● Joint enterprises,
● Supplementary enterprises,
● Complementary enterprises and
● Competitive enterprises.

The interaction among components can be classified into competitive, non-

competitive and complementary.

Competitive Interaction: One species may have greater ability to use the limiting
factor and will gain at the expense of the other and this is called as competitive
128 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

interaction or interference. When one or more growth factors are limiting, the species
that is better equipped to use the limiting factor(s) will gain at the expense of the
other.

Non-competitive: If the crops are grown in association and the growth of either
of the concerned species is not affected, such type of interaction is called non-
competitive interaction or interference. It occurs when the resources (growth factors)
are present in adequate quantities as a result of which the growth of either of the
concerned species is not affected.

Complementary: If one species is able to help the other it is known as

complementary interaction. If the component species are able to use the growth
factors in different ways (temporal or spatial) or if one species is able to help the
other in supply of growth factor (like legumes supplying part of N fixed by symbiosis
to non-legumes), it is complementary interaction or interference.

Complementary Enterprises
Livestock is the best complementary enterprise with crops, especially during
the adverse years. Installation of bio-gas plant in crop-livestock system will make
use of the wastes, at the same time provides the valuable manure and gas for
cooking and lighting. In a wetland farm there are greater avenues for fishery, duck
farming and buffalo rearing. Utilizing the rice straw, mushroom production can be
started. Under irrigated conditions (garden lands), inclusion of sericulture, poultry
and piggery along with arable crop production is an accepted practice. The poultry
component in this system can make use of the grains produced in the farm as feed.
Pigs are the unique components that can be reared with the wastes which are unfit
for human consumption. In rainfed farming, sheep and goat rearing form an integral
part of the landscape. Sericulture can be introduced in rainfed farming, provided
the climatic conditions permit it. Agro-forestry (Silviculture and silvi-horticulture)
are the other activities which can be included under dryland conditions. In the
integrated system, selection of enterprise should be on the cardinal principle that
there should be minimal competition and maximum complementary effect among
the enterprises.

EVALUATION OF MULTI-ENTERPRISE FARM

Productivity (Productivity per unit area): The productivity of a component is
estimated and compared with the crop component is expressed in terms of equivalent
crop yield. Productivity in term of grain yield can be recorded and expressed as kg
of grain equivalent yield (GEY), GEY= [Productivity of component/intercrop (kg) x
Principles of Selection of Enterprises for Multi-Enterprise Farm 129

Cost of component/intercrop (Rs/kg)]/ Cost of main crop (Rs/kg)

Economic analysis: Parameters like cost of cultivation/production, gross and net
return and per day return can be worked out and expressed as Rs/ha.
Employment generation: Labour required for various activities in crop production
given as man days/ha/year (A man working for 8 hours in a day is considered as
one man day; A woman working for the same period is treated as 2/3 man day and
computed to man days).

PLANNING FOR MULTI-ENTERPRISE FARM

Careful evaluation of potential for each of the enterprises needs to be done by
systematically comparing the resource needs for each enterprise to the resources
available. Determining the resource requirements for each enterprise will probably
require a good deal of homework. Physical, financial, management and marketing
factors play a greater role and these questions needs to be put and answered by a
manager for planning and starting a multi-enterprise farm.

Enterprise Compatibility Analysis

Before making any final decisions, one must consider the relationships among
enterprises. For example, one may have enough labour to produce one enterprise
as long as you don’t also select another labour intensive enterprise. Obviously, the
timing of the resource requirement can be as critical as the amount of the resource
required. A monthly chart of resource needs for each enterprise may be helpful.
There are several advantages to having several enterprises within one farm business.
First of all, it reduces the risk. The chances of production failure and/or poor prices
are lower when spread out over several commodities. Cash flow and profit will
probably be less variable from year to year in a diversified operation.

Next, diversification done correctly will mean spreading fixed costs out over
more commodities. It will also mean using resources more evenly throughout the
year. Finally, crop rotation and crop mix done properly have been shown to be
effective methods of pest control and increasing soil fertility. These production
practices include such things as inter-cropping, cover crops and green manure crops.
Enterprise selection for a farm should not be any simpler than a major decision for
any business.

EXAMPLE OF MULTI-ENTERPRISE FARM

Coconut based Self Sustainable multi-enterprise farm (developed at ICAR-
CIARI, Port Blair) :
130 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

Requirement of land
1. Land allotted to pig shed, vermi-compost unit and common uses of 250 m2
storage godown
2. Area under Coconut plantations 9288 m2
Tapioca intercropping in coconut 4240 m2
Colacasia intercropping in coconut 3000 m2

3. Area under lined pond (for irrigation and fish rearing along with 378 m2
poultry+ducks)

4. Area under lined pond for tilapia + fish culture 84 m2

A. Crop production
a) Crops and crop sequences to be followed and area allotted under different
sequences
Crop sequence Area (Net) allotted (m2)

1. Coconut (Sole) 2048

2. Coconut + nutmeg , clove +Colacasia + Pineapple 3000
3. Coconut+ nutmeg, clove + Tapioca + Colacasia 4240
Total 9288

b) Average expected annual production and income from crop production

Farm produce Gross area % of Expected Gross returns

total annual (Rs./year)
production
Crop production (Net area = 9288 m2) - 92.8 - -
2
i) Coconut (for pigs + house hold + sale) 9288 m 34.6 5250 nuts 42000
2
ii) Nutmeg 3620 m 13.5 3801 nuts 11403
(45 plants)
3620 m2
(101 plants)
iii) Clove 3000 m2 13.5 25 kg 3750
4240 m2
iv) Pine apple 3000 m2 11.2 19500 kg 97500
v) Tapioca (for pigs) 15.8 10600 kg 31800
vi) Colacasia (for pigs) 18.9 7240 kg 7240
2
Total A 26768 m - - 193693
Principles of Selection of Enterprises for Multi-Enterprise Farm 131

B . Pig for meat purpose

Expected production from the pig unit (4 pigs (1 male + 3 female))
a) Meat
Four pigs with Av. Meat yield of 56 kg/pig @ 75 % of body weight (75 kg)= 224
kg
Total meat production per year = 224 kg
Total value of meat = 224 kg x Rs.150/kg = Rs.33600/-
b) Pig dung
Total production of Pig dung = 0.876 t
Total value of cow dung = 0.876 ton x Rs.1000/ton = Rs.876/-
c) Sale of piglets
14 piglets /year/pig for 4 pigs, 42 pigs sold @ Rs.800/ each = Rs.33600/-
Gross income from dairy:
Rs.33600 + Rs.800 + Rs.33600 = Rs.68000/-
C. Fish + poultry + duck
a) Area under pond: 378 m2
b) Fish species : Catla, rohu, mirgal
c) Average production and expected income from the pond

Fruits Number / Productivity Production Market whole Total produce

area (kg/unit) (kg) sale price Rs. /kg Value (Rs.)

i) Fish 378 2000/ha 756 50 37800

ii) Poultry 25 85/bird 2125 2 4250

iii) Ducks 20 20/bird 400 5 2000

Total A - - 380 44050

D. Azolla + Tilapia in pond

Azolla and Tilapia is a good protein source for Pigs. The total requirement of
protein for 4 pigs can be met by using the azolla, tilapia, waste coconuts and colacasia.
Around 50 kg of tilapia and azolla can be produced from the lined pond having the
area of 84 m2. The value of tilapia and azolla produced worth Rs 5000/-.
132 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

E. Vermicompost unit

The waste materials of plantations like coconut, nutmeg, gliricidia on the fence
and pig wastes and urine can be converted as vermicompost. Around 7500 kg of
vermicompost worth Rs 30000/= can be produced.

Flow of inputs and outputs in coconut based multi-enterprise farm

LIVELIHOOD SECURITY UNDER MULTI-ENTERPRISE FARM

The production potential of different farm components integrated into an IFS
model and their impact on livelihood security of normal-size farm family of small
and marginal category is summarized in table below.
Farm produce Gross area, % of total Expected annual Estimated requirements Value of Surplus for Gross value
m 2/ Unit size production (kg) of a Family household sale (kg) of surplus (Rs.)
(7 members) (kg) consumption (Rs.)

A. Crop production

Coconut 9288 m 2 34.6 5250 nuts 500 nuts 4000 750 nuts 38000
(for pigs +
house hold +
sale)
ii) Nutmeg 3620 m 2 13.5 3801 nuts 100 nuts 300 3701 nuts 11103
(45 plants)
iii) Clove 3620 m 2 13.5 25 kg 0.5 kg 75 24.5 kg 3675
(101 plants)
iv) Pine apple 3000 m 2 11.2 19500 kg 250 kg 1250 19250 kg 96250
v) Tapioca 4240 m 2 15.8 10600 kg 10600 kg* 31800 Negligible -
(for pigs)
vi) Colacasia 3000 m 18.9 7240 kg 7240 kg* 72404 Negligible -
(for pigs)

Total A 26768 m 2 - - 44665 149028

B. Pig unit Pigs 4 pigs - 224 12 1800 212 31800

C. Fish + Poultry + duck

Fish 378 - 756 kg 150 kg 7500 606 kg 30300

Principles of Selection of Enterprises for Multi-Enterprise Farm

Poultry 25 - 2125 no’s 1525 no’s 3050 600 no’s 1200

Duck 20 - 400 no’s 200 no’s 1000 200 no’s 1000

D Azolla + Tilapia 84 m 2 - 50 kg 50 kg 5000 - -

E. Composting
Vermicompost 100 m 2 1.00 7500 7500 30000 - -
2
G. Land for 150 m 1.50 - - - - -
common uses
such as; Animal
sheds, stores and
dwelling unit

Total 213328
133
 Chapter 12

Optimization of Resource Use and Income Generation

in Integrated Farming Systems
A.K. Prusty

In India, Agriculture and allied sector provides livelihood support to about two
third of the population and still continues to be the main stay employing and feeding
most of the rural masses. It is not only the main source of employment, income and
food for over 70 percent of the population but also the main culture of the rural
families. In the context of ever increasing human population, increase in demand
for foodgrains and natural resources, shrinking land mass, conversion of cultivable
land into non-agricultural purpose, change in ecological environment, less availability
and high cost of labour etc. No single farm enterprise is likely to support the farmers
for generation of adequate income and gainful employment year round (Mahapatra,
1994). A judicious mix of agricultural enterprises like dairy, poultry, piggery, fishery,
sericulture etc. suited to the given agro-climatic conditions and socio-economic
status of the farmers would bring prosperity in the farming. Farmers take decisions
as to field, crop and livestock management given their access to knowledge and
information, personal circumstances, and in the context of the broader socioeconomic,
institutional and political environment. For achieving sustainability in agriculture and
enhancing income in addition to management of resource for current as well as
future use, optimization of resource-use is the need of the hour. Integrated farming
systems as a powerful tool for management of natural resources is a viable option
to achieve this goal.

Traditionally, farmers depend on traditional methods, such as, instinct and

experience, and comparisons with neighbors in order to make decisions about which
commodities to produce and in what quantities. This does not guarantee optimal
crop patterns (Alsheikh and Ahmed, 2002). The research in integrated farming
systems (IFS) for the last few decades in India has revealed that the enterprise
planning and implementation are usually done in isolation with component approach,
and needs scientific and systematic approach. In this situation, optimization techniques
are useful for resource allocation and designing IFS on scientific basis. Farming
systems studies involving a number of enterprises and taking the physical, socio-
economic and bio-physical environments into consideration are complicated,
expensive and time-consuming. There exists a chain of interactions among the
components within the farming systems, and it becomes difficult to deal with such
inter-linking complex systems manually. This problem could be overcome by
136 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

construction and application of suitable whole farm models. Optimization techniques,

such as linear programming and compromise programming, fuzzy linear
programming, etc. are useful tools for efficient resource allocation under various
constraints.

COMPUTERIZED OPTIMIZATION TECHNIQUES

Though farmers try to maximise their annual net farm return (gross margin)
they also worry about the risk in farming. Farmers combine different activities by
considering the risk-return trade-off among different farm enterprises. They try to
choose the combination based on their past experience, asset position,
entrepreneurship etc. Farmers often like to stabilise their farm income or minimise
the income variability. However, it is difficult to take into consideration different
activities and constraints in a complex scenario of multi-enterprise integrated farming
systems manually for optimization of resources and risk minimization. Thus,
computerization of optimization techniques is essential to make the results more
relevant and useful. Optimization models optimize the use of farm resources, costs/
profits or determine the optimum requirements for specific farm income, and can
analyze farm response to policy change in an effective way. Computer programs
are widely available for standard Linear Programming (LP) and other more
sophisticated types of mathematical programming e.g., Lindo Systems Inc. (1994).
Computerization of optimization techniques the advantages of ease and quickness
of computation as well as the avoidance of calculation errors with large number of
possible activities and constraints.

MODELLING TECHNIQUE
Modelling techniques are classified into three major categories: dynamic
simulation, mathematical programming (MP), and multi-agent models. This is a
very simple categorisation, and many models actually use combinations of these
techniques.

The first category is (dynamic) simulation models. These models make use of
ordinary or partial differential equations or difference equations to calculate the
behaviour of systems in space and time (Leffelaar 1999). This category represents
a wide and large group of models that can simulate the behaviour of a system in
time and space. Typically they represent decision-making through parameter settings
or what-if rules in the model.

The second category is optimization models, which in their simple form are
systems of equations aimed at characterizing farm-level activities in relation to
farm production, investment, marketing, etc. These types of models are based on
the specification of behavioural assumptions (e.g. profit maximization). Programming
Optimization of Resource Use and Income Generation in Integrated Farming Systems 137

models (e.g. linear or multiple goal linear programming models) can be used to
solve the problem of optimal resource allocations subject to constraints. (Non-)
Linear programming (LP) represents the farm as a (non) linear combination of so-
called ‘activities’. An activity is a coherent set of operations with corresponding
inputs and outputs. An activity is characterised by a set of (technical) coefficients
that quantify the relationships between activities and certain defined goals or
objectives (Ten Berge et al. 2000). As inputs are limited resources, constraints (i.e.
minimum and maximum values) to the activities are defined. This system of activities
is optimised within the limits of the constraints for a user-specified goal, such as
profit. Standard mathematical formulations of different types of optimization models
can be found in (Hazell and Norton 1986).

The third category is multi-agent modelling techniques, i.e. modelling approaches

in which families, farmers or household members are represented as an individual
entity (agents) explicitly taking into account interactions between these entities.
Often in terms of modelling technique, they make use of the same approaches as
dynamic simulation models, but whereas those models typically focus on one
household or an average representation of a population of households, agent based
models represent multiple instances of individual households in their models, together
with their interactions.

LINEAR PROGRAMMING
Linear programming is a technique used to solve planning problems
mathematically using the Simplex algorithm. To apply this technique, the problem
must be defined in terms of an objective function to be maximised (or minimised); a
set of activities that may be undertaken; and a set of constraints that have to be
satisfied relating resources available to resources required (Dent, Harrison and
Woodford, 1986; Pannell (1997). The LP approach is the most common method of
optimising whole-farm plans from which to examine the benefits of a new technology
within the whole farm context (Hardaker, Huirne and Anderson, 1997). As a whole-
farm model, linear programming can examine the different farm activities within
the context of various physical, financial and labour constraints. A detailed knowledge
of feasible or realistic technical ratios and biological relationships is required to
properly specify these constraints. By optimising a specified objective function, the
LP method can attempt to replicate how a farm manager decides to what extent a
new technology is adopted on the farm. The objective function might be to maximise
total farm gross margin or some other objective, subject to a lifestyle constraint
such as an upper limit on the use of family labour.

Limitations of the LP methodology for the evaluation of new technologies at

the farm-level include its relative complexity and the greater amount of information
138 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

required to properly model the underlying biological processes, compared to the

previously described techniques. Other limitations relate to some of the basic
assumptions of LP that inputs and outputs are divisible, the relationship between
variables is linear the combined effect of inputs and outputs is additive and inputs
and outputs are constrained to be positive (Pannell, 1997).

MULTI-OBJECTIVE PROGRAMMING
Traditional linear programming (LP) approach to the modeling of agricultural
decisions rests on certain basic assumptions about the situation being modeled and
the decision maker seeks to optimize a well-defined single objective. In reality this
is not the case, as the decision maker is usually seeking an efficient compromise
amongst several objectives, many of which can be in conflict, or trying to achieve
satisfying levels of his goals. Multi-objective programming (MOP) or vector
optimization technique tackles simultaneous optimization of several objectives subject
to a set of constraints usually linear. Since an optimization solution cannot be defined
for several objectives, MOP used in obtaining the set of feasible solution which are
efficient (Pareto optimal) solutions rather than to locate the single optimum solution.
The elements of this efficient set are feasible solution such that there are no other
feasible solutions that can achieve the same or better performance for all the
objectives and strictly better for at least one objective (Romero and Rehman, 1984).

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS
Major developments are taking place especially in the implementation of decision-
making in the models. First, approaches are being developed to make the constraints
and options within the optimization models more flexible, thereby giving the system
the possibility to develop over time, depending on internal or external conditions.
Different modelling techniques can deal with different aspects related to the
consequences of global change for farm households: combining different techniques
into a single modelling framework seems therefore, a logical choice and is actually
taking place in many new farm-level modelling studies. A variety of quantitative
and qualitative design approaches have been developed to support the analysis of
current farming systems, and the design and evaluation of alternatives. One such
model is Farm DESIGN model developed by Wageningen Univeristy, The
Netherlands. Farm DESIGN can serve as an exploratory tool to generate alternative
management options in search of improved farm performance. Several recent
research efforts have demonstrated the usefulness of integrated simulation models
to aid the (re)design of sustainable farming systems by means of exploratory studies
that look for ways of balancing crop-livestock interactions to improve resource use
Optimization of Resource Use and Income Generation in Integrated Farming Systems 139

efficiencies at farm scale (Dogliotti et al., 2005, Groot et al., 2007, Rossing et al.,
2007 and Tittonell et al., 2007). The inputs and outputs of Farm DESIGN are used
in three ways in the exploratory procedure, namely:

a. Decision variables: The inputs that are adjusted in the exploration procedure,
for example, crop areas, feed inputs, herd composition and other management
parameters are included as decision variables
b. Objectives those are either minimized or maximized: Selected outputs such as
productivity and profitability (economic result), erosion, organic matter and N,
P and K balances (aspects of environmental sustainability) and labour input and
seasonality (aspects of social sustainability).
c. Constraints: Limitations to combinations of inputs that are infeasible (e.g.
summed area of crops should not exceed the total farm area, labour requirement
should be lower than or equal to availability) and to outputs that are undesirable,
for instance unacceptable nutrient losses, unbalanced feed rations (aspects of
animal welfare) and violation of regulations (adhering to organic farming
principles).

The model supports iterative cycles of learning and adaptation of the structure
of a mixed farm. Learning cycles are typically divided into a number of phases
(Kolb, 1983), and the model contains different windows and calculation procedures
for these subsequent phases. In the Farm DESIGN model we largely follow the
terminology of Giller et al. (2008), who proposed the Describe – Explain – Explore
– Design cycle (DEED) for innovation in interactive processes with stakeholders.
Here we introduce an extra step and define the steps in this cycle as follows:

‘Describe’: make an overview of the components of the system, in Farm DESIGN

a mixed farm.
‘Explain’: determine the results of the farming systems in terms of agronomic,
environmental and economic indicators.
‘Evaluate’: establish whether the results obtained in the explain phase are in line
with the objectives and constraints that are set for the farm.
‘Explore’: generate new options for farming system structure in a multi-objective
optimization procedure.
‘Design’: A new configuration of the farm is selected from the set of solutions
generated in the explore phase, after detailed examination of the consequences.
This is the starting point for further fine-tuning and a new learning cycle.
140 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

Economics of existing farm

Enterprise Gross Return (Rs.) Cost (Rs.) Net Return (Rs.)

Crop 149282 58843 90439

Livestock 408800 161037 247763

Fishery 44895 9262 35633

Total 602977 229142 373835

ALTERNATIVE FARM OPTIONS AFTER OPTIMIZATION OF THE

EXISTING FARM USING FARM DESIGN
Land Allocation (Optimized farm) within defined constraints such as fixed
area for fish pond as well as objective of profit maximization:

• IFs Model Area : 0.9 ha

• Crop (0.80 ha)
• Livestock : 5 Cows
• Fishery: 0.1 ha
Optimization of Resource Use and Income Generation in Integrated Farming Systems 141

Economics of optimized farm

Enterprise Gross Return (Rs.) Cost (Rs.) Net Return (Rs.)

Crop 149282 58843 90439

Livestock 408800 161037 247763

Fishery 44895 9262 35633

Total 753379 231643 521736

CONCLUSION
Mathematical Programming techniques seem to be the most powerful approach
to represent farm level decision-making in enhancing resource use efficiency and
increasing farmers income by judicious mix of different enterprises based on science
based evidences: They are grounded in economic theory and are the only technique
that can deal with the many options available to the model ‘farmer’ to make a
decision. In combination with dynamic simulation models and agent based models,
consequences of climate change for production and greenhouse gas emissions can
be evaluated and fed back into the optimization program to affect decision-making,
although this assumes that “real” decision-making objectives can be appropriately
encoded in model objectives. The modeling that involves multiple objectives is useful
in farming systems research and extension and will more accurately evaluate the
extent of adoption of a new technology within a farm system by more closely
matching the farmer’s decision-making priorities.

REFERENCES
Alsheikh S M and Ahmed A M. 2002. Development of Mixed Farming System in a
Newly Reclaimed Area in Egypt. Options Mediterranean’s: Série A.
Séminaires Méditerranéens 78: 31-38.
Dent J B Harrison S R and Woodford K B. 1986. Farm Planning with Linear
Programming: Concept and Practice. Butterworths Pty. Ltd., Sydney.
Dogliotti S Van Ittersum M K and Rossing W A H. 2005. A method for exploring
sustainable development options at farm scale: A case study for vegetable
farms in South Uruguay. Agricultural Systems 86: 29-51.
Giller K E Leeuwis C Andersson J A Andriesse W Brouwer A Frost P G H Hebinck
P G M Heitkönig I M A Ittersum M K van Koning N B J Ruben R Slingerland
M A Udo H M J Veldkamp A Vijver Van de C A D M Wijk M T van Windmeijer
P N. 2008. Competing Claims on Natural Resources: What Role for Science?
Ecology Society 13(2): 34.
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Groot J C J Rossing W A H Stobbelaar D J Renting H Ittersum M K van. 2007.

Towards design instruments for discussion support in land-use allocation-
integrating nature conservation, economic performance and landscape quality
in agricultural areas. Agriculture Ecosystems Environment 120: 58-69.
Hardaker J B Huirne R B M and Anderson J R. 1997. Coping with Risk in
Agriculture. CAB International, Wallingford, UK.
Hazell P B R and Norton R D. 1986. Mathematical Programming for Economic
Analysis in Agriculture. Macmillan Publishing Company, New York.
Kolb D. 1983. Problem management. The executive mind. Srivastva S and Fry R
(Eds.). Jossey Bass San Francisco California, USA. pp: 109-143.
Leffelaar P A. 1999. On systems analysis and simulation of ecological processes;
with examples in CSMP, FST and FORTRAN. Kluwer academic publishers.
Mahapatra I C. 1994. Farming system research-A key to sustainable agriculture.
Fertilizer News 39(11): 13-25.
Pannell D J. 1997. Introduction to practical linear programming. John Wiley &
Sons Inc., New York.
Romero C and Rehman T. 1984. Goal programming and multiple criteria decision
making in farm planning : An expository analysis. Journal of Agricultural
Economics, 35: 177-190.
Rossing W A H Zander P Josien E Groot J C J Meyer B C and Knierim A. 2007.
Integrative modelling approaches for analysis of impact of multifunctional
agriculture: a review for France, Germany and the Netherlands. Agriculture
Ecosystems Environment 120: 41-57.
Ten Berge H F M Ittersum M K van Rossing W A H Ven G W J van de and Schans
J. 2000. Farming options for The Netherlands explored by multirobjective
modelling. European Journal of Agronomy 13: 263-277.
Tittonell P. 2007. Msimu wa Kupanda – Targeting resources for integrated soil
fertility management within diverse, heterogeneous and dynamic farming
systems of East Africa. Wageningen University, the Netherlands.
Wijk M T van Rufino M C Enahoro D Parsons D Silvestri S Valdivia RO and
Herrero M. 2012. A review on farm household modelling with a focus on
climate change adaptation and mitigation. Working Paper No. XX, Kopenhagen.
 Chapter 13

Technologies of On-farm Storage and Phyto-Sanitation

Amit Nath

Grain production has been steadily increasing with advancement in production

technology, but improper storage results in high losses. According to World Bank
Report, post-harvest losses in India amount to 12 to 16 million metric tonnes of food
grains each year, an amount that the World Bank stipulates could feed one-third of
India’s poor (Chaturvedi and Raj, 2015). The monetary value of these losses amounts
to more than Rs 50,000 crores per year (Singh, 2010). In India about 263.2 million
MT (in 2013-14) of food grains are produced annually (Chaturvedi and Raj, 2015)
and out of which 60-70 per cent are stored by the farmers for their own consumption.
The Indian farmers prefer to store their food grains in traditional ways using diverse
types of storage structures made by locally accessible materials. While big farmers
keep food grains in the storage facilities provided by government agencies like
Food Corporation of India and also in the private cold storage and ware houses.

For scientific storage of agricultural produce cleaning, grading, shelling,

decortications and drying to safe moisture levels i.e. 10-12 per cent in case of
cereals, 8-10 per cent in case of pulses and 6-8 per cent in case of oilseeds are
important. A number of useful equipments for such unit operations are available
that need to be commercialized and extended to targeted beneficiaries. Scientific
storage-room, warehouses storage bins, or even Cover and Plinth (CAP) storage
capacity for growers are available enabling them to earn 25-50 per cent more net
returns.

On farm storage is also required to reduce losses in highly perishable fresh

horticultural produce. Low-cost, low-energy, environmental friendly cool chambers
made from locally available materials and which utilize the principles of evaporative
cooling have been therefore developed in response to this problem. These cool
chambers are able to maintain temperatures at 10–15°C below ambient, as well as
at a relative humidity of 90 per cent, depending on the season. Fruits and vegetables
are stored in plastic crates within the chamber. The shelf life of the fruit and vegetables
maintained in the cool chamber was reported to be increased from 3 days at room
temperature to 90 days (Anon. 2006).

There are several factors which are responsible for losses of food grains such
as environmental factors, type of storage structure used, length and purpose of
storage, method of storing grains, etc. The environmental factors consist of
144 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

temperature, moisture content of grains, pH, humidity, etc. Other biological factors
are insects - pests, microorganisms and rodents. During storage, significant qualitative
and quantitative losses occur due to those biological factors. There are various
newly developed storage structures, advance methods of storage, advances in insects
and pests controls and various grain protecting practices are the latest technologists
for on farm storage practices in India.

ADVANCES IN GRAIN STORAGE STRUCTURES

The percentage of overall food crop production retained at the farm-level and
the period of storage is largely a function of farm-size and yield per acre, family-
size, consumption pattern, marketing pattern, form of labour payment, credit
availability and future crop expectations (Greeley, 1978). Indigenous storage
structures are generally preferred by the farmers in India at home level. The
traditional storage structures (Fig. 1) have several disadvantages and limitations.
Hence, the some modifications have been done in the traditional grain storage
structures to offer better safety to the stored grains. For small-scale storage of
grains the PAU bin, Pusa bin, Coal-Tar drum bin and Domestic Hapur tekka are
generally used.

Fig. 1. Traditional seed storage structures

The name PAU bin, itself suggest that the bin has been developed by the Punjab
Agricultural University. The bin is made up of a galvanized metal iron structure.
The bin has moderate capacity varying from 1.5 to 15 quintals. The Pusa bin is also
called as LDPE (low density polyethylene) sandwiched bin. This means that the
storage structure is made of mud or bricks with a polythene film embedded within
the walls like a sandwich. The developed bin has minimal moisture migration during
storage because of the good insulating properties of LDPE. The coal-tar drum bin
(200 kg) was developed at Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering (CIAE),
Bhopal. It is a low cost bin and can be easily available at domestic level. The
domestic Hapur tekka or bin has capacity 200 to 1000 kg. It is cylindrical in shape,
made of galvanized iron and /or aluminum sheet, has a small hole in the bottom
through which grain can be removed.
Technologies of On-farm Storage and Phyto-Sanitation 145

In addition to small scale storage, there are structures for large scale storage of
food grains. Several agencies are having storage facilities for farmer on rental
basis like Food Corporation of India, Central Warehousing Corporation, State
Warehousing Corporation, grain marketing co-operatives and several state
government agencies. The large scale grain storage is also done in Cover and
Plinth (CAP) and silos.

CAP storage involves the construction of brick pillars to a height of 142 from
the ground, with grooves into which wooden crates are fixed for the stacking of
bags of food grains. The stacks are covered with 250 micron LDPE sheets from
the top and all four sides (Fig.2). Food grains such as wheet, maize, gram, paddy,
and sorghum are generally stored in CAP storage for 6-12 month periods. It is the
most economical storage structure and is being widely used by the FCI for bagged
grains. The structure can be fabricated in less than 3 weeks. It is an economical
way of storage on a large scale (India Agronet, 2009).

Fig. 2. Cover and Plinth (CAP) Storage Structure for paddy and wheat

The silos are either metal or concrete. Concrete silos are typically cheaper
than metal silos. In silos the grains in bulk are unloaded on the conveyor belts and,
through mechanical operations, are carried to the storage structure (Fig. 3 & 4).
Galvanized silo storage systems have been a proven scientific system for storage
of food grains in Europe and America. This system ensures zero wastage due to
moisture, fungus and rodents etc. In India this system is adopted to some extent by
private sector since 1990, but it is limited to the process industry rather than for
storage of grain for longer period. The storage capacity of each of these silos is
around 25,000 tonnes.
146 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

Fig. 3. Steel silos for maize storage with Fig. 4. Australia’s on farm grain silos that
flat bottom can be found typically across the wheat belt

ADVANCED STORAGE METHODS

Grain Aeration
Aeration is widely used for preservation of stored grain. Aeration can be defined
as the forced movement of ambient air of suitable quality through a grain bulk for
improvement of grain storability. It is an acceptable practice to reduce the commodity
temperature and is done by using mechanical aeration by means of fans. This system
is suitable for low humid environment. On commercial scale, forced aeration plays
important and effective role to preserve grains (Navarro and Noyes, 2002).

Refrigerated Storage
In this method, ambient air is cooled and then passed over the bulk grains via
existing aeration system. Refrigerated aeration has been used for cooling dry grain
in subtropical climates when ambient temperatures are too high. The initial investment
for refrigerated storage system is comparatively higher, but together with the
dehumidified air method, it could provide answers to the practicability of aeration
for safe commercial storage in tropical climates (Navarro and Noyes, 2002).

Hermetic Storage
An airtight or sealed storage is termed as “hermetic storage” or “sacrificial
sealed storage”. The method enables insects and other aerobic organisms in the
commodity or the commodity itself to generate the modified atmosphere by reducing
oxygen (O2) and increasing carbon dioxide (CO2) concentrations through respiratory
metabolism. Respiration activity of the living organisms creates an atmosphere
containing about 1-2 per cent oxygen and about 20 per cent carbon dioxide (White
and Jayas, 2003).
Technologies of On-farm Storage and Phyto-Sanitation 147

Insect control success due to the hermetic storage treatments is comparable to

conventional fumigants (over 99.9% kill), and losses due to insect activity are minimal
(0.15% loss in weight for a storage period of 15 months) (Navarro et al., 1984;
Varnava, 2002). Low O2 and high CO2 environment kills insect and mite pests, and
prevents aerobic fungi from growing (Weinberg et al., 2008). Elevated CO2 and
depleted O2 levels will generally maintain stored grain quality for long period of
time. Commodities including cereals, oilseed grains, pulses, cocoa and coffee can
be stored safely for many months, maintaining high quality and limiting moulds and
myco-toxins.

ADVANCES IN PEST MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

Usually chemical fumigants, contact insecticides are used to control stored
product pests. Increase awareness about health issues due to organic residues in
food grains has enforced restrictions on use of chemical pesticides because of
adverse effects of pesticide residues in grain and environment. This has resulted in
imposition of strict limitations on pesticide registration by regulatory agencies. In
addition, in many countries, insects in particular have been developing resistance to
contact insecticides and to the conventionally used phosphine gas. Birational
approach is being preferred over the conventional practice to tackle these issues.

The major pests of stored grains include beetles (Callosobrunchus sp,

Trogoderma granarium, Tribolium confusum), weevils (Acanthoscel
idesobtectus), moth (Corcyra cephalonica) and rodents. The preventive and
curative are the two categories of treatments applied for controlling insect and pest
infestation. The preventive treatment is that which is given before infestation in
order to inhibit insect attack. The curative treatment involves use of fumigant
aluminium phosphide to control infested stock or godown in airtight condition. For
controlling rodents rat cages, poison baits and use of rat borrow fumigation is
recommended (India Agronet, 2009).

A variety of traps developed with synthetic pheromones has been developed

for use in monitoring programmes in food processing and storage facilities. The
pheromone is incorporated into a plastic matrix from which it is slowly released
during several weeks or months. Grain probe trap or pitfall-cone trap, are placed at
or below the surface of grain masses and do not require the use of pheromones.
These traps capture beetles that are simply walking through the holes of the probe
shaft, drop through the void inside the probe and are directed by a funnel into a
collection vial.

A recently developed technology for monitoring insects is a probe trap equipped

with an electronic device to count insects that relay the counts to a computer (Shuman
148 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

et al., 1996). Probe traps installed in shelled and unshelled peanuts in a pilot plant
experiment indicated no significant differences in the presence of Tribolium
castaneum aggregation pheromone attractants in the probes. Phillips et al. (2000)
found evidence suggesting that pheromones and food attractants should not be
used in devices intended for monitoring insects in bulk-stored grain. A special device
containing a heater and a ventilator named “speedbox” (Jakob et al., 2006) that
was developed especially for use at low temperatures and shorter treatment time,
allowed optimizing the Phosphine fumigation by effective control of all developmental
stages of major stored product insects at low temperatures and at decreased exposure
time.

Some essential oils are highly selective to insects, probably because they bind
to the insect-selective octopaminergic receptor, a non mammalian target
(Kostyukovsky et al., 2002). A screening of a large number of essential oils from
aromatic plants was conducted to isolate effective oils for using as fumigants in
grain bins for insect control.

Hygienic Practices
Hygiene of storage environment is major factor which contribute to growth of
the insect and pests infestation. Sanitation in and around stored grain installations is
the almost efficacious and profitable administration exercise to prevent insect
infestations in stored grain. This is the most essential IPM practice for storing and
protecting grain because a successful sanitation is 80 percent of an effective IPM
program in stored grains. Before harvest and storage of new grain, cleaning
equipments for handling grain like harvesters, vehicles, aeration fans, etc. is required.
Taking off any grain or grain dust from inside the bins by cleaning empty bins and
brushing down walls is essential. Getting rid of any spillage grain close to the external
of the bin and storage installation is requisite. Cautiously examining storage bins
and fastening or sealing of any gaps or openings which may be expected entry
spots for rodents or insects is requisite.

Spinosad as a Natural Grain Protectant

Spinosad is a reduced-risk insecticide derived by fermentation from the soil
actinomycete, Saccharopolyspora spinosa (Mertz and Yao, 1993). The spinosad
is growing as a grain protectant, awaiting final acceptance by major grain importing
and exporting countries (Nayak et al., 2005). Spinosad effectively controls
economically important beetle and moth pests associated with stored grain and is
also effective against certain coccid species. On all other economically important
species of beetles and moth pests associated with grain, spinosad is effective at 1
mg/kg in killing adults and/or preventing population growth (Getchell, 2006).
Technologies of On-farm Storage and Phyto-Sanitation 149

PHYTO-SANITATION
Increasing outbreaks of food borne illness alongside consumer concerns over
interregional disease transmission have driven the development of more stringent
laws and regulatory frameworks. Major importing countries are tightening their
food safety legislation and demanding the adoption by exporting countries of agreed
inspection, examination and certification procedures. New regulations with regard
to quality control, such as the Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP),
have been adopted by all major importing countries (except Japan), and have been
made compulsory for their food processing industries. In terms of impacts on
developing countries, the regulations based on HACCP shift the burden of
responsibility to exporting processor or trader, by making them fully responsible for
the quality of the product in terms of food safety.

Safe food is one which has minimum pesticide residues, metals and other
contaminants and is practically safe in the hands of consumer without any harmful
effects. There have been many instances when commodities exported by India
have been rejected by importing countries. Recent examples are concerns of EU
regarding high pesticide residue levels in grapes during 2004-05 and rejection of
sesamum exports by Russia due to poor quality. Thus, strict monitoring from
production to transport, processing, handling, packing, etc. is absolutely necessary
encompassing the entire food chain.

With the reduction of tariff barriers, there is a possible danger that alternative
forms of protection will be utilized, including arbitrary technical barriers as well as
sanitary and phytosanitary measures. The Uruguay Round Agreement on the
Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS Agreement) and the
Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) adopted by WTO Members in
1995 have given a new direction to the international food trade. Among technical
regulations and standards, sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) regulations occupy a
particularly relevant place in the regulators’ agenda, because of their primary aim
of protecting citizens from everyday food hazards. This has become a virtual
minefield for trade policy-makers as national differences in risk perceptions and
tolerance can be manipulated or exploited to protect domestic industry from
international competition (Hooker and Caswell, 1999).

The SPS Agreement attempts to address the application of measures associated

with the protection of human, animal and plant health in such a way that they are
not a disguised restriction on international trade, so to prevent such measures from
being used as unjustified trade barriers. There are several key principles including
the sovereign right of a country to put protective measures in place, but these
measures should not be more restrictive than necessary to achieve the appropriate
150 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

level of protection. The Agreement stresses that not only should SPS measures be
scientifically based but also stresses the importance of risk assessment in determining
the appropriate levels of SPS measures. Of crucial importance are transparency in
the development and implementation of measures and the adoption of international
standards.

Phytosanitary certificate means a certificate issued in the model format

prescribed under the International Plant Protection Convention of the Food &
Agricultural Organization and issued by an authorized officer at the country of
origin of consignment or re-export (Anon. 2003). It certifies that the plants or plant
products have been inspected according to appropriate procedures and are considered
to be free from quarantine pests/diseases and practically free from the injurious
pests/diseases and that they are considered to conform to the current phytosanitary
regulations at the importing country.

The vegetables & fruits from India can be exported to the European Union
countries based on the phytosanitary inspection at the pack houses approved jointly
by National Plant Protection Organization (NPPO) /APEDA where adequate
facilities for inspection, examination etc. are available and the produce is packed
under the supervision of plant quarantine official (Anon. 2015). Phytosanitary status
of the inspected consignments will be secured by proper storage in demarcated
quarantine area at the pack house, transported by clean & disinfested vehicles.
Also, loading of the consignment at exit point will be ensured in clean and disinfested
cargo containers preventing cross contamination (Anon. 2015).

Irradiation as a phytosanitary treatment has gained increasing acceptance in

recent years, and the application of irradiation to control arthropods in fresh
commodities, stored products and ornamentals has grown. Irradiation is an accepted
quarantine treatment to control fruit flies in ten fruits and four vegetables and the
mango seed weevil in mangoes. Irradiation has several major advantages over
other post harvest treatments. Whereas development of heat, cold and fumigation
treatments involves generating data for each fruit pest combination, irradiation
treatments are developed for a pest species irrespective of commodity.

CONCLUSION
India produces about 263.2 million MT of food grain annually, but the post
production losses are also high. Major stock is stored at farmers’ level (70%) and
remaining at organizational level. The advancement in scientific design and
development of low cost storage structures has been found effective as it has
created interest and awareness among farmers and traders to preserve the food
grains safety. The modified and improved structures provide safe and economical
means of grain storage for long durations. Need of the hour is to strengthen traditional
Technologies of On-farm Storage and Phyto-Sanitation 151

means of storage with modern inputs and to provide cheaper storage structures
such as low cost bins to farmers so as prevent enormous storage losses. With the
chemical insecticides being phased out due to their residual effect on human health;
the need for the hour is to maintain hygienic practice in the storage systems.
Maintenance of CA or hermetic storage environment for the control of insect growth
is also very effective and is possible for bulk storage system. Precision monitoring
system of insect population and application of control dose of insecticides are few
such measures for ensuring grain safety and security. Sanitary and phytosanitary
measures and phytosanitary certificates are becoming very essential for export of
any agricultural products and also processed food products from our country.

REFERENCES
Anonymous. 2003. The Gazette of India. Ministry of Agriculture Notification,
Department of Agriculture & Cooperation, New Delhi, the 18th November,
2003.
Anonymous. 2006. Post harvest Management of Fruit and Vegetables in the Asia-
Pacific Region. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
Agricultural and Food Engineering Technologies Service, Viale delle Terme di
Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy.
Anonymous. 2015. Standard Operating Procedure for Export Inspection & Phyto-
sanitary Certification of Vegetables & Fruits to European Union countries.
Government of India, Ministry of Agriculture, Department of Agriculture &
Cooperation, Directorate of Plant Protection, Quarantine & Storage, [Link].,
Faridabad-121001.
Chaturvedi B K and Raj L C A. 2015. Agricultural Storage Infrastructure in India:
An Overview. IOSR Journal of Business and Management 17(5): 37-43.
Dyson T. 1999. World food trends and prospects to 2025. Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences 96: 1-13.
Getchell A I. 2006. Efficacy of two spinosad formulations on various commodities
against stored-product insects. M. S. thesis, Kansas State University,
Manhattan, p-76.
Greeley M. 1978. Appropriate rural technology: Recent Indian experience with
farm-level food grain storage research. Food Policy, 3(1): 39-49.
Hooker N H and Caswell J. 1999. A Framework for Evaluating Non-Tariff Barriers
to Trade Related To Sanitary and Phytosanitary Regulation, Journal of
Agricultural Economics 2: 234-246.
Jakob G Dierks-Lange H Heck F W and Schmitt S. 2006. The speedbox – an
innovative application device for the Degesch plates. Proceedings of the
Ninth International Working Conference on Stored Product Protection,
15–18 October 2006, Sao Paulo, Brazil, Brazilian Postharvest Association,
152 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

Campinas, Brazil. In Lorini I, Bacaltchuk B, Beckel H, Deckers D, Sundfeld

E, Santos dos J P, Biagi J D, Celaro J C, Faroni L R D A, Bartolini L, de OF,
Sartori M R, Elias M C, Guedes R N C, De-Fonseca R G, Scussel VM (Eds).
pp: 564-566.
Kendall H W and Pimentel D. 1994. Constraints on the expansion of the global
food supply. Ambio, 23: 198-205.
Kostyukovsky M Rafaeli A Gileadi C Demchenko N and Shaaya E. 2002. Activation
of octopaminergic receptors by essential oil constituents isolated from aromatic
plants: possible mode of activity against insect pests. Pest Management
Science 58: 1-6.
Mertz F P and Yao R C. 1993. Amycolatopsis alba sp. nov., isolated from soil.
International Journal of Systematic Bacteriology 43(4): 715-720.
Navarro S. 2006. Modified atmospheres for the control of stored-product insects
and mites. Insect Management for Food Storage and Processing. Heaps J
W (Ed). St. Paul, Minnsota, USA. pp: 105-146.
Navarro S Donahaye E Kashanchi Y Pisarev V and Bulbul O. 1984. Airtight storage
of wheat in a PVC covered bunker. Controlled Atmosphere and Fumigation
in Grain Storages. B E Ripp (Ed.). Amsterdam. pp. 601-614.
Nayak M K Daglish G J and Byrne V S. 2005. Effectiveness of spinosad as a grain
protectant against resistant beetle and psocid pests of stored grain in Australia.
Journal of Stored Products Research 41(4): 455-467.
Phillips T W Cogan P M and Fadamiro H Y. 2000. Pheromones. Alternatives to
Pesticides in Stored product IPM. Subramanyam BH and Hagstrum DW
(Eds.). Boston. pp: 273-302.
Singh P K. 2010. A decentralized and holistic approach for grain management in
India. Current Science 99 (9): 1179-1180.
Varnava A. 2002. Hermetic storage of grain in Cyprus. Proceedings of
International Conference on Alternatives to Methyl Bromide. March 5-8,
Sevilla, Spain. pp: 163-168.
Weinberg Z G, Yan Y, Chen Y, Finkelman S, Ashbell G and Navarro S. 2008. The
effect of moisture level on high moisture maize (Zea mays L.) under hermetic
storage conditions-in vitro studies. Journal of Stored Products Research
44: 136-144.
White N D G and Jayas D S. 2003. Quality changes in grain under controlled
atmosphere storage. Proceedings of the International Conference on
Controlled Atmosphere and Fumigation in Grain Storages. Jerusalem,
Israel. pp: 205-214.
 Chapter 14

Contingency Planning in Crop Management under

Abiotic Stress
Mohammad Shamim

A contingency plan is a plan devised for an outcome other than in the usual
(expected) plan. Agriculture is highly susceptible to the extreme weather events
and a prolonged undesirable weather have potential to cause severe damage to the
crops standing in the field. Any significant deviation (either positive or negative)
from the normal is called as weather extreme or climate variability. It is a dangerous
meteorological phenomena with the potential to cause damage, serious social
disruption, or loss of human life. An extreme weather always causes damage to the
agriculture, livestock, poultries, fisheries and other components of the farming
systems.

The onset of monsoon in time with good distribution of rainfall are critical for
achieving optimum crop yields by farmers, particularly during Kharif season along
with other factors like inputs, labour and technology. Temperature plays a key role
during Rabi season particularly in wheat production. Rainfall during the monsoon
season not only determines the success of rainfed crops but also Influences water
availability to irrigated agriculture. Any deviation from normal monsoon pattern
affects crop production, fodder availability to livestock and causes huge losses to
farmers. Whenever, significant negative departure occurred in the South-West
monsoon, such as in the years 2002, 2009, 2012 and 2014, agricultural production
during Kharif declined significantly (Rao et. al., 2015).

EXTREME WEATHER
An extreme weather event refers to any dangerous meteorological phenomena
with the potential to cause serious social disruption, or loss of human life. Extreme
weather events are rare in nature and occur only 5 per cent or less of the time.
Frequent extreme weather events are the results of the anthropogenic climate change
and it is increasing day - by - day towards greater threats for agriculture as well as
human life.

Nature of the extreme weather events are primarily defined by the latitude,
altitude, topography, and current atmospheric conditions of the location. Actually
the duration and the intensity of the extreme weather events are responsible to
cause damage of the farming systems including agriculture, livestock, poultry, fisheries
154 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

and serious social disruption as well as human casualties. Year to year deviations in
the weather and occurrence of climatic extremes results in cold wave, fog, hailstorm,
thunderstorm, dust storms, heat wave, intense and excessive rain.

CONTINGENCY MEASURES AGAINST EXTREME WEATHER

Cold Wave
A cold wave is a meteorological phenomenon that is described by drastic fall in
temperature within a short period of time over a large area requiring substantially
increased protection to agriculture, livestock, poultry, fisheries and social activities.
The precise criterion for a cold wave is determined by the rate at which the
temperature falls, and the minimum to which it falls. A cold wave can cause death
and injury to livestock. Exposure to cold mandates greater caloric intake for all
animals. They often necessitate the purchase of foodstuffs at considerable cost to
feed livestock. The belief that more deaths are caused by cold weather in comparison
to hot weather is true as a result of the after effects of these temperatures (i.e.
cold, flu, pneumonia, etc.) all contributing factors to hypothermia.

Besides the livestock, mustard, and horticultural crops like mango, papaya,
banana, litchi, pomegranate etc. are worst affected by cold wave. Selection of cold
tolerant fruit species /varieties, application of light irrigation, frequent smoking in
the orchard and covering young fruit plants with thatches or plastic shelter are the
suitable contingency measures to reduce the damage due to aberrant weather.

Fog
Immediately after the onset of western disturbance a lot of moisture is available
in the atmosphere and the regional and synoptic scale conditions provide the trigger
for the formation of dense fog. Increasing trend in the relative humidity and increased
presence of aerosols of particulate matter are most likely causes of poor visibility.
Fog is a meteorological phenomenon generally occuring during the winter season.
The long foggy weather is alarming situation for the mango producer as flowering
gets delayed. The increase in relative humidity during fog results in higher incidence
of fungal diseases like late blight in vegetables.

Frost
Atmospheric condition that exists when the temperature of the earth’s surface
and earth bound objects falls below zero degree (freezing). Frost is mostly
experienced in the month of January in northern India. Himachal Pradesh, Punjab,
Haryana and Madhya Pradesh are frost prone areas. Suggested measures include
preference of frost tolerant varieties, change in planting time to avoid sensitive
Contingency Planning in Crop Management under Abiotic Stress 155

stages coinciding with frost periods, adopting shelter belts, shade trees, and use of
mulches as ground cover to prevent loss of heat etc.

Thunderstorm, Hailstorm and Dust-storm

Thunderstorm, Hailstorm and Dust storm are not regular weather phenomena
but these can be seen occasionally when winter season transforms into spring in
northern India. The thunderstorms and squally weather which are very hazardous
in nature are responsible for the mechanical abrasions of the fruits and vegetables
which deteriorate quality of the farm produce. Generally affected crops are wheat,
apple, litchi and other fruit crops. Suggested measures include use of anti-hail guns
and anti-hail nets, use of damaged fruits in preparation of processed foods, crop
insurance etc.

Heat Stress
Extreme positive departures from the normal maximum temperature result in
heat wave during the summer season. India meteorological Department (IMD) has
defined heat wave under two categories. The first category includes places where
the normal maximum temperature is more than 40oC. In such regions, if the day
temperature exceeds by 3 to 4 oC above the normal, it is said to be affected by a
heat wave. Similarly, when the day temperature is 5oC or more than the normal,
severe heat condition persists.

The second category considers the regions where the normal maximum
temperature is 40 oC or less. In these areas, if the day temperature is 5-6oC above
the normal, then the place is said to be affected by a moderate heat wave. A severe
heat wave condition exists when the day temperature exceeds the normal maximum
temperature over the place by 6oC.

A prolonged severe heat stress condition may results into serious problems of
water supply, aggravate moisture stress in the soil and adversely affect agriculture.
The effect of the heat wave on the crop depends on crop growth stages. Sometimes,
intense heat wave followed by late onset of monsoon creates worst and miserable
situation because of scarcity of the water for delay in sowing operations. Generally
heat stress lasts for 4 to 5 days, but it may go upto 15 days in exceptional cases
when onset of monsoon is too late.

Generally, the affected crops due to heat stress are wheat, mustard, rapeseed,
linseed and vegetables. Occurrence of heat stress at late reproductive phase or
grain filling stage adversely affects wheat production in the country. Re sowing of
nursery and providing light and frequent irrigation during nursery stage of basmati
rice, mulching in sugarcane crop and making the silage of sorghum fodder at harvest
156 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

stage are the suggested contingency measure against heat stress. Shortage of the
drinking water for the cattle has negative influence on milk yield. Poultry component
of the farming system is very sensitive to both cold as well as heat wave condition
and an intensive care is required to safeguard them against the extreme weather
conditions.

Drought
Drought is a meteorological phenomenon recurrent in nature resulting from
deficit in soil moisture and or water both in rainfed and irrigated areas. There may
be various scenarios of the drought in rainfed situation viz., early season drought
(delay in onset of monsoon) delays the sowing of the crops and affects the germination
and crop establishment phase, mid-season drought (normal onset of monsoon followed
by prolonged dry spell during vegetative and reproductive phenophases of the crops)
and terminal drought (prolonged dry spell during maturation stages of the crops).
Alternate choice of crop/cropping systems, selection of appropriate cultivars, and
changes in agronomic management practices are the suitable contingency plans for
above abiotic stresses under rainfed situation.

Ensured availability of quality fodder during sub-optimal monsoon/drought

situation becomes a challenge for sustaining the life of the livestocks as availability
of green fodder and natural grasses is drastically reduced. Even the supply of crop
residue, normally used as maintenance ration, is reduced whereas demand is
increased due to lesser supply of green fodder. To ameliorate the situation and to
save the animals, utilization of fodder from perennial trees with judicious use of
mineral mixture, stored silage and hays etc. are advisable under drought situation.

Unusual Rains (untimely and unseasonal)

Due to climate change, frequency of untimely rainfall with very high intensity
has increased which often leads to waterlogging in the field. Heavy rainfall coupled
with high speed winds at any growth stage of annual and perennial crops results in
serious crop losses, outbreak of pests and diseases and sometimes total crop failure.
Besides crops, livestock and poultry sector also suffers due to short supply of quality
feed and fodder under heavy rains. Re-sowing of crops (late sown cultivars),
providing surface drainage, and application of growth promoters/nutrient sprays to
promote quick flowering/ fruiting, plant protection measures against pest/ disease
outbreaks with need based prophylactic/curative interventions are required in
contingency planning. Post-harvest measures include shifting of produce to safer
place for drying, maintaining the quality of grain/fodder and protection against storage
pest/ disease damage.
Contingency Planning in Crop Management under Abiotic Stress 157

CONCLUSION
An extreme weather always causes damage to the crop, livestock, poultry
fishery and other components of the farming systems. Providing forecast about
occurrence of these extreme weather events with higher accuracy for block or
district level at least 3-5 days ahead may certainly reduce the damage to agriculture.
Adoption of suitable contingency measures for specific farm enterprises help in
putting check on potential losses due to extreme weather conditions.

REFERENCES
Rahman S U. 2014. Impacts of flood on the lives and livelihoods of people in
Bangladesh: a case study of a village in Manikganj district, A Dissertation for
the Degree of Master in Disaster Management, Postgraduate Programs in
Disaster Management (PPDM) BRAC University, Dhaka, Bangladesh
Rao C S Venkateswarlu B Sikka A K Prasad Y G Chary G R Rao K V Gopinath
K A Osman M Ramana D B V Maheswari M and Rao V U M. 2015. District
Agriculture Contingency Plans to Address Weather Aberrations and for
Sustainable Food Security in India. ICAR-Central Research Institute for
Dryland Agriculture, Natural Resource Management Division, Hyderabad -
500 059, India. p-22.
Shamim M Singh K K and Gangwar B. 2015. Extreme weather and contingency
strategies for sustainable farming systems under western plain zone. Indian
farming 65(3): 41-44.
 Chapter 15

Economics of Farm Productivity and Profitability

Harbir Singh

Agriculture sector in the country is facing lot of challenges concerning sustainable

food production and nutritional security, loss of biodiversity, natural resource
degradation and plateauing of productivity growth mainly in green revolution areas.
Further, the issues concerning climate change has necessitated a re-look at the
development strategy being followed to overcome the challenges. It is widely
accepted that the problems of agriculture sector is highly location-specific and those
can be addressed better if the problems are viewed from system’s perspective
through an integrated approach to manage farm resources. Producing more food
with limited land and water resources requires continuous raising of productivity.
But productivity can not be substantially improved unless one has access to better
technologies (seeds, irrigation, fertilizers, farming practices, etc) and better incentive
structures (prices and markets).

The adoption of new and improved technologies involve investment which may
initially raise the cost of farming. In fact, cost of farming in relation to productivity
holds the key to how profitable the farming is or can be. Hence, we need a closer
look at different cost concepts and how it is measured. This paper discusses and list
out few important concepts, indicators and methods which are useful in measuring
farm productivity and profitability in a typical farm operating environment.

FARM MANAGEMENT GOALS

Setting clear goals is one of the key element for good farm management. Goals
give a focus for making farm decisions under limited resource conditions. Some
important goals may be food security, profit maximization and risk minimization.
These and other goals influence planning and decision-making on the farm. A
profitable farming requires that the farm produce is produced in an efficient manner
and is sold the market on remunerative prices. Farm profitability can be increased
by enhancing the scale of production in an efficient manner.

SOME KEY CONCEPTS

It is useful to understand key words and definitions for understanding and
analyzing various aspects of a typical farm.
160 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

Factors of production: The main factors of production are natural resources (land,
water) labour and capital.

Farm enterprises: Farm enterprises can be divided into three types: competitive,
supplementary and complementary.

Cost of production: Value of inputs needed to produce crops or livestock. Variable

costs apply to a specific enterprise. Fixed costs generally apply to the farm as a
whole.

Opportunity Cost: Opportunity cost is defined as the cost of any activity measured
in terms of the best alternative activity which is forgone. Let’s say you have Rs.10,000
and your choice is to either buy shares of a company or leave the money in a bank
account that earns only 5 per cent per year. If the company stock returns 10 per
cent, you have benefited from your decision because the alternative would have
been less profitable. However, if company stocks returns 2 per cent when you
could have had 5 per cent from the bank, then your opportunity cost is (5 per cent
- 2 per cent = 3 per cent).

Shadow Price: For an enterprise, a shadow price is the maximum price that
management is willing to pay for an extra unit of a given limited resource. If a
production line is already operating at its maximum 40-hour limit, the shadow price
would be the maximum price the manager would be willing to pay for operating it
for an additional hour, based on the benefits he would get from this change.

Value of production: Money received from the sales of produce, added to the
value of that consumed or stored.

Gross profits: What an enterprise adds to total farm profits (Gross margin=Value
of production – Variable costs).

Farm profit: Money left over after variable and fixed costs are paid.

Productivity: It is the measure of output produced per unit. It is a physical rather

than a financial indicator, and usually measured as a relative concept (across farms
or over the time)

Partial productivity: A subset of total output measured in relation to a subset of

inputs is called a partial productivity measure.

Technological progress: Technical progress is a condition when all farms, in

aggregate, move towards a higher production frontier.
Economics of Farm Productivity and Profitability 161

Technical efficiency: It measures how efficient one farm is in comparison to the

best farm around (local frontier). It is an indicator of maximum output produced
with the best combination of resources.

Economic efficiency: It measures the financial returns on resources used and

looks at the cost of using resources to produce a given level of output. Low
profitability is often traced to poor efficiency in one or more areas of the farm
business.

Profitability: It is a measure of the financial performance of farm. It indicates total

receipts less total costs. While absolute profitability is a measure of whole farm
performance, relative profitability is useful for comparisons between farms with
different scales.

Depreciation: It is the reduction in value of an asset over a period of time. A

necessary condition for calculating depreciation on an asset is that the asset must
be owned, not rented, and it should have a useful life of more than one year that can
be projected. Most often used methods for estimating depreciation are:

Straight line method:

Depreciation = (Cost of acquisition– Salvage value) / Life of asset

Diminishing balance method:

Depreciation= (Original cost –accumulated depreciation occurred in prior years) x
Rate of depreciation

Costs: The term ‘cost’ generally refers to the outlay of funds used for productive
services. For the sake of simplicity, costs incurred in farm operations may be
categorised into two groups:

Paid-out Costs
● Hired labour (human, animal and machinery)
● Maintenance expenses on owned animals and machinery
● Expenses on material inputs such as seed (home grown and purchased), fertilizer,
manure (owned and purchased), pesticides and irrigation
● Depreciation on implements and farm buildings (such as cattle sheds, machine
sheds, storage sheds)
● Land revenue
● Rent paid for leased-in land.
162 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

Imputed Costs
● Value of family labour
● Managerial input of family
● Rent of owned land
● Interest on owned fixed capital

The details of cost concepts and the items of costs included under each concept
are given below:

Cost A1 = All actual expenses in cash and kind incurred in production

i. Value of hired human labour

ii. Value of hired bullock labour
iii. Value of owned bullock labour
iv. Value of owned machinery labour
v. Hired machinery charges
vi. Value of seed (both farm produced and purchased)
vii. Value of pesticides
viii. Value of manures (owned and purchased)
ix. Value of fertilizers
x. Depreciation on implements and farm buildings
xi. Irrigation charges
xii. Land revenue, cesses and other taxes
xiii. Interest on working capital
xiv. Miscellaneous expenses

Cost A2 = Cost A1 + rent for leased-in land

Cost B1 = Cost A1 + interest on value of owned capital assets (excluding land)
Cost B2 = Cost B1+ rental value of owned land (net of land revenue) and rent paid
for leased-in land
Cost C1 = Cost B1 + imputed value of family labour
Cost C2 = Cost B2 + imputed value of family labour
Economics of Farm Productivity and Profitability 163

Cost C2* = C2 adjusted to take into account valuation of human labour a market
rate or statutory minimum wage rate whichever is higher
Cost C3 = Cost C2* + 10% of Cost C2* on account of managerial function
performed by farmer

It may be noted that costs progressively escalate in an alphabetical order, that

is to say that Ci > Bi >Ai , where i = 1 or 2. Further, costs with suffix 1 (A1, B1 and
C1) exclude components of land rent/rental value while costs with suffix 2 (A2, B2
and C2) include that and therefore, A2 > A1, B2>B1 and C2 > C1. It is interesting
to note that this type of classification of costs is useful to distinguish actual expenses
incurred by the owner operators and tenant farmers from imputed costs, such as
interest on owned fixed capital, value of family labour, rental value of owned land
incurred by the farmers. This classification enables to work out range of costs
associated with farm enterprise, returns to factors of production and profitability at
farm level.

Other related and equally important term is cost of production. Sometimes we

may find that few researchers, particularly biological scientists use the cost of
production and cost of cultivation interchangeably, which is not correct. The cost of
production is estimated by multiplying the ratio of value of main product to cost of
cultivation and the ratio of value of main and by-product to derived yield. The
criteria for imputing different cost items are given in the Table 1.
Table 1: Cost imputation criteria for a typical farm enterprise
Sl. No. Cost items Criteria

1. Family labour On the basis of statutory wage rate or the actual market
rate whichever is higher
2. Owned animal labour On the basis of cost of maintenance which includes
cost of feeding, depreciation on animal and cattle shed,
labour charges and other expenses.
3. Owned machinery On the basis of cost of maintenance of farm machinery
charges which includes, fuel, electricity, lubricants, depreciation
repairs and other maintenance expenses.
4. Implements Depreciation and charges on account of minor repairs
5. Farm produced manure Valued at the rates prevailing in the village
6. Rent of owned land Estimated on the basis of prevailing rents in the village
for identical type of land or as reported by the sample
farmers subject to the ceiling of fair rents given in the
land legislation of the concerned state
7. Interest on owned Interest on the present value of fixed assets charged at
fixed capital the rate of 10 per cent per annum.
164 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

APPORTIONING OF JOINT COSTS

There are cost items which are incurred for the farm as a whole, and not
exclusively for a given crop or enterprise. Such joint costs are allocated to individual
enterprises, among different categories of livestock and so on. For example,
depreciation on farm buildings and implements, land rent, land revenue, cesses and
taxes and interest on owned fixed capital are such costs which are allocated to
each category of crops in proportion to their areas. The cost on livestock is allocated
to each category of animals in proportion of its numbers to the total number of
animals owned by the farmer.

The apportioning of joint cost incurred jointly on different crops grown in mixed
cropping is done in proportion to the total value of output contributed by the individual
crop in the mixed cropping. The apportionment of total cost of cultivation between
the main product and by-product is done in proportion to their contribution to the
total value of output. The most common criteria for evaluating farm assets are
given in Table 2.
Table 2: Assigning values to farm assets
Sl. No. Farm asset Criteria

1. Owned and self- Evaluated at rates prevailing in the village, taking into
cultivated land account the differences in type of soil, distance from
the village, distance from the main road, source of
irrigation available etc.
2. Farm buildings Evaluated at rates prevailing in the village
(cattle sheds, storage
sheds, etc)

3. Implements and other Evaluated at market price

farm machinery

4. Livestock Evaluated at market price

INVESTMENT APPRAISAL CRITERIA

Primarily the benefit-cost analysis (BCA) has been used for evaluating an
investment in a project by comparing the economic benefits with the economic
costs of the activity. Benefit-cost analysis has several objectives. First, BCA can
be used to evaluate the economic merit of a project. Second the results from a
series of benefit-cost analyses can be used to compare competing projects. BCA
can also be used to assess business decisions, to examine the worth of public
investments, or to assess the wisdom of using natural resources or altering
environmental conditions. Ultimately, benefit-cost analysis aims to examine potential
actions with the objective of increasing social welfare.
Economics of Farm Productivity and Profitability 165

Measures of Costs and Benefits

Several variations on the basic benefit-cost rule can be used to compare the
benefits and costs of investments, projects, or farm decisions. These are given
below:

Net Present Value (NPV)

The net present value (NPV) is the current value of all the net benefits from a
project/ enterprise. Net benefits are simply the sum of benefits minus costs. The
sum is discounted at the discount rate. Using this method, if the project has a NPV
greater than zero then it appears to be a good candidate for implementation. The
formula used to calculate the NPV is:

Where,
C0 = initial investment
Ci = cash flow
r = discount rate
T = Time

Benefit-Cost Ratio (BCR)

The benefit-cost ratio (BCR) is calculated as the NPV of benefits divided by
the NPV of costs. In other words, the total discounted benefits are divided by the
total discounted costs. Projects with a benefit-cost ratio greater than 1 have greater
benefits than costs; hence they have positive net benefits. The higher the BCR, the
greater the benefits relative to the costs. Note that simple benefit-cost ratio is
insensitive to the magnitude of net benefits and therefore, may favour projects with
small costs and benefits over those with higher net benefits.

BCR = Total sum of discounted benefits (Bt) divided by total sum of discounted
costs (Ct).

If the BCR exceeds one, then the project might be considered as profitable.

Internal Rate of Return (IRR)

The internal rate of return (IRR) is the maximum interest that could be paid for
the project resources, leaving enough money to cover investment and operating
costs, which would still allow the investor to break even. In other words, the IRR is
166 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

the discount rate for which the present value of total benefits equals the present
value of total costs:

PV (Benefits) - PV(Costs) = 0.

In general, the IRR should be greater than the discount rate for a project to be
accepted.

TIME AND DISCOUNTING

Discounting is a technique that converts all benefits and costs into their value in
the present. Discounting is based on the premise that a rupee received today is
worth more than a rupee received in the future. Another way of saying this is that
a rupee received in the future is not worth as much as that same rupee received in
the present. That is, the future value of the rupee is discounted. Discounting is the
opposite of compounding. Not surprisingly, the rate at which a future value is
discounted is closely related to the rate at which present values are compounded,
namely the interest rate. As we know from compounding, if the interest rate is 5 per
cent, then Rs.100 kept in bank today will be worth Rs. 105 a year from now.
Whenever the benefits and costs used in a benefit-cost analysis occur in the future,
it is important to discount these future values to account for their present value.

Example:
Suppose you are given the choice of two investments. The first pays you Rs.210
today, but nothing thereafter. The second investment pays Rs.100 today and Rs.115
next year (total Rs.215). Does the second investment look better? Maybe or may
not be. It depends on the discount rate. If the discount rate is 5 per cent, the first
investment looks like a better choice, even though the second investment pays out
a greater sum.

SUGGESTED READINGS
Coelli T Rao D S P and Battese G E.1998. An Introduction to Efficiency and
Productivity Analysis, Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Gaurav S and Mishra S. 2011. Size-class and Returns to Cultivation in India: A Cold
Case Reopened, Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research, Mumbai,
India.
Government of India 2004. State of the Indian Farmer: A Millennium Study,
Department of Agriculture and Cooperation, Ministry of Agriculture.
Sadhu A N and Singh A. 1989. Fundamentals of Agricultural Economics. Himalaya
Publishing House, New Delhi.
 Chapter 16

Supervision of Farm Operations and Manpower

Anil Kumar

Supervision is the act of overseeing something or somebody. It includes advising,

educating, monitoring, and supporting in relation to task output or task performance.
Business Dictionary defines supervision as monitoring and regulating of processes,
tasks or delegated responsibilities. According to Webster’s Dictionary, supervision
can be defined as “Social and educational process to provide guidance and leadership
through cooperative action.” It is directly concerned with giving guidance, evaluation
and the development of professional growth of personnel. Depending on the context,
supervision involves different proportions of:

● Educational input with the purpose to improving knowledge, skills, and attitudes
of workers.
● Organizing input with the purpose of improving the effectiveness and/or
efficiency of resources used and quality of results or output on a farm.
● Motivational input with the purpose of establishing a good spirit and morale that
improve the drive and satisfaction of the workers.
● Monitoring and enforcement of compliance with law, rules, norms, ethics, and
policies in farm operations.

PRINCIPLES OF SUPERVISION
Rogers and Olmstead (1950) gave the following principles of supervision:

1. Supervision is an essential part of the administration, integral but not identical to

it.
2. Supervision is a cooperative activity. It takes place through the shared ideas,
efforts and experiences of all the members of a team.
3. It seeks to improve the methods of administration and create a physical, social
and psychological climate favorable to learning.
4. Planning is fundamental to supervision. It is orderly in procedure from the birth
of idea to the execution of a series of activities.
5. Supervision is creative. It provides opportunity for developing originality and
self-expression.
168 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

6. It is scientific in its approach to problem-solving.

7. Supervision substitutes leadership for authority. It is based on the democratic
philosophy that expects individual differences and assumes that people are
capable of acquiring growth.
8. It is primarily the art of building creative human relationships.
9. Successful supervision is measured in terms of quality and growth of those
being supervised.
10. Supervision helps in fixing goals as a means for systematic evaluation of
performance.

ROLE OF SUPERVISORS
A good supervision is judged from its results which depend upon the ability and
the efforts of the supervisor. Supervisors are not merely inspectors, but their primary
aim is to aid the workers to become self-directed. He should make the workers
learn to isolate and analyse their problems and seek the best methods for solving
them. This can only be possible if the supervisor has a thorough understanding of
the workers problems and helps them in developing confidence in their ability to
solve those problems. One of the important functions of the supervisor is to help
interpret the goals to the workers so that they understand it better: what is being
planned, why it has been planned and how it will be executed (Singh, 1987).

The supervisor is a status leader by virtue of his appointment to his position. As

a leader of his group he has to play his proper role in the process of deliberate
change. He should also take special responsibility for the security, growth and
accomplishment of his subordinates. According to Adam and Dickey (1966),
appropriate functions for status leader are: (i) improving the human relations within
the group, (ii) furnishing expertness along certain lines, (iii) generating leadership
among others, and (iv) coordinating the efforts of others.

Reining Jr. (1968) described the job of supervisor as (i) technical relating to the
work to be done (ii) institutional relating to the policies and procedures according to
which the work must be done, and (iii) personal relating to the handling of workers.
Although supervisor has authority by virtue of his position, yet it should not be used
as force but only a basis for cooperation. He has to lead and not push the group. He
will be judged by the contribution he makes to release the potential ability and
power of the people he leads. He is not to use authority only but also to accept
responsibility. He is to encourage action through group conscience, building morale
and stimulating growth.
Supervision of Farm Operations and Manpower 169

SUPERVISORS AS CHANGE AGENTS

Supervisor is the person directly involved or charged with responsibilities relating
to the study and improvement of the activities of others. It is his responsibility to
motivate his employees for production. According to Indik, Georgopoulos and
Seashore (1960), a level of performance tends to be positively associated with
supervisors’ supportive behaviour. The change in the organization will best be realized
if the supervisory role incorporates the change-agent role. The change-agent is the
catalyst who attempts to bring about the change, and in this case the principal
change-agent is the supervisor.

While introducing changes, supervisor has to face hostile attitude of the workers.
He will have to give deep and searching thought to several factors involved such as
values, aspirations, concept of self, fears and ethics, etc. He has to adopt different
strategies in different situations to overcome resistance from the subordinates. Some
of the strategies of change suggested by Pfiffner and Presthus (1967) are as under:

1. The strategy of pressure: Sometimes, one has to use pressure or force,

which may be done apologetically. This approach should be used only in
exceptional cases. Irrational use of force must be avoided.
2. The strategy of communication: It is important to assess what is being
communicate, the strategy of communication can facilitate change, but at the
same time it can also hinder change.
3. The strategy of social awareness: Social factors play an important role in
the process of change. The supervisors should understand social grouping of
workers, their values and belief systems location of power centres, socio-metric
pattern, etc. in addition to technical knowledge.
4. The strategy of goal setting: This involves job analysis, analysis of work
flow, layout and scheduling so that there should not be unnecessary displacement
and disruption of the work schedule.
5. The strategy of fusion: Generally, there is difference in the organizational
goals and the personal goals. The acute differences result in conflict, which
must be avoided through ‘fusion’, i.e., to bring the two sets of goals more
closely together. The principal thought for the supervisor to keep in mind is that
resistance to change arises to a considerable extent from disturbing deep-seated
personal goals of workers.

TECHNIQUES OF SUPERVISION
The supervision in broadest sense is not mere inspection. It is to provide motivation
to the staff for action and has to equip them with necessary knowledge, services
and supplies for the action. This type of supervision cannot be provided through
170 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

inspection visits only, but needs careful planning. While planning for supervision,
supervisor must know the purpose of supervision, the problem to be solved and the
solutions of the problem. Supervisor also has to know that he is going to work with
workers of different personalities and abilities. A good supervisor is also an effective
teacher. Therefore, he must understand the learning process and its implication for
supervision. Singh (1987) elaborated various techniques of supervision to provide
the guidance and leadership which are given below:

1. Supervisory visits: This is the most common method being used by the
supervisors. The supervisory visits are made to see the actual work being done
by the workers. in the field and the problems being faced by them. These visits
should not be ceremonial but the results of observational analysis should be
utilized to build a sound plan for improving the work. In many instances workers
are terrified by visits of the supervisors because most of these are conducted
for inspection purposes. The visits will be pleasant if the behaviour of the
supervisor results in improvement of relationship between workers, the supervisor
and the work. A good supervisor does not only teach the workers but also
learns from them.
2. Individual contact approach: This is the informal visit of the supervisor to
the workers to talk individually or visit of the worker to the office of the supervisor
to discuss his problems and progress. In these meetings the atmosphere should
be kept informal as far as possible and talk should be between two colleagues
and not between an officer and a subordinate. In a friendly atmosphere, the
worker will be able to express his opinion freely and frankly. The supervisor
should always be ready to discuss the problems of the worker.
3. Group contact approach: Group meetings are becoming more and more
common during these days. These meetings are used to solve common problems
and to take collective decisions. The success of the supervisor depends upon
his ability to hold successful group contacts and group meetings. Generally,
these meetings are considered as wastage of time and worker do not take
much interest in such meetings. The favourable attitude towards group meetings
can be created through making these meetings of real value to the participants.
This can be done by skillfully building meetings around those purposes which
the workers consider important.

The group contact should be a real discussion between all the participants. If it
is a one sided affair, i.e. dominated by the supervisor it is not going to be a success.
The supervisor should ensure wide participation of the group members in the
discussion and see that the business is conducted in an efficient but relaxed
atmosphere. These meetings will serve the purpose only if the supervisor is ready
to accept the group decisions and make efforts to put these decisions into practice.
Supervision of Farm Operations and Manpower 171

4. Need-based approach: Psychological research has established that behaviour

of the person is influenced by causes and these causes are not simple but
complex in nature. Most of these causes are based on the needs of the persons.
Some important needs are need for security and need for achievement, need
for recognition, etc. Since the supervisor has to deal with persons, if he does
not know human psychology it will be difficult for him to inspire them for action.
The needs of workers can be identified by various methods. A successful
supervisor is the one who not only locates the problems but also makes efforts
to find solutions to them.
5. Collective approach: Modern supervision is more of a problem solving process
rather than checking of the subordinates. Problems can be solved in a better
way through collective efforts. Workshops are the most common technique
being employed to solve problems collectively. Workshop has the advantage of
group discussion as well as learning by doing. Workshop can be organized
when a group of persons can profit by a sharing ideas and working together on
a basic problem of common interest.

MORALE BUILDING
Morale is both an index of a sound employment situation and a positive means
of building an efficient organization. It reflects a socio-psychological situation, in
which men and women voluntarily seek to develop and apply their full powers to
the task upon which they are engaged, by reason of intellectual or moral satisfaction
which they derive from their pride in the service. High morale is complex
combinations of many factors that make people do what the organization expects
them to do.

Morale can be built up if the members of the organization have a sense of

belonging to the group. An adequate flow of information and opportunities for sharing
in institutional thinking helps in morale building. Homogeneity, constructive
competition, intellectual and emotional quality and commitment are some other
requirements for the maintenance of positive morale. In administration, morale is
not only visible in the results but also in the amount of satisfaction achieved through
being on that job. Morale is tested by finding sentiments and attitudes of the workers.

One of the important jobs of supervisor is to raise the morale of the workers by
acting as a stimulator, catalyst and motivator. Some of the approaches to build up
morale suggested by Singh (1987) are mentioned below:

1. The supervisor should keep in mind that human dignity and sensitive appreciation
of higher goals are not lacking in the persons he is supervising.
172 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

2. Creation of a social atmosphere or climate that will tend to make people relatively
well-adjusted in their work, create team spirit, and minimize obsessive pre-
occupation with personal troubles.
3. The supervisor should know that discipline means not only stopping an
undesirable behaviour, but teaching a goal of desirable accomplishment.
4. Instead of originating action by command, the supervisor must find ways of
stimulating the subordinates to take the initiative themselves.
5. The supervisor should try to know his subordinates. One of the best ways of
influencing people or changing their attitudes and customs is to learn their feelings
and sentiments.
6. Supervision calls for a set of supervisor-subordinate relationships through two-
way communication, and problem solving through consultation.
7. The supervisor should act as a guide, friend, helper, leader and not an authoritarian
controller. The dominant characteristics of supervision are help and support.
8. The dominant method of securing change should be through persuasion.

CONCLUSION
An effective supervision leads to greater employee motivation resulting in more
effective coordination of work and better time management. An understanding of
how work links to the overall goal by the employees leads to significant learning on
the job and building up of morale. The uninhibited two-way communication helps in
avoiding conflict/misunderstanding in the group, thereby reducing the stress levels
of supervisor and employees significantly.

REFERENCES
Georgopoulos B S Indik B P and Seashore S E.1960. Some Models of Organizational
Effectiveness. Institute of Social Research, University of Michigan.
Pfiffner J M and Presthus.1967. Public Administration. The Ronald Press
Company, New York.
Rogers F E and Olmstead A G.1950. Supervision in the cooperative extension
service. National Agricultural Extension Centre for Advanced Study. University
of Wisconsin.
Singh R. 1987. A Textbook of Extension Education. Sahitya Kala Prakashan,
Ludhiana.
 Chapter 17

Soil Testing Procedures and Calculation of

Fertilizer Doses
Vinod Kumar and O.K. Tomar

All green plants having chlorophyll pigment make food through the process of
photosynthesis by using carbon dioxide from air, energy from sunlight, and water
and nutrients from soil. Like other living organisms, plants also require nutrients to
complete their life cycle. Some of these nutrients are classified as essential nutrients,
whereas others are grouped into beneficial nutrients. These nutrients are taken by
the plants from different sources like carbon, hydrogen and oxygen from air and
water, and primary, secondary and micronutrients from the soil.

About 118 elements have been recognized but all are not essential and only 17
have been listed as essential. The essential elements are Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus
(P), Potassium (K), Sulphur (S), Calcium (Ca), Magnesium (Mg), Zinc (Zn), Iron
(Fe), Molybdenum (Mo), Manganese (Mn), Copper (Cu), Boron (Bo), Chlorine
(Cl) and Nickel (Ni). Apart from these essential nutrients, there are some beneficial
elements like Sodium (Na), Silicon (Si), Vanadium (V) and Cobalt (Co). Arnon and
Stout (1939) and Arnon (1954) have proposed the criteria for essentiality of an
element as follows:

● The plant must be unable to complete its life cycle in absence of the mineral
element
● The function of the element must not be replaceable by another mineral element
● The element must be directly involved in plant metabolism such as component
of an essential plant constituent or required for a distinct metabolic step like
enzyme activation.

Several studies have indicated the extent of nutrient deficiency in Indian soil as
follows:

Nitrogen - 89% (63% low and 26% medium)

Phosphorus - 80% (42% low and 38% medium)
Potassium - 50% (13% low and 37% medium)
Sulphur - 41%
174 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

Boron - 33%
Zinc - 48%
Iron - 12%
Molybdenum - 13%
Manganese - 5%
Copper - 3%

The inherent capacity of the soil to supply essential nutrients to plants is known
as “soil fertility”. If the inherent capacity of the soil to supply nutrients is less and
the demand of the plants is more, the nutrients need to be supplemented from
external sources (organic/inorganic). In order to determine the deficiency of a
particular nutrient in the soil vis-à-vis requirement of the plant, soil test is carried out
for estimating the appropriate dose of nutrients to be supplied through external
sources. Soil testing procedure involves a number of steps like soil sampling, chemical
analysis and preparation of soil test results.

SOIL SAMPLING
Soil tests measure the relative nutrient status of soils and are used as a basis for
profitable and environmentally responsible fertilizer application. The accuracy of a
soil test result is influenced by the laboratory analysis but may be influenced even
more by the quality of the soil sample. Sample collection is extremely important in
the accuracy and repeatability of a soil test.

Time of Sampling
Soil samples to be analyzed for soil pH, EC, salt content, zinc (Zn) and phosphorus
(P) can be taken nearly any time of year. Potassium (K) values from samples taken
in frozen soil may test high compared to other times of the year. Sulphur (S) and
chloride (Cl) are mobile in the soil, so sampling in the fall or spring is recommended.
Soil sample should be taken after harvesting of the field without disturbing the field.
Soil sample should be taken when field is at moisture level of field capacity.

Depth of Sampling
Soil sampling and analysis assumes normally from 0-6 inches in depth. This
weight per unit volume (bulk density) assumes a medium soil texture with some
compaction. In some cases soil samples upto 12 inches are also taken for analysis.
Under conventional tillage and conservation tillage, sampling 0-6 inch depth is
adequate. Soil pH tends to become acid at the surface, especially if N fertilizers
are applied to the surface. Separating the 0-6 inch depth into a 0-2 inch depth would
identify these trends.
Soil Testing Procedures and Calculation of Fertilizer Doses 175

For analysis of soil pH, P, K, Zn, copper (Cu) and manganese (Mn), sampling
the 0-6 inch depth is adequate. In long-term no-till fields, soil pH, P, and K may
become stratified. Most studies for P and K suggest that stratification is not important
as long as the fertilizer P and K rates based on 0-6 inch value are followed. However,
soil pH may be important in the surface 0-2 inch layer because of possible herbicide
interaction with lower pH levels. The 0-6 inch depth is also important for soluble
salt. To determine soil NO3-N, S and Cl, samples are taken from at least the. 0-24
inch depth. The 0-24 inch sample should be broken into a 0-6 inch depth and a 6-24
inch depth so that the relative position of N in the soil can be determined. In some
years, NO3-N can be leached to lower depths so that large amounts are in the 6-24
inch layer but only a small amount may be left in the 0-6 inch layer.

DETERMINING WHOLE FIELD NUTRIENT VALUES

Collecting a selectively random sample composite is strategy for determining
whole field nutrient values. Selectively random sampling means that the field is
sampled only in areas which represent most of the field area. Unusual landscape
features such as eroded areas, saline or sodic zones and old building lots are not
sampled. Also, avoid sampling in dead furrows or back furrows, under old manure
or hay piles, sugar beet, tare piles, animal droppings, next to ditches, sloughs and
roads, known banded fertilizer locations, and small depressions. Collecting at least
20 soil cores from a field results in a large volume of soil collected. In some soils,
such as fine sandy loams, the soil may break up easily in a bucket, enabling thorough
mixing before a 2/3 pint subsample is obtained for analysis. However, many soils do
not break up easily. It may be necessary to take the entire sample out of the field,
dry and grind it to obtain a good mixture. The resulting sample, whatever the method
of collection and preparation, must represent the 20 core locations to provide the
most accurate and reproducible results.

1. Soil pH and plant nutrients

Soil pH is the negative logarithm of hydrogen ion (H+) activity in an aqueous
solution. Soil pH or soil reaction is an indication of the acidity or alkalinity of soil and
is measured in pH units. The pH scale goes from 0 to 14 with pH 7 as the neutral
point. As the amount of hydrogen ions in the soil increases, the soil pH decreases,
thus becoming more acidic. From pH 7 to 0, the soil is increasingly more acidic, and
from pH 7 to 14, the soil is increasingly more alkaline or basic.

Agronomists generally use soil pH as measured in a 2:1 water-to-soil mixture

as an index of a soil’s acidity or alkalinity. In a soil test report, pH is often reported
with descriptive modifier as shown in Table 1.
176 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

Table 1: Soil pH and interpretation

5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.5 8.0 8.5

Strongly Medium Slightly Neutral Neutral Mildly Moderately

Acidic Acidic Acidic Best Range for Most Crops Alkaline

Nitrogen
One of the key soil nutrients is nitrogen (N). Plants can take up N in the
ammonium (NH4+) or nitrate (NO3-) form. At pH’s near neutral (pH 7), the microbial
conversion of NH4+ to nitrate (nitrification) is rapid, and crops generally take up
nitrate. In acid soils (pH < 6), nitrification is slow, and plants with the ability to take
up NH4+ may have an advantage. There are other factors such as soil moisture,
temperature, texture and cation exchange capacity that can also affect volatilization.

Soil pH is also an important factor in the N nutrition of legumes. The survival

and activity of Rhizobium, the bacteria responsible for N fixation in association with
legumes, declines as soil acidity increases. This is the particular concern when
attempting to grow alfalfa on soils with pH below 6.

Phosphorus
The form and availability of soil phosphorus (P) is also highly pH dependent. P
in these Ca-P minerals will still contribute to crop P requirements. As plants remove
P from the soil solution, the more soluble of the Ca-P minerals dissolve, and soluble
P levels are replenished. Greenhouse and field research has shown that over 90 per
cent of the fertilizer P tied up with Ca-P minerals will still be available to crops in
subsequent years. The fate of added P in acidic soils is somewhat different as
precipitation reactions occur with aluminum (Al) and iron (Fe). The tie-up of P in
Al-P and Fe-P minerals under acidic conditions tends to be more permanent than in
Ca-P and Mg-P minerals.

Potassium
The fixation of potassium (K) and entrapment at specific sites between clay
layers tends to be lower under acid conditions. This situation is thought to be due to
the presence of soluble aluminum that occupies the binding sites. Liming increases
K availability, likely through the displacement of exchangeable K by Ca.

Sulfur
Sulfate (S042-) sulfur, the plant available form of S, is little affected by soil pH.
Soil Testing Procedures and Calculation of Fertilizer Doses 177

Micronutrients
The availability of the micronutrients manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), copper (Cu),
zinc (Zn), and boron (B) tend to decrease as soil pH increases. Molybdenum (Mo)
behaves counter to the trend described above.

2. BULK DENSITY MEASURE BY CORE METHOD

This is a field method for bulk density determination.

Principle: In this method a cylindrical metal sampler or core of known volume is

driven into the ground to the desired depth and carefully removed to preserve a
known volume of sample as it existed in situ. This core sample is dried at 105oC
and weighed. Bulk density is the oven dried mass divided by volume of the sample.
The core method is usually unsatisfactory if gravels are present in the soil.

Apparatus: A core sampler, Sharp knife, A tray, Moisture boxes and oven.

Procedure: Drive the sampler vertically into soil surface far enough to fill the
sample but not to compress the soil in the confined space. Carefully remove the
sampler and its contents. Trim the soil extending beyond the sampler with a sharp
knife. The soil sample volume is the same as the volume of the sampler or the core.
Transfer the wet soil to a tray and weight it. Take a portion of the sample in a
moisture box, weigh and place it in an oven at 1050C for about 24 hours and weigh
it again.

Observation and Calculations:

Mass of wet bulk soil sample = M1 g.
Mass of the moisture box = M2 g.
Mass of moisture box + wet soil = M3 g.
Mass of moisture box + oven dry soil = M4 g.
Mass of wet soil = (M3 – M2) g.
Mass of oven dry soil = (M4 – M2) g.

3. MEASUREMENT OF ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY (EC) IN SOIL

Purpose: Salted soils are classified on the basis of two criteria, one is on the basis
of total soluble salt (TSS) content and another is exchangeable sodium percentage
(ESP) or more recently sodium absorption ratio (SAR).
178 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

Principle: The electrical conductivity of water extract of soil gives a measure of

soluble salt content of the soil. Pure water is very poor conductor of electric current,
whereas water containing the dissolved salts in soil conducts current approximately
in proportion to the amount of soluble salts present. Based on this fact, the
measurement of electrical conductivity of an extract gives a satisfactory indication
of the total concentration of ionized constituents. The conductivity of the soil is the
specific conductivity at 250C of water extract obtained from a soil and water mixture
of a definite ratio. It is measured on a conductivity meter and normally reported in
dS/m or milimhos/cm and the value gives information on the total amount of the
soluble salts present in soil, i.e. on the degree of salinity.

4. DETERMINATION OF ORGANIC CARBON IN SOIL

Purpose: Besides its value as a source of plant nutrients, organic matter has a
favourable effect upon soil physical properties. The determination of organic carbon
in soil serves indirectly as measure of available nitrogen.

1. Walkley and Black Method (1934):

Principle: Organic carbon is oxidized with potassium dichromate in the presence
of concentrated sulphuric acid. Potassium dichromate produces nascent oxygen,
which combines with the carbon of organic matter to produce CO2. The excess
volume of K2Cr2O7 is titrated against the standard solution of ferrous ammonium
sulphate in presence of H3PO4.

Reaction:
2K2Cr2O7 + 6H2SO4+3C = 2Cr2 (SO4)3 + 8H2O + 3CO2
Where,
Mol. wt. of K2Cr2O7 = 294.212,
Eq. wt. of K2Cr2O7 = 294.212/6 = 49.03
2 K2Cr2O7 = 3C
49.03 g K2Cr2O7 = 12C/4 = 3.0 g C
As 1000 cc (N) K2Cr2O7 = 3.0 g C
1 cc (N) K2Cr2O7 = 3 g C / 1000 = 0.003 g C

Apparatus:
1. Conical flask – 500 ml
2. Pipettes – 2 ml, 10 ml, & 20 ml capacity
Soil Testing Procedures and Calculation of Fertilizer Doses 179

3. Burette – 50 ml capacity
4. Volumetric measuring flask – 2 Nos. (1 Lit. capacity)
5. Reagent bottles.
6. Asbestos sheet

Reagents:
1. 1 N potassium dichromate: Dissolve 49.04 AR grade potassium dichromate
dry (K2Cr2O7) in distilled water and make up the volume to one litre.
2. Concentrated sulphuric acid (Sp. Gravity 1.84, 96%): If the soil contains
chloride, then 1.25% silver sulphate may be added in H2SO4.
3. Orthophosphoric acid (Sp. Gravity 1.75, 85%)
4. Sodium Fluoride (chemically pure)
5. 0.5 N Ferrous ammonium sulphate: Dissolve 196.0 gm of AR grade Ferrous
ammonium sulphate in distilled water, add 20 ml of concentrated H2SO4 and
make volume to one litre. The ferrous ammonium sulphate should be from a
fresh lot and light green in colour.
6. Ferroin indicator

Procedure:
1. Weigh 1 gm. of 0.5 mm sieved soil into dry 500 ml conical flask. Add 10 ml of
K2Cr2O7 into the flask with pipette and swirl.
2. Add rapidly with a burette 20 ml conc. H2SO4 and swirl gently until soil and
reagents are mixed then more vigorously for one minute.
3. Allow the reaction to proceed for 30 min on asbestos sheet to avoid burning of
table due to release of intense heat due to reaction of sulphuric acid.
4. Add slowly 200 ml of distilled water, 10 ml of concentrated orthophosphoric
acid and add about 0.2 gm NaF (one small teaspoon) and allow the sample to
stand for 1.5 hrs. The titration end point is clear in a cooled solution.
5. Just before titration add 1 ml ferroin indicator into the conical flask. Titrate the
excess K2Cr2O7 with 0.5 N ferrous ammonium sulphate till the colour flashes
from yellowish green to greenish and finally brownish red at the end point.
6. Simultaneously blank test is run without soil.

Calculations:
% Organic carbon = 10 (B – S)/B x N x 0.003 x100/wt of soil (g)
180 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

Observation Table:
Sl. Lab. Blank Burette Difference Organic Organic
No. No. reading (B) reading (S) (B – S)% carbon % matter

Where,
B = ml of std. 0.5 N ferrous ammonium sulphate required for blank.
S = ml of std. 0.5 N ferrous ammonium sulphate required for soil sample.
N = Normality of std. ferrous ammonium sulphate (0.5N)

The correction factor 1.3 is multiplied as according to Walkley and Black method
only estimated 77% carbon (av. Value).

The result can be converted to corrected total organic carbon by multiplying

the factor 100/77 = 1.3. Soil organic matter contains (58%) of organic carbon, the
percentage of organic carbon multiplied by 100/58 = 1.724 which gives the percentage
of organic matter

i.e. Organic matter = Organic Carbon x 1.724

5. DETERMINATION OF AVAILABLE NITROGEN - (ALKALINE

PERMANGNATE METHOD)
Purpose: Soil nitrogen occurs largely in the organic form (97-99%). The availability
of N is associated with the activity of micro-organisms which develops the organic
matter (NH4-N and NO3-N). The nitrification rate of a soil is measure of the rate of
release of available nitrogen from the organic matter in the soil. A discrete fraction
of the soil organic nitrogen is attacked by KMnO4 and that this fraction was most
readily susceptible to biological mineralization. This forms the basis for determination
of available nitrogen by alkaline permanganate method (Subbiah and Asija, 1856).

Principle: The organic matter in the soil is oxidized by KMnO4 in presence of

NaOH. The ammonia released during oxidation is absorbed in boric acid to convert
the ammonia to ammonium borate. The ammonium borate formed is titrated with
standard H2SO4. From the volume of standard H2SO4 required for the reaction with
ammonium borate, the N is calculated.

Apparatus:
1) Conical flask - 100 ml
Soil Testing Procedures and Calculation of Fertilizer Doses 181

2) Funnels, filtration stands

3) Volumetric flask - 100 ml
4) Beaker
5) One litre round bottom flask
6) Distillation unit (Kheldhal Digestion Unit)

Reagents:
1) Potassium permanganate KMnO 4 (0.32%): Dissolve 3.2 g of potassium
permanganate in 1 lit distilled water with the intermittent shaking till it is
completely dissolved. Store in amber coloured bottle and in the dark
2) Sodium hydroxide solution, 2.5% NaOH (92.5%): Dissolve 25 g of pure
sodium hydroxide pellets in one lit. distilled water.
3) Boric Acid H3BO3 (2%): Dissolve 20 g boric acid of AR grade in 800 ml
distilled water by heating the content. Cool it and dilute to 1000 ml volume.
4) Mixed indicator (Bromocresol green + Methyl red): Weigh out separately 99
mg of Bromocresol green and 66 mg of well powdered methyl red and dissolve
them together in 100 ml ethyl alcohol.
5) Working Boric Acid solution: Add 20 ml of the mixed indicator to one litre of
2% boric acid solution and adjust the pH to 5.0 after shaking, or add 0.1N
NaOH continuously until the solution assumes reddish purple tingeuine red colour.
6) Standard sulphuric acid, H2SO4 (0.02N): Standardize the H2SO4 solution
using standard NaOH. NaOH be standardized against 0.02N H2C2O4 or 0.02N
potassium pthalate.
7) Liquid paraffin
8) Glass beads

Procedure:
1) Transfer 20 g of sieved soil into 1lit. round bottom flask.
2) Add little distilled water with the help of jet in such a way that the particles of
soil do not remain stuck to the sides of the flask.
3) Add 2 to 3 glass beads to present bumping and 1 ml of liquid paraffin to prevent
frothing.
4) Add 100 ml of potassium permanganate and 100 ml of sodium hydroxide solution
to the flask (both the solutions should be prepared fresh).
182 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

5) Distil and collect the distillate in a beaker containing 20 ml of boric acid working
solution.
6) Collect approximately 150 ml of distillate.
7) Titrate the distillate with standard H2SO4 0.02N till the colour changes from
green to red and record the burette reading.
8) Carry out blank without soil.

Observations:
1) Weight of soil sample taken = 20 g
2) Volume of standard H2SO4 required for = …........... S ml soil sample
3) Volume of standard H2SO4 required for = ………... B ml blank sample
4) Normality of H2SO4 = 0.02N

Calculations:
Available N kg ha1 = (S – B) x 0.00028/20 x 106 x 2.24
N = Normality of H2SO4 (98g of H2SO4 =28g N
1 ml of 0.02N H2SO4 = 0.00028gN

Ratings:
Nitrogen Kg/ha
1. Very low < 140
2. Low 140 – 280
3. Medium 281 – 420
4. Moderately High 421 – 560
5. High 562 – 700
6. Very High > 701

6. DETERMINATION OF AVAILABLE PHOPHOROUS IN SOIL -

(OLSEN’S METHOD, 1954)
Purpose: Phosphorous is most critical essential element in influencing plant growth
and production throughout the world. It is determined by modified Olsen’s Method.

Principle: Under neutral to alkaline soil conditions, Olsen’s P (0.5 M NaHCO3

solution at pH 8.5) is the most widely used extractant for estimation of available
Soil Testing Procedures and Calculation of Fertilizer Doses 183

phosphorous in soil. The reagent is designated to control the ionic activity of calcium
through the solubility product of CaCO3 in case of neutral and calcareous soil. In
this process the most effective form of ‘P’ is extracted from the phosphates of Fe,
Al and Ca present in different type of soils. The extracted phosphorous is measured
calorimetrically.

Apparatus:
1) Conical flask – 150 ml.
2) Funnel
3) Pipettes
4) Volumetric flask – 25 ml.
5) Reagent bottles
6) Spectrophotometer

Reagents:
1) 0.5M NaHCO3: Dissolve 42.0 gm of P-free sodium bicarbonate in about 500
ml of hot distilled water and dilute to 1 litre. Adjust the pH to 8.5 using dilute
NaOH or dilute HCL. Prepare fresh solution before use.
2) Activated Charcoal: Wash pure activated charcoal or commercially available
Darco G-60 with acid to make P-free, even if having traces of P.
3) Ammonium molybdate [(NH4)6 Mo7O2.4H2O]: Dissolve 12.0 gm of ammonium
molybdate in 250 ml of distilled water to get solution ‘A’. Prepare solution ‘B’
by dissolving 0.2908 gm of potassium antimony tartarate K2[Sb2(C4H4O6)2].3H2
in 100 ml of distilled water. Prepare one litre of 5N H2SO4 (14 ml of concentrated
H2SO4 diluted to 1 lit.) and add solutions “A” and “B” to it. Mix thoroughly and
make the volume to 2 lit. with distilled water. Store in amber coloured bottle in
dark and cool compartment (Reagent C).
4) Ascorbic Acid Solution: Dissolve 1.056 gm of ascorbic acid in 200 ml of
molybdate tartarate solution (reagent C) and mix well. This ascorbic acid (reagent
D) should be prepared as required because it does not keep more than 24 hrs.
5) P-nitrophenol indicator: Dissolve 0.5 gm of p-nitrophenol in 100 ml of distilled
water to get approximately 5N H2SO4.
6) Standard P Solution (Stock Solution): Analytical grade (AR) KH2PO4 is
dried in an oven at 60oC for one hour and after cooling in desicator, weigh
0.4393 gm and dissolve in about 500 ml distilled water (shake the content until
the salt dissolves.) Add 25 ml of approximately 7N H2SO4 and make the volume
184 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

to 1 lit. Add 5 drops of toluene to diminish microbial activity. This gives 100 ppm
stock solution of P (100 mg/ml).
7) P solution (5 ppm): Pipette out 5 ml of stock solution of P and make up the
volume to 1 lit with distilled water. This solution contains 5 mg P/ml (i.e. 5 ppm
solution).
8) Hydrochloric Acid (0.02 N): Dilute 1.8 ml of concentrated HCl to 1 lit.
9) Standardization of sodium hydroxide (NaOH): Pipette out 10 ml of 0.02
potassium hydrogen pthalate in a 250 ml conical flask. Add 3 drops of
phenolphthalein indicator. The end point is appearance of pale permanent pink
colour.

Procedure:
1) Weight 2.5 g of soil sample in 150 ml plastic conical flask, add pinch (0.3 g) of
phosphate free activated charcoal AR grade. Add 50 ml of Olsen reagent and
shake for 20 minutes exactly on platform type shaker at 180 rpm.
2) Filter the contents immediately through Whatman No.42 filter paper. Transfer
5 ml of aliquot into 25 ml volumetric flask.
3) Pipette out 5 ml of filtrate into 25 ml volumetric flask. Add 4 ml of the freshly
prepared ascorbic acid and ammonium molybdate solution. Shake well and
keep it for 30 minutes then make the volume.
4) Prepare the standard curve using 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 ml of 5 ppm standard P
solution into 25 ml volumetric flask and develop the colour using the same
procedure as above. The corresponding P concentration will be 0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6,
0.8 and 1 ppm.
5) Measure the absorbance and colour intensity at 882 nm after half an hour by
spectrophotometer
6) Run a blank method sample with the extracting solution.

Observation Table:
Sl. Lab Reading on P (ppm) P (kg/ha)
No. No. spectrophotometer

Calculation:
P (ppm) = GR x 50 x 5
Correct Ht. of Soil
Soil Testing Procedures and Calculation of Fertilizer Doses 185

Where,
GR – Concentration of P in microgram analyzed sample. (read from std. curve)
P (kg/ha) = P (ppm) x 2.24

Rating:
Phosphorous (kg/ha)
1) Very low <7
2) Low 7 – 13
3) Medium 13 – 22
4) Moderately high 22 – 28
5) High 28 – 35
6) Very high > 35

7. DETERMINATION OF POTASSIUM ON FLAME PHOTOMETER

Purpose: Next to nitrogen and phosphorous, potassium is the most critical essential
element in influencing plant growth and production throughout the world. Potassium
plays essential role in plants. It is an activator for dozens of enzymes responsible
for plant process. Potassium is essential for photosynthesis, for protein synthesis,
for starch formation and for translocation of sugars.

Principle: When a solution of the metallic salt is atomized into a non luminous
flame, electrical K atoms get excited and emit light when come to ground state.
The light emitted is filtered through a glass filter which allows light to definite
wavelength of that element, 766.5 nm for K, to pass. The light falls on photocell
emitting electrons generating an electric current. This current is measured on the
galvanometer and is proportional to the concentration of metal element present in
solution atomized.

Reaction:
Soil-K + NH4OAC = Soil-NH4 + K+ + Acetate–

Apparatus:
1) 100 ml conical flask
2) Funnels, filtration stands
3) 100 ml volumetric flasks
186 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

4) Flame photometer
5) 50 ml volumetric flasks

Reagents:
1. Neutral normal ammonium acetate solution: Take 58 ml of glacial acetic
acid in 500 ml volumetric flask. Also take 71 ml of concentrated ammonium
hydroxide solution in another 500 ml volumetric flask. Dilute both the solutions
with distilled water upto the 2/3 volume and mix both in 1 lit. flask then adjust
pH to 7.0 and finally make up the volume to 1 lit. For bringing pH of solution to
7, add dilute acetic acid or ammonium hydroxide.
2. Standard potassium stock solution (1000 mg/litre): Dissolve 1.908 g chemically
pure KCl in distilled water, make up the volume to 1 L. This solution contains
1000mg / liter of K. It serves as standard stock solution. Also prepare secondary
stock solution of 100 ppm K from thi primary stock solution by taking 10 ml and
making 100 ml volume.
3. Working solution: Pipette 0, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 ml of 100 mg K/ ml solution
in 100 ml volume flask separately and make up the volume with NH4OAC
solution. This gives 0, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 mg respectively.

Precautions while handling flame photometer:

1. All the necessary safety precautions meeting the appropriate specifications for
use of LPG burner should be strictly followed.
2. Never view the flame from the top of the chimney. It should be viewed from
the round viewing indicator provided on the front side.
3. Ensure air is flowing through the burner before LPG is allowed in to the burner
and lighting it.
4. Always start the air compressor first and then the LPG gas to avoid inadequate
air and gas accumulation.
5. While switching off, turn off the LPG gas supply first. After the flame goes off,
switch off the compressor.
6. Inadequate air and more fuel would result in accumulation of fuel gas, which
will cause flame to appear above the chimney and burn the chamber.
7. Ensure that all the end clamps are tight and that there is no leakage. The leakage
can be checked using soap solution at the nozzle end.
Soil Testing Procedures and Calculation of Fertilizer Doses 187

Procedure:
1. Add 25 ml of NH4OAC extracting solution to a conical flask containing 5 g air
dry soil sample.
2. Shake on a reciprocating shaker at 200 to 220 oscillations per minute for 5 min
and filter.
3. Determine potassium as indicated in preparation of standard curve, dilute if
necessary.

Calculation:
Available K (kg/ha) = C x 25/5 x 2.24 = C x 11.2

Where, C = concentration (mgL-1) of K in the sample filtrate on X-axis, against

the reading.

Potassium (K) – kg/ha,

1. Very low > 120

2. Low 121 – 180
3. Moderate 181 – 240
4. Moderately high 241 – 300
5. High 301 – 360
6. Very high Above 360

8. RECLAMATION OF PROBLEM SOILS (By Schooover Method 1952)

1. DETERMINATION OF GYPSUM REQUIREMENT OF ALKALI SOIL
Principle: Gypsum requirement of alkali soils can be determined by treating the
soil with known amount of excess saturated gypsum solution, and then estimating
the unreacted or unutilized amount by versenate titration method as suggested by
Schoonover (1952). Though, Ca can be estimated by other methods also but the
versenate titration is more suitable.

Instrument: Mechanical shaker.

Reagents:
1. Std Gypsum Solution CaSO4.2H2O
2. 0.01N CaCl2 Solution
188 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

3. 0.01N EDTA Solution

4. Buffer Soution
5. EBT Solution

Procedure: Take 5 gram dry soil in 250 ml conical flask add 100 ml saturated
gypsum solution than stopper the flask and shake for 5 minutes after that filter with
Whatman No. 1 filter paper. Take 5 ml filterate in 100 or 150 ml porcelain dish add
1ml buffer solution and 2-3 drop of EBT solution, then titrate it against EDTA
solution. Run a blank 5ml saturated Gypsum solution.

Observation:
Blank Reading =14.00
Sample Reading =10.3
Ca retained in Soil =2V (Gypsum) - 2V (filterate) = 7

Calculation:
Ca in aliquot ( me/L) = 2v
Volume of EDTA Sol. Used =V
Ca retained in soil = Ca retained in Soil = 2V (Gypsum) - 2V (filterate) = A (me/
100g)
G.R. = (t/ha) for 30cm soil depth = A x 3.852
G.R.(Agri Grade) = Gr x 100/% Purity
G.R. = 2 x 14 - 2 x 10.3 = 7.4
7.4 x 3.852 = 28.504
G.R. (Agri Grade) = 28.504 x 100/90
= 31.6t/ha

pH Based Gypsum Requirements

Relationship between pH of 1:2 soil-water suspension and the gypsum
requirements of sodic soils of the Indo-Gangetic plains. Light, medium and heavy
refer to soils with a clay content of approximately 10, 15 and 20 percent, respectively.
A cation exchange capacity of 10 cmol (+)/kg soil is common for most medium
textured soils
Soil Testing Procedures and Calculation of Fertilizer Doses 189

PREPARATION OF SOIL TEST RESULTS AND FERTILIZER

RECOMMENDATION
Correct interpretation of soil analysis is an essential part of soil testing
programme. The data obtained from soil analysis would be meaningless unless they
are correlated with crop yield. On the basis of soil testing results, the recommended
fertilizer does for the crops are modified for making fertilizer recommendations to
the farmers.

Preparation of Soil Test Report

The format of soil test report should contain following four parts:

1. Information about the field.

2. Soil test values with corresponding classification in 6 tier system of each of the
nutrients.
3. Nutrient dose for a particular crop.
4. Calculation of the fertilizer to apply essential nutrients.
5. Salinity and alkalinity problems and steps taken to overcome them.

Recommendation of Fertilizers
Step 1: Find out the range in which the given soil fits e.g. any one of the very high,
high, moderately high, medium low and very low.

Step 2: Increase or decrease the recommended dose of the nutrient according to

the category.
190 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

Classification Chart for Soil Test Data:

Category Org. C (%) Av. N (Kg/ha) Av. P (kg/ha) Av. K ((kg/ha)

Very Low < 0.20 <140 <7 <100

Low 0.21-0.40 141-280 7-14 101-150

Moderate 0.41-0.60 281-420 15-21 151-200

Moderately High 0-61-0-80 421-560 22-28 201-250

High 0.81-1.00 561-700 29-35 250-300

Very High Above 1.00 >700 >35 >300

1. Very high : 50% less

2. High : 25% less
3. Moderate : Recommended
4. Moderately high : Recommended
5. Low : 25% more
6. Very low : 50% more

Step 3: Calculate the quantity of straight fertilizers based on above example.

Step 4: Calculate the gypsum or lime for problem soils.

Problem: Calculate fertilizer dose (kg ha-1) for sorghum as per six tiers system of
fertility rating from given information. Recommended dose of fertilizer is 80: 40:40.

Soil Available N= 82
Soil Available P= 10
Soil Available K= 206

Solution:
As per six tier systems soil is very low in N content, low in P content and
moderate in K,

According to six tier system one should apply 23% more P and recommended
dose for K

Fertilizer doses will be

Soil Testing Procedures and Calculation of Fertilizer Doses 191

For N = 80 + (50 % of 80)

= 80 + 40 = 120 kg
For P = 40 + (25% of 40)
= 40 +10 =50 kg

Now fertilizer dose will be [Link].

SUGGESTED READINGS
Singh D Chhonkar P K and Pande R N. 1999. Assessment of Irrigation Water
Quality in “Soil, Plant, Water Analysis” - A methods manual. Indian
Agricultural Research Institute, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New
Delhi.
Tandon H L S.2001. Methods of Analysis of Soils, Plants, Water and Fertilisers,
Fertiliser Develoment and Consultation Organisation, New Delhi, India.
 Chapter 18

Handling and Use of Plant Protection Equipments and

Pesticides
Chandra Bhanu

The environmental safety and sustainability are of prime concern today at national
and international levels. We need a place to live with clean air, water, food and an
environment which will not threaten our health and safety. Any chemical pesticide
which is off-target is a pollutant and can be dangerous. Pesticide use and drift can
affect air quality, pesticides in the food chain can threaten wildlife and soil may no
longer be suitable for optimal crop production. Objectionable pesticides’ residues
are causing several health problems in humans i.e. cancers, birth defects, hormonal
irregularities, respiratory problems, reproductive defects, suppression of immunity,
neurological disorders, skin diseases etc. The benefits of pesticide use are
meaningless if pollution occurs through indiscriminate use and/or carelessness. As
pesticide applicators, it is important to plan our crop protection programme carefully
by both controlling pest populations (increasing efficiency) and at the same time
protecting the environment (assuring safety) and ourselves from the potential adverse
effects of pesticide use.

PLANT PROTECTION EQUIPMENTS

Different types of plant protection equipments are sprayers, dusters and
equipments used in aerial spraying of pesticides. These instruments are used
according to the type of pesticides for pest control. One of the important steps in
use of sprayers is to know the quantity of water required per unit area for spraying.
Different types of sprayers and water required for spraying with them are described
as below:

1. High volume sprayers: Requires 500 to 1000 L water solutions/ha for field
crops and 1500 to 2000 L water solutions for orchard crops. Examples are
knapsack sprayer (tank capacity 15-20 L), hand compression sprayer, rocker
sprayer.
2. Low volume sprayers: Requires 50 to 100 L water solutions/ha. These are
normally motorized knapsack sprayers.
3. Ultra-low volume sprayers: Requires 1-5 L water solutions/ha.
194 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

4. Aerosols: Requires less than 1L water solutions/ha. Generally used in enclosed

spaces.

Type of Nozzle used for pesticide spraying

For herbicides: Use flat fan or cut nozzle

Cut nozzle Flat fan nozzle

For fungicides and insecticides: Use hollow cone or solid cone nozzle

Hollow cone nozzle Solid cone nozzle

PESTICIDES
A pesticide is “any substance or mixture of substances intended for preventing,
destroying, repelling, or mitigating any pest.” Though often misunderstood to refer
only to insecticides, the term pesticide also applies to herbicides, fungicides, and
various other substances used to control pests. A pesticide is also any substance or
mixture of substances intended for use as a plant regulator, defoliant, or desiccant.
Pests are living organisms that occur where they are not wanted or that cause
Handling and Use of Plant Protection Equipments and Pesticides 195

damage to crops or humans or other animals. Examples of pests include insects,

mice and other animals, unwanted plants (weeds), fungi, microorganisms such as
bacteria and viruses, and viroids.
Classification of Pesticides (based on type of pest controlled and general mode of action)
Type of pesticide Pest controlled/general mode of action

Insecticides To prevent, destroy, or to kill the flying and crawling insects

Herbicides To prevent, inhibit the growth, or killing the undesirable plants/weeds

Rodenticides To prevent, destroy, or to kill the mice, rats and other rodents

Fungicides To prevent, destroy or inhibit the fungi that cause plant disease/
wood rot, etc.
Nematicides To prevent, destroy, to kill or to repel the nematodes

Fumigants To destroy insects/fungi present in a commodity

Antimicrobials To prevent, destroy, or to kill the microorganisms such as bacteria,

molds, fungi
Biopesticides Natural materials such as animals, plants, bacteria, fungi, virus etc.
that target a variety of pests

PUBLIC CONCERNS ABOUT CHEMICAL PESTICIDES

It is a common idea that chemical pesticides are toxic poison and initially it was
believed that chemical pesticides were toxic only against the kind of pests to which
they were applied. Majority of scientific and user community felt that humans and
other animals were not affected by pesticides unless they were fed large amount of
pesticides either intentionally or accidentally. Therefore, pesticides were applied
indiscriminately for a long time on soil, field crops, fruits/vegetables crops, water
bodies, and even directly on human and animals to control various parasites and
diseases affecting them. Hundreds of pesticides were produced annually and many
of the more toxic newer pesticides (particularly insecticides) came in common use
which at very lower doses can kill many of the organisms which are integral part of
agro-biodiversity. Some of these pesticides like DDT and BHC are of persistent in
nature. Their residues have been accumulated in long chain of producers and
consumers in the ecosystem and causing several threats to them including human
beings.

PESTICIDES IN FOOD CHAIN

Food chain refers that how producers (plants), consumers (animals etc.) and
decomposers are interdependent. Each animal has a place in the chain based on the
196 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

type of food consumed. Animals that consume plants are near the bottom of the
chain. Animals which eat these plant-eaters are on the next level. Carnivorous
animals are at the top of the chain. Application of pesticides over broad areas may
eliminate certain needed food sources. Elimination of food sources can cause wildlife
to relocate to other areas, substitute other food sources, or die. Wildlife moving to
another area can create additional competition for food and space with resident
species. A predatory animal lacking prey may shift to a valued game species or
even domestic livestock. Fish and wildlife can be exposed to pesticides by eating
animals poisoned by pesticides or plants containing pesticides. Also, this pesticide
transfer could occur with birds feeding on insects, earthworms, etc. In this complex
food chain each consumer level may face the pesticide toxicity to varying degree.

TOXICITY OF PESTICIDES TO MAMMALS (INCLUDING HUMANS)

1. Acute Toxicity: Toxicity that causes harm or death of test animal (rat or
mice) from a single exposure. The assumption is that as mammals, both humans
and rats share common physiological characteristics. Acute toxicity is generally
expressed by LD50 (Lethal Dose50) or LC50 (Lethal Concentration)50.

Lethal Dosage50 (LD50) of pesticides

An LD50 is a standard measurement of acute toxicity that is stated in milligrams
(mg) of pesticide per kilogram (kg) of body weight. An LD50 represents the individual
dose (mg/kg body weight) of pesticide required to kill 50 percent of a population of
test animals (e.g., rats, fish, mice, cockroaches). Because LD50 values are standard
measurements, it is possible to compare relative toxicities among pesticides. The
lower the LD50 dose, the more toxic the pesticide is. A pesticide with an LD50 value
of 10 mg/kg is 10 times more toxic than a pesticide with an LD50 of 100 mg/kg.

The toxicity of a pesticide is related to the mode of entry of the chemical into an
organism. Oral LD50 values are obtained when test subjects are fed pesticide-
treated feed or water. Dermal LD50 values are obtained when the pesticide is
applied to the skin of the animal. Inhalation LD50 (or LC50 =lethal concentration
50
) values are obtained when the animal breathes the pesticide with a mask. Often
the inhalation LD50 is lower (more toxic) than the oral LD50, which is in turn lower
(more toxic) than the dermal LD50.

LD50 values are not always given on the pesticide label, rather, the relative
toxicity of a pesticide product is reflected by one of three signal words: POISON/
DANGER, WARNING, or CAUTION. The purpose of signal words is to alert the
user to the level of toxicity of the product. The signal word is generally assigned
based on the pesticide’s inhalation, oral or dermal toxicity, whichever is the most
toxic. The levels of toxicity and their LD50 values of pesticides are presented in the
Table-1.
Handling and Use of Plant Protection Equipments and Pesticides 197

Table 1: Hazard Indicator Categories of Pesticides

I II III IV
Extremely toxic Highly toxic Moderately toxic Least toxic

Signal words: POISON DANGER CAUTION

POISON (in large (in large bold (in large bold (in large bold
boldfaced letters facedletters) facedletters) facedletters)
on the label and
usually accompanied
by skull and cross
bones symbol)

Acute (single) oral 1 teaspoon to 25 ml-500 ml >500 ml

dosage lethal to 2 tablespoons (Approx.) (Approx.) (Approx.)
human adults:
Few drops to 1
teaspoon (Approx.)
Colour of lower
triangle

Bright red Bright yellow Bright blue Bright green

2. Chronic Toxicity: This refers to harmful effects of exposure over long periods
of time. Long-term effects of pesticide exposure or of exposure to multiple
pesticides are poorly understood. Laboratory tests with rats measure various
factors over time such as whether the chemical is carcinogenic (causes cancer)
or is teratogenic (causes birth defects) or mutagenic (causes mutations). In
general, from least to most toxic common pesticides for humans are:

Fungicides → Herbicides → Rodenticides → Insecticides

Among the insecticides, from least to most toxic common insecticides are:
Microbial pesticides → Insect growth regulators → Botanicals pyrethrins →
Organochlorines → Carbamates → Organophosphates
In general least to most toxic formulations of insecticides are:
Enclosed bait → Granules → Dust → Water solution → Water emulsion → Oil
solution → Aerosol → Emulsifiable concentrate → Liquid concentrate
198 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

Pesticide type and persistence

If a chemical is “broad spectrum”, that means it kills lots of different organisms
within its category. In contrast, “narrow spectrum” chemicals affect a more narrow
range of organisms. Some of the pesticides like organochlorine (DDT, BHC etc.)
are highly persistent in nature. Their continuous use in agriculture and vector control
programmes worldwide in the past resulted in their increased accumulation into
environment and posed serious threat to life of many organisms including humans.
Their residues are present in various components of the environment even today.
Some of the pesticides have high level of immediate toxicity to many life forms but
do not persist into environment and degrade quickly. Careful use of these pesticides
may save many life forms from their toxic effects.

Good Agricultural Practices (GAPs) to reduce pesticide hazard

1. Every chemical pesticide is a poison/toxin and must be handled with same
sense. Indiscriminate use of all these poisons must be avoided.
2. Do not transport pesticides along with foodstuffs
3. Store pesticides under strict control of responsible persons
4. Use pesticides only when it is needed. Use integrated pest/disease/weed
management modules involving other non - chemical means of pest control.
Alternative pest management options based on ecological principles i.e. cultural
control, bio-intensified pest control, resistant varieties, etc. should be given more
preference.
5. Promotion and use of pest/disease forecasting systems, precision farming and
expert systems. Use only appropriate pesticide for well identified pest/pathogen/
weed and in desired doses. Adjust application timing to avoid the risk to non -
target organisms.
6. Do not apply a single pesticide regularly to avoid the buildup of pesticide resistant
biotypes of weeds/pest/pathogens.
7. Use proper application equipments with appropriate safety measures during
application of pesticides to deliver to target site and to avoid drift to non target
sites.
8. As far as possible, arial spraying of pesticides by helicopters/aero-planes should
be avoided.
9. Transgenic crops such as herbicide resistant crops which promote regular and
more consumption of pesticides should not be promoted. At the same time,
transgenic crops which have in built resistance to pests and diseases should be
promoted after desired safety testing.
Handling and Use of Plant Protection Equipments and Pesticides 199

10. As far as possible, drained water from pesticide applied agricultural farms should
not be allowed to reach the important water bodies and ground water. Avoid the
application of hazardous pesticides on water bodies.
11. Use safer pesticides like botanicals to control human/animal parasites.
12. Plant protection specialists must come out from their chemical pesticide
dominated recommendations and should incorporate ecological means of pest
suppression.

CONCLUSION
Chemical pesticides have been identified as indispensable part of crop production
programme. However, pesticides can also harm public health and the environment.
Any pesticide which is off-target is a pollutant and can be hazardous. The benefits
of pesticide use are meaningless if pollution occurs through indiscriminate use and/
or carelessness. The repeated and indiscriminate use of pesticides causes widespread
contamination in the environment and poses several short and long term problems
to humans and biodiversity. Hence sustainability of environment must be kept in
mind during our crop production and vector control programmes and proper handling
and use guidelines of pesticides must be followed by all the stakeholders.

SUGGESTED READINGS
Agrois G N. 2005. Plant Pathology. Elsevier Academic Press, USA. p-922.
Awasthi M D 1998. Pesticide residues in food chain in India – Fruits and vegetables.
Pesticides Man and Biosphere. (Shukla O P Omkar and Kulshretha, Eds).
APH Publishing Corporation New Delhi. pp: 212-160.
Choudhary B and Gaur K. 2010. Bt Cotton in India: A Country Profile. ISAAA
Series of Biotech Crop Profiles. ISAAA: Ithaca, NY.
Girard J E. 2005. Principles of Environmental Chemistry. Jones and Bartlett
Publishers, Inc. USA. p-677.
Joshi M and Prabhakarasetty T K. 2005. Sustainability through organic farming.
Kalyani Publishers, Ludhiana, India. p-349.
Lucas J A. 1998. Plant Pathology and Plant Pathogens. Blackwell Ltd. London.
 Chapter 19

Records Management in Crop Farm

Chet Ram

Record keeping is essentially required in farm management for smooth disposal

of different works associated with the farm activities. There are three factors
mainly responsible for farm management viz. land, labour and capital. Records of
all these three components have to be kept for proper and efficient management of
farm resources.

A. RECORDS RELATED TO LAND AND OTHER ASSETS

1. Land records
In land records, all the details of farm land are registered with regard to source
of purchase of land, whether purchased or leased in, area of land, valuation of land
and terms and conditions. This record consists of all the correspondence letters
regarding purchase/ contract of land, a detailed map indicating plot numbers and
their area. The land is categorized into different blocks and each block is named
indicating plot wise area falling in that block. Further, the area occupied by roads,
buildings, irrigation channels, pump house and the actual cultivated area are also
need to be indicated in the land records.

2. Land allotment register

In this register, details of the farm land allotted to different scientists/ officers
for conducting experiments are recorded. All the correspondence, letters, related to
allotment are also kept in the concerned file. During the month of March, a cropping
scheme for the whole year is prepared which consists of the details of kharif, rabi
and zaid crops to be grown in the experimental as well as general cultivated area of
the farm. In this record the details of recommendations of the farm management
committee and approval of the competent authority are also retained.

3. Crop register
It is essential to keep plot-wise details of kharif, rabi and zaid crops to be
grown in various plots of the farm. In the crop register, the area under different
crops and date wise operations from sowing to harvesting alongwith the crop yield
are recorded.
202 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

4. Produce hand over register

In this register the details of farm produce from each and every plot handed
over by the concerned scientists/officers are kept up. In this case the date of hand
over, name of officer handing over the produce, amount of produce handed overand
signatures of handing over and receiving officers are recorded.

5. Day book or weighment book

In this book, the daily record of farm produce handed over to the farm section
and daily disposal of farm produce are maintained. The entries in this register consist
of date, name of produce, from where obtained, who handed over, amount in
Kilograms (gross, tear, net weight), produce register, page number, remarks and
signature are made.

6. Produce register
In this register the name and category of each and every farm produce is
recorded on separate pages. The entries consist of serial number, date, quantity
obtained, quantity harvested, quantity disposed, value, receipt number, date and
signature.

7. Tree register
In this register the details of all the different groups of trees standing in the
farm area.

8. Seed register
This register consists of details of seeds of different crops purchased for sowing
is recorded. The entries consist of serial number, date, bill number, quantity purchased,
value, quantity issued and balance quantity.

9. Fertilizer register
In this register the details of different fertilizers are recorded on separate pages
with the entries consisting of serial number, date, purchased bill number, value,
quantity purchased, quantity issued, balance quantity, signature of receiver, indent
number, signature of store keeper and remarks.

10. POL register

POL is required for using farm machinery like power tiller, tractor, diesel engine,
etc. The details of diesel, petrol, mobil oil, gear oil, coolant, grease, etc. are maintained
in the register as is being done in the fertilizer register.
Records Management in Crop Farm 203

11. Agro-chemical register

This is a type of stock register in which details of agro-chemicals used for
controlling diseases, insect-pests, weeds and for seed treatment are recorded as
per the details mentioned in fertilizer register.

12. Stock register for miscellaneous items

In this case the details of small and sundry items are recorded.

13. Farm machinery register

In this case a stock register of different farm machinery like tractor, power
tillers etc, which are permanent items, is maintained. The entries consist of serial
number, date, particulars, quantity received, value, date of purchase, signature and
remarks. An indent register is also maintained for issuing different farm machinery
and implements to the indenter for carrying out farm operations.

14. Auction register

A number of farm produce and condemned items are generally auctioned for
disposal purposes. The auction register consists of the name and address of bidders,
their signatures with date, security money deposited and the final bid for auction.

15. Cash deposit register

The farm produce of perishable and semi- perishable nature are often sold by
the farm section on daily basis. The proceeds obtained from sale of the farm produce
has to be recorded in the cash deposit register. In this case the entries consists of
serial number, name of produce, quantity sold, rate of selling price, amount received,
cash memo number and date.

16. Cash book register

It consists of the details of cash memo book received and used for sale of farm
produce.

B. RECORDS RELATED TO CAPITAL

Capital is required for carrying our different farm operations for the whole
year. The money used for purchase of different items required for daily operations
are recorded in following two types of registers:

1. Imprest register
A particular amount of imprest money is allotted to the farm section which is
used for daily purchase or repair of items which are needed urgently. The bills of
204 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

purchased/ repaired items are then submitted to the drawing and disbursing officer
for adjustment purpose. This register consists of entries as per the details mentioned
below:

Sl. Date Particulars Bill Date Value Amount Voucher Balance Remarks Signature
No. No. paid submitted

2. Advance register
When the urgently needed item is not purchased/ repaired from the imprest
money, advance money is obtained, the details of which are mentioned in this register.

C. RECORDS RELATED TO LABOUR/CONTRACTUAL/ JOB

CONTRACT
1. Muster roll register
This register consists of the details of labour used on daily basis. The entries in
this register are ‘P’ for Present, ‘A’ for Absent, ‘R’ for rest and ‘L’ for leave for
each labour. At the end of the month the total unit is added and then multiplied by
the rate for calculating final payment. Signature and remarks columns are also
there in this register.

2. Daily allotment register

Based on the availability of the labour, indenting scientists/ officers are allotted
labours on need basis for conducting daily farm operations. However, at present
the job contract is being given and records related to job contract are maintained.

3. Indent register for labour

In this register the records are maintained pertaining to indent given by different
scientist/officers for labour requirement in the agricultural operations to be performed.
Based on the indent, the labour contractor is issued slips of labour allotment to the
indenting scientist/officers for performing agricultural operations on the succeeding
date.

4. Work verification register

After the completion of a particular agricultural operation, the indenting scientist/
officer verifies the satisfactory work completion report which is recorded as per
the format given below:
Records Management in Crop Farm 205

Sl. Field Work Date of Work Unit No. of Total Work Signature of
No. no. description indent completion area operation unit completion Scientist/
date report Officer

5. Bill entry register

On the basis of satisfactory work done by the labourers, the labour contractor
raises bills for payment. These bills after verification are sent to the concerned
section for payment. The details of bills verified for payment are kept in the bill
entry register.

D. OTHER RECORDS
1. Repair register
The farm unit maintains a number of implements, machineries, tubewells, etc.
which oftenneed periodic repair for proper maintenance. The repair register consists
of details of the repair work performed for different implements, etc.

2. Daily tools allotment register

The labourers working on the farm are issued small hand operated tools like
sickles, spades, etc. daily in the morning to perform the designated field operations.
These tools are returned by the labourers to the farm office daily in the evening.
The details of issuance and receipt of these tools are maintained in the daily tools
allotment register.

3. Register of file records

This register is essentially a record of records. Since there are so many registers/
records maintained in the farm office, sometimes it becomes difficult to locate a
particular register if proper indexing is not done. It is always necessary to keep a
record of all the files concerned with different aspects of farm management. Some
of the files which are generally maintained in the farm office are as follows:

1. Repair file
2. Farmer planning file
3. Contract file
4. Field allotment file
5. RTI file
6. Theft file
7. Imprest file
206 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

8. Contingency/ Advance file

9. Tender file
10. Electricity bill file
11. Farm produce price fixation file
12. Auction file
13. Sanction file of contractual bill
14. Audit file
15. Tractor insurance file
16. Circular file
17. Correspondence file
18. Tubewell file

Log Books:
1. Log book for tractor
2. Log book for power tiller
3. Log book for diesel engine
4. Log book for pump/ tubewell house
 Chapter 20

Record Keeping in Dairy Farm

Ajayvir Singh Sirohi

Record keeping is a key operation on dairy farms. Only with realistic records
can the farm manager judge his production, keep an account of the expenditure and
income, and determine whether his operation is profitable. It also helps to provide
adequate information for breeding and genetic improvement of the animals. Moreover,
records form the basis on which we can make the planning for future requirements
of the farm.

Broadly, records of dairy farms comprise two types, technical records which
deal with performance of animals and business records which deal with purchase,
disposal, accounts etc. The technical records are generally prepared first on the
daily diary and then transferred to the respective permanent record / register.

ADVANTAGES OF RECORD MANAGEMENT

1. Records provide basis for evaluation of animals
2. These help in selection and culling of animals
3. These help in systematic breeding programme and progeny testing of bulls
4. These help in preparation of pedigree and history sheet of animal
5. These help in fixing price of animal for sale and purchase
6. These help in ascertaining the income and expenditure (economics) of animal
farm
7. These help in determining the cost of milk production

TYPES OF FARM RECORDS

A. Cattle Section Records
1. Daily report diary
2. History and pedigree sheet
3. Livestock register
4. Milk record register
5. Calf feeding register
208 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

6. Cattle feed receipt register

7. Feed and fodder register
8. Breeding and calving register
9. Health register
10. Bull assignment register
11. Weight register
B. Farm Section Records
1. Labour sheet
2. Muster roll
3. Machinery and implement book
4. Tractor register
5. Field register
6. Fodder cultivation record
C. General Records
1. Ledger
2. Cash book
3. Purchase register
4. Bill payable book
5. Inventory register
6. Store stock book
7. Attendance and pay record

The records are maintained in the following forms:

1. Bound register
2. Loose leaf system
3. Envelope system
4. Computerized system

These records are maintained according to either calendar year or financial

year.
Record Keeping in Dairy Farm 209

STUDY OF RECORDS
The records are analysed for calculation of economic traits at farm. The
performance of the farm can be judged by interpreting these traits.

Total milk production

1. Wet average =
Total number of milch animals

Total milk production

2. Herd (dry) average =
Total number of milch + dry animals

3. Average number of services per conception:

Average service per conception for a herd is a measure of fertility in animals

which were reproductive successes and have become pregnant. Poor levels of
fertility may be due to inaccurate oestrous detection. Improper techniques for artificial
insemination may also lead to average services per conception greater than 2.0.

4. Conception rate:

Conception rate is a measure of a animal’s fertility at service. It is calculated

by dividing the number of pregnant animal by the total number of inseminations.

5. Average calving interval:

a) = Service period + gestation period

b) = Lactation period + dry period

The service period / days open period should not exceed 80-85 days if a calving
interval of 12 months is to be achieved. It is the part of the calving interval that can
be shortened by improved herd management. Calving interval has been extensively
analysed and reported. It is probably the best index of a cattle herd’s reproductive
efficiency.

12 x Number of calves born x 100

6. Reproductive efficiency =
Age of cow (m)-age at first breeding (m) + 3
210 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

FORMATS OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF SOME IMPORTANT RECORDS

Livestock Register
Sl. Date of Purchased/ Particular Brand Sex Dam Sire Date of Remarks
No. entry / transferred of animal number No. No. disposal
Purchase from allotted

Young stock / birth register

Sl. Date of Calf Sex Birth Colour Sire Dam Date of Remarks
No. birth No. weight No. No. disposal

Mortality register
Sl. Animal Sex Date of Date of Cause of Post mortem Remarks
No. No. birth death death report No.

Permanent stock / inventory register

Sl. Date Particulars Voucher / Cost (Rs) Receipt Issued Balance Remarks
No. Invoice No. in stock

Cash book register

Receipts Payments
Date Name of Folio Discount Cash Bank Date Name of Folio Discount Cash Bank
particular particular
Daily feeding register Month________________, 20___
Date Number Concentrate (kg) Green fodder Dry fodder Other feed
of animals Received Issued Balance Received Issued Balance Received Issued Balance Received Issued Balance
Record Keeping in Dairy Farm

Daily milk production register

Sl. Animal Date of 1 2 3 31 Total milk Days in
No. No. calving M E M E M E M E in the month milk

Cattle breeding register

Cow Date of First service Second service Third service PD Date Expected Date of Sex of Weight Number Remarks
No. calving Date Time Bull Date Time Bull Date Time Bull and its date of calving calf of calf of calf
of of No. of of No. of of No. result calving
service service service service service service
211
Cattle History and Pedigree Sheet 212

Identification of the Date of birth or Sir No Dem No Paternal gran

animal date of purchase 1 2 3 4 5
and age of purchase Dam ’s milk yield 1 st L.Y
Dam ’s lactati on length 1 st L.I
Dam ’s days dry
Growth
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 3
36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47

13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 2
REP RODUCTION AND PRODUC TION
SERVICE CALVING M
[Link]. Bull Date Date S ex Weight Total 300 Lactation Date Days P
No. of of dam days length dried dry y
calf at
calving
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Im munization and health test record General Inf
Dat e Im munization Health Test Record all
vet erinary
peculiaritie
Agains t W hat Remarks For what Results Remarks Date
disease diseas e
Modern Techniques of Farm Management
 Annexure I
ROLE OF ESSENTIAL NUTRIENTS IN CROP DEVELOPMENT
There are seventeen plant food nutrients essential for proper crop growth and
development. Each is equally important to the plant, yet each is required in vastly
different amounts.

PRIMARY (MACRO) NUTRIENTS

Primary (macro) nutrients are nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. They are
required in greatest quantity and most frequently by plants as fertilizer.

NITROGEN: Plants absorb nitrogen from the soil in three forms: nitrate (NO3-),
Nitrite (NO2-) or Ammonium (NH4+).

Functions
● Necessary for formation of amino acids, the building blocks of protein
● Essential for plant cell division, vital for plant growth
● Directly involved in photosynthesis
● Necessary component of vitamins

Deficiency Symptoms
● Stunted growth due to reduced cell division and dormant lateral buds
● Chlorosis (yellowing of leaves)
● Suppressed or late flowering
● Increase in starch content but decrease in protein content
● Wrinkling of cereal grains
● Purple color appears in shoot axis

PHOSPHORUS: Soil contains phosphorus in organic and inorganic forms. Plant

absorbs only inorganic forms of monovalent phosphate anions (H2PO4) and divalent
phosphate anions (H 2PO4)2-. The organic forms will be available only after
transformation into inorganic forms.

Functions
● Involved in photosynthesis, respiration, energy storage and transfer, cell division,
and enlargement
● Promotes early root formation and growth
214 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

● Improves quality of fruits, vegetables, and grains

● Vital to seed formation
● Helps plants survive harsh winter conditions
● Increases water-use efficiency
● Hastens maturity
Deficiency Symptoms
● Purple or red pigmentation on leaves
● Premature fall of leaves and floral buds
● Delay in seed germination
● Older leaves affected first and become dark brown
● Stunted and slender stem in young plants

POTASSIUM: It is absorbed as potassium ion (K+) and required in meristematic

tissues, leaves and root tips. It accumulates in older leaves.
Functions
● Carbohydrate metabolism and the break down and translocation of starches
● Increases water-use efficiency
● Important in fruit formation
● Activates enzymes and controls their reaction rates
● Improves quality of seeds and fruit
● Improves winter hardiness
● Increases disease resistance
Deficiency Symptoms
● Mottled or marginal chlorosis followed by necrosis of leaf tips, margins and
between veins
● Loss of apical dominance, leads to rosette or bushy habit
● Dieback of shoots i.e. progressive death from shoot tip towards base
● Increased tendency to lodging (bent to the ground) in corn
SECONDARY NUTRIENTS
The secondary nutrients are calcium, magnesium, and sulphur. For most crops,
these three are needed in lesser amounts than the primary nutrients.

CALCIUM: Plant absorbs calcium from the soil in the form of Ca2+ ions.
Annexures 215

Functions
● Utilized for continuous cell division and formation
● Involved in nitrogen metabolism
● Aids translocation of photosynthesis from leaves to fruiting organs
● Essential for nut development in peanuts
● Stimulates microbial activity
Deficiency Symptoms
● Stunted growth
● Chlorosis, downward hooking and deformation in young leaves
● Necrosis of young meristematic regions such as root tips or young leaves

MAGNESIUM: Like calcium, magnesium is also available in the soil in the form
of exchangeable cation and absorbed by plant as Mg2+ ions.
Functions
● Key element of chlorophyll production
● Improves utilization and mobility of phosphorus
● Activator and component of many plant enzymes
● Influences earliness and uniformity of maturity
Deficiency Symptoms
● Chlorosis between the leaf veins
● Necrotic or purple spots on older leaves
● Premature leaf abscission
● Extensive development of chlorenchyma and scanty pith formation

SULPHUR: Plants obtain sulphur from soil as divalent sulphate anions (SO42+).
Atmospheric SO2 and SO3 are also absorbed directly.
Functions
● Integral part of amino acids
● Helps develop enzymes and vitamins
● Promotes nodule formation in legumes
● Aids in seed production
● Necessary in chlorophyll formation (though it isn’t one of the constituents)
216 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

Deficiency Symptoms
The sulphur deficiency symptoms are similar to those of nitrogen deficiency
because sulphur and nitrogen are constituents of proteins.
● Chlorosis of younger leaves
● Stunted growth
● Accumulation of anthocyanin
● Terminal bud growth inhibited
● Lateral buds develop prematurely

MICRONUTRIENTS
The micronutrients are boron, chlorine, copper, iron, manganese, molybdenum,
nickle and zinc. These plant food elements are used in very small amounts, but they
are just as important to plant development and profitable crop production as the
major nutrients. These elements work “behind the scene” as activators of many
plant functions.

BORON: Boron is absorbed by plant roots in its ionic form such as B4O72-,
H2BO3-, HBO3 2-, BO3 3-.
Functions
● Essential in germination of pollen grains and growth of pollen tubes
● Essential for seed and cell wall formation
● Promotes maturity
● Necessary for sugar translocation
Deficiency Symptoms
● As with other immobile elements, symptoms first appear on new leaves
● The well known internal cork of apple is caused by a deficiency of this element
● In citrus the peel is uneven in thickness
● Thick and shorter roots, flower abortion and sterility
● The branches and new growth are distorted, thick, and brittle; also the upper
foliage exhibit a mottled chlorosis (i.e. scattered yellowing of leaves).

CHLORINE: Chlorine is absorbed as chloride ion Cl–.

Functions
● Enhances maturity of small grains in some soils
Annexures 217

● It plays important role in opening and closing of stomata.

Deficiency Symptoms
● Wilting due to a restricted and highly branched root system
● Leaf mottling and leaflet blade tip wilting with chlorosis

COPPER: Copper is absorbed by plants as the cupric ion Cu2+ and may be absorbed
as a salt of an organic complex such as EDTA.
Functions
● Catalyzes several plant processes
● Major function in photosynthesis
● Major function in reproductive stages
● Indirect role in chlorophyll production
● Increases sugar content
● Intensifies color
● Improves flavor of fruits and vegetables
Deficiency Symptoms
● Cu deficient soils may have losses of 20 per cent or more in grain yield while
not showing any typical visual symptoms of copper deficiency.
● Crop maturity can also be delayed by 7-14 days, resulting in greater foliar
disease instances and a much greater risk of frost injury to the maturing grain.

IRON: Iron may be absorbed by the root of plants in ionic form. It is also absorbed
by leaves when Iron sulphate and complex iron compounds are applied to the crop.
Functions
● Promotes formation of chlorophyll
● Acts as an oxygen carrier
● Reactions involving cell division and growth
Deficiency Symptoms
● Iron deficiency, also called iron chlorosis or lime chlorosis, starts with a yellowing
of the leaves in between the dark green veins, giving the leaves a spidery look.
Over the time, the leaves become whitish and start to die back, eventually
resulting in stunting and dying back of the entire plant
218 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

MAGANESE: Manganese (Mn) is an important plant micronutrient and is required

by plants in the second greatest quantity compared to iron. Like any other element,
it can have a limiting factor on plant growth if it is deficient or toxic in plant tissue.
It is similardeficiency to iron in many ways.
Functons
● Manganese is used in plants as a major contributor to various biological systems
including photosynthesis, respiration, and nitrogen assimilation.
● Manganese is also involved in pollen germination, pollen tube growth, root cell
elongation and resistance to root pathogens.
Deficiency Symptoms
● Manganese deficiency symptoms, which often look like those of iron deficiency,
appear as interveinalchlorosis (yellow leaves with green veins) on the young
leaves, and sometimes tan, sunken spots that appear in the chlorotic areas
between the veins.
● Plant growth may also be reduced and stunted.
● Manganese deficiency can occur when the pH of the growing medium exceeds
6.5, because it is tied up and unavailable for uptake.
● Manganese toxicity symptoms begin with the burning of the tips and margins of
older leaves or as reddish-brown spots across older leaves. Severe toxicity
may result in spots becoming more numerous and larger, forming patches on
the older leaves.

MOLYBDENUM: Molybdenum plays important role in the function of enzymes.

Functions
● Required to form the enzyme “nitrate reductase” which reduces nitrates to
ammonium in plant
● Aids in the formation of legume nodules
● Needed to convert inorganic phosphates to organic forms in the plant
Deficiency Symptoms
● The main symptoms of molybdenum deficiency cereals are stunting and failure
of leaves todevelop a healthy dark green colour.
● The leaves ofaffected plants show a pale green or yellowish greencolour between
the veins and along the edges.
● Inadvanced stages, the leaf tissue at the margins of theleaves dies. The older
leaves are more severely affected.
Annexures 219

ZINC: Zinc is an essential micronutrient but is required in very small quantities.

Functions
● Aids plant growth hormones and enzyme system
● Essentially required for chlorophyll production and seed fromation
● Necessary for carbohydrate formation
Deficiency Symptoms
● Chlorosis - yellowing of leaves; often interveinal; in some species, young leaves
are the most affected,but in others both old and new leaves are chlorotic
● Necrotic spots - death of leaf tissue on areas of chlorosis
● Bronzing of leaves - chlorotic areas may turn bronze coloured
● Rosetting of leaves – zinc deficient dicotyledons often have
shortened internodes, so leaves are clustered on the stem
● Stunting of plants - small plants may occur as a result of reduced growth or
because of reduced internode elongation;
● Dwarf leaves (‘little leaf’) - small leaves that often show chlorosis, necrotic
spots or bronzing remain dwarf
● Malformed leaves - leaves are often narrower or have wavy margins.

NICKEL: In the past, nickel (Ni) was not considered an important element for
plant growth, but research has concluded that it is an essential element for plant
growth. The normal range for nickel in most plant tissue is between 0.05-5 ppm.
Functions
● Nickel is a component of some plant enzymes, most notably urease, which
metabolizes urea nitrogen into useable ammonia within the plant. Without nickel,
toxic levels of urea can accumulate within the tissue forming necrotic legions
on the leaf tips. In this case, nickel deficiency causes urea toxicity.
● Nickel is also used as a catalyst in enzymes used to help legumes fix nitrogen.
● There is evidence that nickel helps with disease tolerance in plants, although it
is still unclear how this happens.
Deficiency Symptoms
● Minor nickel deficiency displays no visual symptoms, but can reduce growth
and yield of plants.
● Significant nickel deficiency will display visual symptoms typically in the old
leaves of the plants as nickel is a mobile element.
● Deficiency symptoms in legumes are exhibited as whole leaf chlorosis along
with necrotic leaf tips (caused by the accumulation of toxic levels of urea).
220 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

Annexure II
GUIDELINES FOR DISPOSAL OF FARM PRODUCE*

Farm produce of the Institute/Centres (under Indian Council of Agricultural

Research) such as rice, wheat, milk products, potato, fruits etc. will be disposed as
per following procedure:

(a) In Institutes carrying on educational activities and having hostel/co-operative

messes/canteens attached with the Institutes, requirement of these shall be
met before the produce is distributed to other members of the staff. Similarly,
the requirement of Guest house/Scientists Home (like the visiting Scientist’s
Hostel at the Institute) shall also be given preference.

(b) If possible, the produce shall be sold to the staff according to their requirements.
However, if the quantity available is not sufficient to meet full demand of all,
the Director shall ensure that the produce is distributed equitably among the
staff so that all categories of staff get reasonable share.

(c) The price of the commodity shall be decided by the Price Fixation Committee
taking into consideration the prevailing rate as certified by the Civil Supplies
Department. The price so fixed shall be reviewed quarterly in consultation
with the Civil Supplies Department of the state concerned.

(d) If any surplus produce is left over after meeting the demand of the staff, the
balance shall be disposed off through public auction.

(e) In respect of commodities under statutory rationing, the Director shall ensure
that the rules of Civil Supplies Department are adhered to strictly.

*Source: ICAR Establishment & Administration Manual Chapter 34 (34.20.)

Annexures 221

Annexure III
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

Sl. No. Details

1. Dr. A.S. Panwar
Director
ICAR-Indian Institute of Farming Systems Research,
Modipuram, Meerut -250110 (UP)
2. Dr. Brijendra Singh
Professor and Head (Retd.)
Department of Agricultural Economics and Management,
S.V. Patel University of Agriculture & Technology, Modipuram, Meerut- 250110
3. Dr. H.L. Singh
Assistant Professor ([Link])
S.V. Patel University of Agriculture & Technology, Modipuram, Meerut- 250110
4. Dr. Raghvendra B. Yadav
Professor, Department of Agronomy
S.V. Patel University of Agriculture & Technology, Modipuram, Meerut- 250110
5. Dr. Sanjeev Kumar
Scientist (Agronomy)
ICAR-Indian Institute of Farming Systems Research,
Modipuram, Meerut - 250110 (UP)
6. Dr. Poonam Kashyap
Scientist (Fruit Science)
ICAR-Indian Institute of Farming Systems Research,
Modipuram, Meerut - 250110 (UP)
7. Dr. Chandra Bhanu
Scientist (Plant Pathology)
ICAR-Indian Institute of Farming Systems Research,
Modipuram, Meerut - 250110 (UP)
8. Dr. Nisha Verma
Scientist (Family Resource Management)
ICAR- Indian Institute of Farming Systems Research,
Modipuram, Meerut- 250110 (UP)
9. Dr. Mahesh Kumar
Principal Scientist (Animal Physiology)
Central Institute for Research on Cattle, Meerut - 250001(UP)
10. Dr. S. Malik
Principal Scientist (Poultry Science)
ICAR- Indian Institute of Farming Systems Research,
Modipuram, Meerut -250110 (UP)
222 Modern Techniques of Farm Management

Sl. No. Details

11. Dr. Peyush Punia
Principal Scientist (Fish Resource Management)
ICAR- Indian Institute of Farming Systems Research,
Modipuram, Meerut -250110 (UP)
12. Dr. N. Ravisankar
Principal Scientist (Agronomy)
ICAR- Indian Institute of Farming Systems Research,
Modipuram, Meerut -250110 (UP)
13. Dr. A. K. Prusty
Scientist (Aquaculture)
ICAR- Indian Institute of Farming Systems Research,
Modipuram, Meerut -250110 (UP)
14. Dr. Amit Nath
Principal Scientist (Food Technology)
ICAR- Indian Institute of Farming Systems Research,
Modipuram, Meerut -250110 (UP)
15. Dr. Mohammad Shamim
Scientist (Agro-Meteorology)
ICAR- Indian Institute of Farming Systems Research,
Modipuram, Meerut -250110 (UP)
16. Dr. Harbir Singh
Principal Scientist (Agricultural Economics)
ICAR- Indian Institute of Farming Systems Research,
Modipuram, Meerut -250110 (UP)
17. Dr. Anil Kumar
Principal Scientist (Agricultural Extension)
ICAR- Indian Institute of Farming Systems Research,
Modipuram, Meerut -250110 (UP)
18. Dr. Vinod Kumar
Sr. Technical Officer
ICAR- Indian Institute of Farming Systems Research,
Modipuram, Meerut -250110 (UP)
19. Dr. O.K. Tomar
Asstt. Chief Technical Officer
ICAR- Indian Institute of Farming Systems Research,
Modipuram, Meerut -250110 (UP)
20. Sh. Chet Ram
Retd. Farm Manager
ICAR- Indian Institute of Farming Systems Research,
Modipuram, Meerut -250110 (UP)
21. Dr. Ajayvir Singh Sirohi
Senior Scientist (Livestock Production Management)
Central Institute for Research on Cattle, Meerut - 250001(UP)