Module-2

Rippers
• The ripper is the long claw-like device on the back
of the bulldozer.
• Crawler tractors can be fitted with rear-mounted
rippers specifically designed by the manufacturer
to match tractor characteristics.
• Rippers are made for a range of tractor sizes with
various ripper configurations and linkage designs
for depth control and adjustment of the tip's
attack angle.
• Ripper penetrates the earth & is pulled by
crawler tractor to loosen & split hard ground,
weak rock or old pavements & bases.
• Because of power & tractive force available with
large tractors, penetration depth of rear ripper
on such machines can be as great as 4 to 5 ft.,
but decreases significantly with smaller, lighter
tractors.
• Rippers can come as a single (single shank/giant
ripper) or in groups of two or more (multi shank
rippers).
• Usually, a single shank is preferred for heavy
ripping.
• The ripper shank is fitted with a replaceable
tungsten steel alloy tip.
• Rocks can be ripped with relative ease & at cost
reductions – including ripping & hauling with
scrapers – amounting to as much as 50% when
compared with cost of drilling, blasting, loading
with loaders & hauling with trucks.
 Major developments responsible for increased
ripping capability include –
 Heavier & more powerful tractors.
 Improvements in sizes & performance of rippers,
include development of impact rippers.
 Better instruments for determining rippability of
rocks.
 Improved techniques in instruments &
equipment's.
 Physical characteristics that favor ripping are –
 Fractures, faults & joints; these acts as planes of
weakness facilitating ripping
 Weathering; the greater the degree of
weathering the more easily rock is ripped.
 brittleness & crystalline structure.
 High degree of stratification or lamination offers
good possibilities for ripping.
 Large grain size, coarse grained rocks rip more
easily than fine grained rocks.
 Ripper attachments
• Ripper attachments for crawler tractors are
generally rear mounted.
• The mounting may be radial, fixed parallelogram
or a parallelogram linkage with hydraulically
variable pitch.
• The vertical member of ripper that is forced down
in the material to be ripped is known as shank.
• A ripper tip is fixed to the lower, cutting edge of
shank.
• Tip is detachable for easy replacement, as it
constitutes the real working part of the
ripper & receives all the abrasive action of
the rock.
• Tip can have service life from only 30 min.
to 1000 hr depending on the abrasive
characteristics of the material being ripped.
• Both straight & curved shanks are available.
• Straight shanks are used for massive or
blocky formations.
• Curved shanks are used for bedded or laminated
rocks, or for pavements, where a lifting action will
help shatter the material.
Radial Type Ripper
1. With radial type ripper linkage, the beam of the
ripper pivots on link arms about its point if
attachment to dozer, therefore angle of tip attack
varies with the depth the shank is depressed.
2. This may make it difficult to achieve penetration
in tough materials.
 Parallelogram Type Ripper
• Parallelogram type ripper maintains the shank in
vertical position & keeps the tip at constant
angle.
Parallelogram with Variable Pitch

• With adjustable parallelogram type ripper the

operator can control the tip angle.
 Effectiveness of Ripper depends on –
 Down pressure at the ripper tip
 tractor’s usable power to advance the tip;
a function of power available, tractor
weight & coefficient of traction
 Properties of the material being ripped;
laminated, faulted, weathered, &
crystalline structure
 Jack Hammers
• Also called as pneumatic drill or demolition
hammer.
• It is a pneumatic or electro-mechanical tool that
combines a hammer directly with a chisel.
• It was invented by William Mcreavy & then sold
the patent to Charles Brady King.
• Hand-held jackhammers are typically powered by
compressed air, but some use electric motors.
• Larger jackhammers, such as rig mounted
hammers used on construction machinery, are
usually hydraulically powered.
• They are usually used to break up rock,
pavement, and concrete.
• A jackhammer operates by driving an
internal hammer up and down.
• The hammer is first driven down to strike
the back of the bit and then back up to
return the hammer to the original position
to repeat the cycle.
• The bit usually recovers from the stroke by
means of a spring.
• The effectiveness of the jackhammer is
dependent on how much force is applied to the
tool.
 Bits (chisels)
Bit types include:
• Spade - provides flat finish for concrete or edging
in asphalt or dirt.
• Flat tip - allows direction control or finer edge
finish
• Point - general breaking
• Stake driver - drives concrete form stakes
• Scabbler - finishes surface smooth or for cleaning
prior to bonding
• Flex chisel - flexible metal blade (attached to
shank with bolts) for tile removal and scraping
• Bushing tool - multiple carbide points for
cleaning up seams and knocking down rough
spots in concrete.
 Working of jackhammer –
• When the valve is in the position, air enters
through the thick hose at the top and follows
the thinner paths, pushing the piston (red)
downward and smashing the hammer (gray)
into the ground.
• As the piston moves down, air flows back up
through one of the pipes and pushes the blue
valve over to the right, so the air now exits
through outlet.
• Drilling unit consists – Hammer, drill steel and bit.
• Compressed air flows through a hammer, it
causes a piston to reciprocate at a speed up to
2200 blows/minute.
• Energy of piston is transmitted to a bit through a
drill steel.
• Air flows through a hole in the drill steel and the
bit to remove the cuttings from the hole and to
cool the bit.
• Drill steel is rotated slightly following each blow
so that the cutting edge of the bit will not strike
at the same place each time.
Suitability of jackhammer
• With or without pusher leg (Pneumatic powered)
for hole length up to 3.5m and dia. 32-38mm –
Medium hard rock to hard rocks, small output,
small size horizontal mine openings and pin holes
for services.
• Electric breakers can be used for small to medium
demolition projects like tile lifting, bitumen
cutting and digging clay.
• The 10kg option is light enough to work
horizontally but still break up concrete with a
thickness of 50mm.
• The largest model will break concrete of up
to 100mm in thickness, and has the
equivalent impact of a 28kg pneumatic
hammer.
• A jack hammer trolley is ideal for easy
removal of lino and floor tiles, and has built-
in shock absorption and an anti-vibration
device to ensure the job isn't harder than it
needs to be.
• Pneumatic jack hammers are suitable for all
drilling purposes in underground and open-pit
mining due to their low weight and high stability,
however, they need expensive power supply.
(Small Scale Mining).
• The electric hammer should be considered as an
alternative to pneumatic systems in small mines
with only few working places.
 Glossary of terms
• Bit – This is a portion of drill which contact with
rocks and disintegrates it.
• Coupling – a short, hollow steel pipe having
interior threads. Coupling is used to hold the
pieces of drill steel together or to the shank.
• Cuttings – The disintegrated rock particles that
are removed from a hole.
• Drifter – It is an air operated percussion type drill
similar to jackhammer; that is required
mechanical mounting.
 Types
1. Pneumatic
2. Electromechanical or electro
pneumatic
3. Hydraulic
Pneumatic
• Also known as a pneumatic drill or
pneumatic hammer.
• It is jackhammer that uses compressed air
as the power source.
• Air supply usually comes from a portable air
compressor driven by a diesel engine.
• Reciprocating compressors were formerly
used.
The unit comprised a reciprocating
compressor driven through a centrifugal
clutch, by a diesel engine.
The engine's governor provided only two
speeds:
1. Idling, when the clutch is disengaged
2. maximum, when the clutch is engaged and the
compressor is running
Modern versions use rotary compressors and
have more sophisticated variable governors.
• The unit is usually mounted on a trailer and
sometimes includes an electrical generator to
supply lights or electric power tools.
• Additionally, some users of pneumatic
jackhammers may use a pneumatic lubricator
which is placed in series with the air hose
powering the air hammer.
• This increases the life and performance of the
jackhammer.
• Specific lubricant is filled in the pneumatic
lubricator.
• Furthermore, air compressors typically
incorporate moisture into the compressed air
leading to freeze-ups of the jackhammer or air
hammer in cold weather.
Electromechanical or electro pneumatic –
• Variety of sizes from about 12 lbs - 65 lbs.
• Require an external power source, but do
not require a compressor.
• Although in the past these tools did not
have the power of an air or pneumatic
hammer, this is changing with newer
brushless-motor tools coming close to the
power of a pneumatic tool and in some
cases even matching it.
• Electric powered tools are useful for locations
where access to a compressor is limited or
impractical, such as inside a building, in a
crowded construction site, or in a remote
location.
• Electro pneumatic tools use a variety of works for
attaching chisels.
• The connection end size is also related to the
breaking energy of the tool.
Hydraulic
• A hydraulic jackhammer, typically much larger
than portable ones, may be fitted to mechanical
excavators or backhoes and is widely used for
roadwork, quarrying and general demolition or
construction groundwork.
• These larger breakers are known as Rig Mounted,
or Machine Mounted Breakers.
• Such tools can also be used against vertical walls
(or ceilings for that matter), since the vehicles
involved are massive enough and powerful
enough to exert the forces involved without
needing the help of gravity in operating the tool.
• Pneumatic or hydraulic tools are particularly likely
to be used in mines where there is an explosion
risk (such as underground coal mines),
since
• they lack any high-power electrical circuitry that
might cause a triggering spark.
• Hydraulic breakers usually use a hydraulic motor
driving a sealed pneumatic hammer system, as a
hydraulic hammer would develop a low strike
speed and transfer unacceptable shock loads to
the pump system.
• Advances in technology have allowed for portable
hydraulic breakers.
• The jackhammer is connected with hydraulic
hoses to a portable hydraulic power pack:
 either a petrol or diesel engine driving a
hydraulic pump; or
 a mini-excavator or skid-steer via a power take-
off driveshaft to the machine's hydraulic system.
• Hydraulic power sources are more efficient than
air compressors, making the kit smaller, cheaper
or more powerful than a comparable pneumatic
version.
 AIR COMPRESSORS

• Air compressors are devices used to provide

efficient power to construction tools and
machinery.
• Air compressors can be operated by internal
combustion engines and their ability to
pressurize air enables power to be
transmitted via pipes or hoses.
• Air compressors are commonly used for
transmitting power to rock drills, jackhammers,
air motors, pumps, and many more types of
construction equipment.
• The use of compressors enable workers to bore
holes, cut materials, crush rock, pour vibrated
concrete, and are constantly used in countless
other construction applications.
How it Works?
• In order for air to transmit power, it needs to be
compressed or increased to a higher pressure.
• When air is compressed, it is given energy that
can provide power for machinery, usually through
the use of pistons pushing the compressed air
back and forth.
• Boyle’s law indicates that the volume of gas (such
as air) increases when the pressure is decreased
at a constant temperature.
• Because of the nature of compressed air, it is
inevitable that some energy will be lost in the
process.
• This loss of pressure is caused by the friction of air
as it travels through pipes or hoses, therefore
making the size of the pipe/hose a primary factor
in maximizing energy.
• Several air compressors are usually used in
conjunction with one another to create a
distribution system that carries the compressed
air as power to different points.
• The air is then conceived as energy for a
mechanical tool.
Types of Compression Temperatures
• Adiabatic compression occurs when the volume of
air changes without a necessary change in heat
temperature.
• Isothermal compression occurs when the
temperature does not change but there is change
in the volume of air.
• Intercoolers are used in between the stages of
compression to help reduce the air temperature
and remove moisture from the air.
• After coolers allow compressors to cool the air
after it is discharged.
• If moisture is not removed from the air, it runs the
risk of freezing in the process of expanding,
sometimes causing the oil used to lubricate tools
to wash away and become less effective.
• Air Receivers are also used to equalize the
pulsations being produced from the compressor.
This removes any water and oil vapors that have
accumulated during the process.
Distribution System
• A distribution system is installed to make the most
of compressed air for large-scale construction
applications.
• When compressed air travels from its point of
origination to the tool, the pressure drops,
causing a loss of power.
• The distribution system aims to reduce the loss of
power using pipes that are large enough so that
pressure does not extend more than 10 percent of
the original pressure amount.
• Shorter hoses can be used, which means less
pressure escaping.
• When a project requires a significant amount of
compressed air per minute, an air manifold can
assist with this.
• Air manifolds have pipes that are much larger in
diameter and allow compressed air to pass
through different systems without the fear of
“friction-line loss”.
Types –
• Compressors can come in many different types
with select features. They can be either stationary
or portable.
• Stationary compressors are best used for
applications that endure long periods from a fixed
site,
• whereas portable ones are used on sites where
there is constant movement.
• Portable compressors are made so with the use of
rubber tires, steel wheels or skids and are
powered by gas or diesel engines.
• The most common type of portable compressor
used for construction projects is the rotary screw
compressor.
• Compressors can provide a flow of power that is
intermittent, also known as positive-displacement,
or a continuous flow of power, which is seen in
centrifugal and axial flow (for fluids).
Positive-displacement Compressors
 Rotary Screw Compressors –
• Rotary screw compressors are the most common
compression systems used for automobiles.
• They consist of two helical rotor screws to push
gas (air) into a small environment.
• The air is compressed when it enters the confined
space allotted for it.
• The advantages of this type of compressor are its
light weight, compactness, and low maintenance.
 Reciprocating Compressors -
• Reciprocating compressors achieve compression
with pistons that reciprocate inside tandem
cylinder(s).
• This type of compressor is used when high
compression ratios are needed without a high
flow rate.
• Reciprocating compressors usually power devices
that require lower speeds.
 Scroll Compressors –
• Scroll compressors have spiral vanes to compress
air.
• In this scenario, one of the vanes are stationary
while the other moves, creating an energy of
compressed air.
DRILLING
• The process of making a hole in hard
materials such as rocks and earth.
COMPONENTS –
• Drill - Type of tool which holds the drill bit
and rotates it to provide axial force to create
a hole.
• Drill bits- Cutting tools used to create
cylindrical holes.
TYPES OF DRILLS –
PERCUSSION DRILLS –
• Percussion drilling accomplishes disintegration of
rock by hammer impacts to the bit at the same
time a rotating motion is applied to the bit.
• Percussion drill bit is literally hammered into the
rock, it smashes the rock to pieces.
• These drills may vary in size from handheld units
such as jack hammers to large crawler mounted
units
 Jack Hammer - Air operated drill, mainly used for
drilling vertical holes.
• Jack hammers can be used to drill holes in excess
of 20 ft. deep.
• Heavier hammers will drill holes up to 2 &1/2 in.
in diameter.
 Drifters – Large & heavier percussion drills are
mounted either on a traveling carriage or a frame.
• This combination of drill & mount is known as
drifter.
• These tools can drill in downward, horizontal or
upward directions.
Drifter
 Track mounted drills –
• To provide mobility, drills are commonly mounted
track carriages.
• Because of mounting, these drills are often
referred to as “air-track” drills.
 Churns or Wet drills –
• Reciprocating drill consisting of a long steel bit
mechanically lifted and dropped to disintegrate
the rock.
Churn Drill
• Piston drills –
• Drill rod is securely fastened to the piston and
travels the full length of the piston stroke.
• Wagon drills –
• Drifter mounted on a wheels used to drill holes at
any angle from down to slightly above horizontal.
Wagon Drill
Rotary Drills –
• With rotary drills rock is ground away by applying
a down pressure on the drill steel & bit & at the
same time continuously rotating the bit in the
hole.
• To remove the rock cutting & cool the bit,
compressed air is constantly forced down the drill
steel & through the bit during this process.
• Rotary percussion Drills –
• Rotary percussion drill combines the hard-hitting
reciprocal action of the percussion drill with the
turning under pressure action of the rotary drill.
• Whereas the percussion drill only has a rotary
action to reposition the bits cutting edges.
• Require special carbide bits, with the carbide
inserts set at different angle than those used with
standard carbide bits.
• Down Hole Drills –
• These are air operated hammers.
• They can be operated underwater by maintaining
high air pressure in the hammer than the pressure
outside.
• Standard sizes are available from 4 in. to 30 in.
ABRASION DRILLS
• Rock can be drilled by the mechanical wearing
away of its surface by way frictional contact with a
harder material.
• Two of the most common types of abrasion drills
are shot drills & diamond drills.
• Shot Drills –
• Shot drill depends on the abrasive effect of chilled
steel shot to penetrate the rock.
• Essential parts include shot bit, core barrel, sludge
barrel, drill rod, water pump & power driven
rotation unit.
• The rate of drilling with a shot drill is relatively
slow, sometimes less than 1 ft/hr, depending on
the size of the drill & the hardness of the rock.
• Diamond Drills –
• Used primarily for exploration drilling, diamond
drilling offers the advantage that it can bore in
any desired direction from vertically downward to
upward.
• Available in sizes 1½, 1 7/8, 2 3/8 & 3 in.
• Large sizes are available, but the investments in
diamonds increases rapidly with an increase in
size.
 Factors affecting selection of drilling equipment's

 Purpose of the holes, such as blasting, exploration, or

grout injection.
 The nature of the terrain. Rough terrain may need
track mounted drills.
 The required depth of the holes.
 The hardness of the rocks.
 The extent to which rock formation is broken or
fractured.
 The size of the project.
• Availability of water for drilling purposes.
• The size of core required for exploration. Small
cores permit the use of diamond drills, whereas
large cores permit shot drills.
 Critical rock properties that affect penetration rate
Hardness –
• It is measure of materials resistance to localized
plastic deformation.
• Main factors controlling rock hardness are porosity,
grain size & grain shape.
Texture –
• Texture in relation to rock refers to grain structure,
degree of crystalinity, grain size & shape & geometric
relationships between the grains.
• A loose grained structure drills fast.
• If the grains are large enough to be seen individually,
the rock will drill medium.
Tenacity –
• It refers to ability of a substance to resist breakage.
• Terms such as malleable are used to describe rock
tenacity or breaking characteristics.
Formations –
• The structure of the rock mass, its formations,
affects drilling speed.
• Solid rock masses tend to drill fast.
• If there are horizontal strata, the rock should drill
between medium & fast.
DEFINITION – “The process of breaking rocks into
smaller pieces by use of explosives”.
• In both the mining and construction
industries, blasting is the predominant
method for fragmentation of consolidated
mineral deposits and rocks.
• The public relation problems of users of
explosives have increased greatly in the past
few years as explosives are being consumed
in increasing quantities.
• Increased population and spread of urbanization
near to the construction & mining sites have
affected more people by blasting.
PROCESS OF BLASTING
1. The blast holes are made and cleaned by
using the tools.
2. The charge of explosive placed at the
bottom.
3. Remaining portion is filled with clay and
tamped.
4. Fuse is inserted, kept projecting 15-20 cm
above the rock surface.
5. Thereafter free end of fuse is fired by
detonator.
Definition of Explosives
“Explosives is a chemical compound or
mixture, when exploded by action of heat,
impact gives large volume of gases in a very
short time at high temperature & pressure”
• There are variety of explosives available to
meet particular requirement.
 Following characteristics of an explosive are
considered while making a choice –
 Detonating velocity – Movement of detonation
waves.
 Strength of blow – Reflects percentage of active
material.
 Intensity of fumes – Toxic fumes concerned with
safety.
 Density – weight per unit volume helps in blast
design
 Resistance to water – To be able to use in wet
conditions.
 Flammability – Easiness to ignite.
 Storage requirements – For safety and economy
 Physical Characteristics – Powder, gelatin, liquid,
slurry or emulsion
 Release of energy – By what force explosion will
occur.
 Sensitivity – Ability to detonate, energy/time
required in detonation.
 Some of common explosives commercially
available are :
 Black powder
 Nitroglycerin
 Ammonium nitrate
 Trinitrotoluene (TNT)
 Liquid oxygen dynamite, etc.
Classification of Explosives
1. Low or Deflagrating Explosives –
• They have low velocity of burning and produce
pressure by progressive burning, releasing energy
for a period of time.
• They do not crush the rock.
2. High or Detonating Explosive –
• They are initiated by detonators and are
extremely rapid, almost instantaneous process.
• Rocks close to such explosives are crushed.
• Secondary high explosives are mainly Nitro
compounds, Nitrate & Nitramines.
 Explosive can also be classified in following
groups based on their form of availability –
Powder explosives
Disruptive explosives
Liquid air
Plastic explosives
1. Powder Explosives –
• Two forms of powder explosives available are:
a) Blasting powder – It is slow-burning, low
explosive made from potash nitrate (salt
paper):65-75% , Sulphur (8-15%), Charcoal (10-
15%)
• It is seldom used for blasting rocks in tunneling.
• Grain size varies from 1mm to 10mm.
b) Nitrate Explosive – It is similar to blasting powder,
except that potash nitrate is substituted by sodium
nitrate.
2. Disruptive Explosives –
• Disruptive explosive are available in various
grades, sizes & strengths.
• The approximate strength is specified as a
percentage of the ratio of weight of Nitroglycerine
to the total weight of a cartridge.
• Most convenient form for using these explosives
is a cartridge which is available in size 2.5 cm to
20 cm in diameter & 20 cm to 60 in length.
• Straight Dynamite – It is first type of explosive
made, with which all high explosives are
compared.
• Ammonium Dynamite – It contains equal parts of
Nitroglycerine & Nitrate of ammonia as the
explosive material. They come in strengths of 15-
60%, but not so sensitive or quick as straight
dynamite.
• Other high explosives – Several special type of
high explosives are made, developed for special
conditions.
• They are occasionally required & should be used
with expert advice of manufacturers.
• Some of them – TNT (Tri-Nitro-Taluene), RDX-
Rapid Detonating Explosive, PENT – Penta
Enythrital etc.
3. Liquid Air –
• Air is liquified, which contains about 95% O2 at
temp. of 191° C.
• This is stored in special vessels.
• The liquid air is absorbed in an absorbent by
dipping a cartridge of absorbent in liquid air.
• It is not very popular in rock tunneling.
• Its manufacturing, transporting & storing requires
special care.
4. Plastic Explosives -
• These are combination of explosives, which are in
plastic state & can be hand molded or press
loaded & made into various shapes without any
serious risks.
• Usually RDX & PENT are the high explosives used.
• They are used for industrial & military purposes.
Quantity of Explosives –
• Amount of explosives required depends upon the
type of rock to be exploded & is judged largely by
experience only.
• In light grounds about 2 kg/cum of solid rock & in
heavy grounds about 4 kg/cum of solid rock may
be sufficient.
• Quantity of explosives required depends upon –
 Profile & hardness of ground
 Method of advance
 Depth of lift
 Kind of explosive.
 Handling, Transporting & Storing of Explosives –
• Under Indian Explosive Rules, the various
explosives & accessories are classified under
separate 8 heading:
 Class I – Gunpowder
 Class II – Nitrate Mixtures
 Class III – Nitro compounds
 Class IV – Chlorate Mixture
 Class V – Fulminate
 Class VI – Ammunition
 Class VII – Fire works
 Class VIII - LOX
Detonators –
• Cylindrical metal shells close at one end.
• For sure initiation of explosion, detonators are
necessary in disruptive explosives.
• Having 6.8 mm dia & 50 mm height & 2 gms of
filling is used.
• Must be dry & of strong action.
• Ignition of detonators is done by blasting fuse or
by electric igniters.
 Electric ignition requires –
• A detonator
• A power source – a dynamo is used
• A circuit line – iron or Cu wires involved
• An electric ignitor – comprises of 2 supply wires,
detonator shell, priming charge also supplied in
firm connection with detonators
• A line testing apparatus – galvanoscope or
measuring bridges used to test conductivity.
Advantage of electric ignition –
• Much more safe & certain, compared to other
fuse types.
• Water proof
• Permit successive firing of holes, by use of delays
• There is no smoke
• Process of ignition is smoother than blasting
fuses.
FUSES –
• Fuses are required to ignite explosives.
• They are in the form of a small rope of
cotton with core of continuous thread of
gun powder.
• The rate of burning is about 1 cm/sec.
• They enable the person firing the charge to
move to a safe distance before the
explosion takes place.
 Controlled blasting methods are used to
control adverse impacts such as:
• Over-break
• Reduce ground vibrations
• Reduce fractures within remaining rock walls
• Reduce noise
• Reduce dilution / waste of ore etc.
 Following are the techniques of controlled
blasting:
1. Line drilling,
2. Trim (Cushion) blasting,
3. Smooth (contour or perimeter) blasting,
4. Pre-splitting
Line drilling -
• This system involves a single row of closely spaced
uncharged holes along the excavation line.
• This provides a plane of weakness to which the
primary blast can break.
• It also causes some of the shock waves generated
by the blast to be reflected, which reduces
shattering and stressing in the finished wall of the
host rock.
• Line drill holes are generally percussive hammer
holes having spaced two to four times the hole
diameter, drilled along the excavation line.
• The blast holes directly adjacent to the line drill
holes are generally loaded lighter (about 50% of
primary holes) and are closely spaced (about 50
to 75 %) than primary holes.
• This technique gives maximum protection to the
host rock to preserve its original strength.
• The disadvantage of this system is high drilling
cost due to closed spacing and results are often
unsatisfactory because of poor hole alignment.
Trim (Cushion) blasting -
• Like line drilling trim or cushion blasting
involves a single row of holes along the
specified final excavation line.
• This technique generally uses 2 to 4 inch
diameter holes.
• Holes are loaded with light charge, well-
distributed, completely stemmed and fired
after the main excavation is removed.
• By firing the trim holes with minimum or no delay
between holes, the detonation tend to shear the
rock between holes and give a smooth wall with
minimum over-break.
• As compare to line drilling technique trim or
cushion blasting is simpler and economical as
increased hole spacing are used.
Smooth (contour or perimeter) blasting:
• A technique used mostly in underground blasting.
• Closely spaced drill holes are loaded with
decoupled charges and fired simultaneously to
produce an excavation contour without fracturing
the rock behind or adjacent to the blasted face.
• For promoting safety and economy in
underground workings, performance of blasting in
headings, tunnels and slopes becomes very
important factor.
• An ideal blast results in a minimum of damage to
the host rock with minimum of over-break.
• Perimeter or contour holes are drilled along
specified final excavation limits and are lightly
loaded.
• The spacing is kept closer than buffer holes and
production holes.
• As a thumb rule 10 to 12 times hole diameter in
medium to tough rock and 5 to 6 times hole
diameter in poor, fragmented rock are kept as
spacing.
 Blast Damage & Over break In Tunnels
Pre-splitting
• Pre-splitting is the smooth blasting method in
which cracks for the final contour are created by
blasting prior to the drilling of the rest of the
holes for the blast pattern.
• This is an effective way of restricting back-break
and ground vibration in large open pit, quarry
blasting.
• Pre-splitting helps in isolating blasting area from
remaining rock mass by creating an artificial
discontinuity along the final designed excavation
line against which subsequent main blast breaks.
 A row of holes are drilled at the periphery (three
sides) of the main blasting block at a closer
spacing,
 charged with lesser quantity of explosives than
the production blast &
 blasted prior to the main blast in an effort to
create a fractured line at the excavation limit or
plane.
• Some of the shock waves from subsequent main
blast are reflected at the pre-split plane which
results in arresting a considerable portion of blast.
 Drainage & Dewatering
Definition
“The removal of excess water form the saturated
soil mass is termed as drainage & dewatering.”
• Dewatering of excavations is required at construction
sites generally for foundation works.
• The purpose of construction dewatering is to control the
surface and subsurface hydrologic environment in such a
way as to permit the structure to be constructed in the
dry.
• Dewatering means “the separation of water from the
soil,” or perhaps “taking the water out of the particular
construction problem completely”.
• This leads to concepts like pre-drainage of soil,
control of ground water, and even the
improvement of physical properties of soil.
• Firm and sound working conditions are necessary
when construction of buildings, powerhouse,
dams, and other structures has to be executed.
• These structures not only require a dry base for
their foundations but also good water-table
stability in the girth.
• Dewatering of any excavated area is done in order
to prevent the leakage of water or sand and to
avoid upheaval failure.
• Dewatering could turn out to be a laborious task if
one doesn’t adopt the right method.
• The different methods available for dewatering of
excavations at constructions sites are not
necessarily interchangeable as each one has a
narrow range of applications.
• Therefore, adopting the right method of dewatering
for a particular ground condition is always a critical
and a difficult decision to make.
• A minor amount of water can always be pumped out
by creating a sump but when other factors like
continuous seepage, excessive smudge come into
play one has to resort to a bit of sophistication.
Purposes of Drainage & Dewatering -
 Carryout construction activity below water table.

 To increase stability of soil.

 To decrease seepage & pore water pressure.

 Reclamation of water logged areas.

 Release of hydrostatic pressure behind the

retaining structures.
Methods of Dewatering Excavations at
Construction Site -
1. Well Point method of dewatering

2. Eductor wells

3. Open sump pumping

4. Deep well point method

1. Well Point method of dewatering
• A series of wells of required depth are created in the
vicinity of the excavated area from where the water
has to be pumped out.
• The wells are arranged either in a line or a
rectangular form where the well points are created
at a distance of at least 2m from each other.
• Riser pipes or dewatering pipes are then installed
into those closely spaced wells which on the surface
are connected to a flexible swing pipe.
• This swing pipe is ultimately attached to a
common header pipe that is responsible for
discharging the water away from the site.
• The purpose of using a flexible swing pipe is just
to provide a clear view of what is being pumped.
• The purpose of header pipe is to create suction as
well as discharge the water from the working
area.
• One end of the header pipe is connected to a
vacuum pump which draws water through
notches in the well point.
• The water then travels from the well points
through the flexible swing pipe into the header
pipe to the pump.
• It is then discharged away from the site or to
other processes to remove unwanted properties
such as contaminants.
• The drawdown using this method is restricted to
around 5 to 6 meters below the well point pump
level.
• If a deeper drawdown is required, multiple
stages of well points must be used.
2. Eductor wells
• The method is very similar to the well point
method of dewatering; the only difference lies in
the usage of high-pressure water in the riser units
instead of vacuum to draw out water from the
well points.
• The method uses the venturi principle which is
the reduction in fluid pressure that results when
a high-pressure fluid flows through a constricted
section of a pipe.
• A high-pressure supply main feeds water through
a venturi-tube just above the well-screen, creating
a reduction in pressure which draws water
through the riser pipe.
• The high pressure main feeds off the return water.
• The biggest advantage of using the eductor system
is, the water table can be lowered from depths of
10-45 m if multiple pumps are operated from a
single pump station.
• This method therefore becomes economically
competitive at depth in soils of low permeability.
3. Open Sump Pumping –

• This is the most common and economical method

of dewatering as gravity is the main playing force.
• Sump is created in the excavated area into which
the surrounding water converges & accumulates
facilitating easy discharge of water through
robust solid handling pumps.
• Its application is however conned to the areas
where soil is either gravelly or sandy.
• Since the bottom of the sump is situated at a
level lower than that of the excavation bottom, it
will shorten the seepage way.
• Along this seepage way groundwater from
outside seeps into the excavation zone and as a
result the exit gradient of the sump bottom will
be larger than that on the excavation surface.
• If the excavation area is large, several sumps may
be placed along the longer side or simply use a
long narrow sump which is called a ditch.
• In favorable ground conditions sump pumping can be
a very effective and economic method to achieve
modest drawdowns.
• However, in unfavorable ground conditions sump
pumping can lead to major problems.
• Instability can occur in fine-grained soils such as silts
and fine sands where fine particles are drawn out of
the soil, resulting in ground movements and
settlements.
• Disposal of the water from sump pumping can also
create problems, because pumped water may have a
high sediment load, which can cause environmental
problems at the disposal point
4. Deep Well Point Method -
• Just like the well point method, wells are drilled
around the excavated area, but the diameter of
wells, in this case, varies between 150 to 200mm.
• By creating deep wells around the vicinity, the
groundwater is made to fall into them under the
influence of gravity.
• As a result, the groundwater level in the
surroundings would decline.
• According to the type and arrangement of pumps,
the depths of the wells could reach up to 30m.
• This method is generally adopted when a heavy
amount of water from the ground has to be
drawn out.
• Casings of diameter fitting to wells are installed in
order to retain the wells.
• Additionally, well screens and filters (between
sidewalls & casing) are used which serve as a
filtering device therefore not letting the
unwanted sediments enter into the well.
• The water thus accumulated is pumped out using
a submersible pump or a centrifugal pump.
Importance of Drainage Systems
• Without proper drainage, homes can easily
become damaged or flooded.
• One of the best benefits of having a drainage
system installed, is that it can help prevent
water damage and structural issues.
• Without a proper drainage system, a basement
is more likely to flood which can cause water
damage to the surrounding area.
• If the mess is not cleaned up immediately, mold
can begin to grow which can cause a host of
adverse health effects, including respiratory
problems and fungal infections.
• Water damage can also cause structural problems
to the foundation of a construction.
• Concrete begins to crack and crumble when it has
been exposed to water for prolonged periods of
time.
• Additionally, wood and drywall can rot away
leading to the infestation of pests, like termites
and carpenter ants, in your home.
• One of the best benefits of a drainage system is
the preventative action taken against the
problems water damage can cause.
Dewatering Precautions -
• Dewatering activities must be done properly to
avoid eroding the soil on the construction site.
• It is also important to choose the best location
for discharge, even when you might be far
away from water bodies or catch basins.
• There are multiple dewatering products that
can be used to remove sediment from the
pumped water, such as dewatering bags.
When choosing discharge areas from a dewatering
process remember:
• Water should not be pumped directly into slopes.
• It is important to pay special attention and
discontinue dewatering if the area shows signs of
instability or erosion.
• Channels used for dewatering must be stable and
better if they have been protected with grass or
vegetation.
• You should avoid dewatering under heavy rains
because the infiltration rate is at a minimum and
water will move slower or just the dewatering
process will not function.
• Never discharge water that has been
contaminated with oil, grease, or chemical
products directly.
• In such instances, an oil/water separator may be
necessary.
• Additional permits and requirements might be
needed from the state, local, or federal agencies.
• It is important to understand the water table
conditions in the area, perhaps the underground
water is always near the surface, so your plan
might not work.
• Sump pumps are the most common dewatering
technique but can handle only a small volume of
water.